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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I / AMERICAN HANDY-BOOK BREWING, MALTING AND AUXILIARY TRADES :ri( AMEHCAN HANDY BOOK ' vx/ OF THE EwiNG, Malting AND \uxiLiARY Trades )k of Ready Reference for Persons Connected with the rewing, Malting and Auxiliary Trades, Tpj?flit with Tables, Formulas, Calculations, liib- liography and Dictionary of Technical Terms. COPiOUSLY I L L U S TR A TE I). BY ROBERT WAHL, Ph. D. AXb MAX HENIUS. Ph. D. Smoond Ediilmnm CHICAGO WAHL & HENIUS u COPYRIGHT 1901 BY ROBERT WAHL AND MAX HENIUS All rights CORRICTION8 PAOE 6 7 18 62 60 62 147 347 347 347 347 412 444 447 454 455 456 456 459 478 478 478 478 506 515 517 535 687 680 718 763 763 763 766 812 917 927 993 993 993 994 1012 1087 1214 1215 1244 1261 LINE 10 from bottom . bottom line 10 from bottom . 10 from top 9 from top 18 from top under cut 17 from bottom . 5, 6, 10 and 14 from bottom 8 from bottom , 3 from bottom , 8 from top 9 from top lower table 12 from bottom . 2 from bottom . . 5 from top 6 from top. 4 from top 10 from bottom . 9 from bottom . . 8 from bottom . . 14 from bottom . 2nd cut 2 from bottom . . 14 from bottom . 14 from bottom . table 18 from top 12 from bottom . 6 from top 9 from top 10 from top. 16 from top 14 from bottom . bottom line, I 4th column, f 9 from top 2nd formula .... bottom 8 from top 5 from top 16 from bottom. 16 from top center, column 1 NOW READS m llSf 3«X (axb) gage 61 0.26 Metorologle liof 100 feet .... 60 pounds 166 feet Dextrose is not so, {wrong line) etc. 0.14 ipace in l^ of headings. endorsperm mellbiose levnlose Tauret matters and sulphur -resin -resin -resin Bryan pastorlanum saccharabocillus . . . pastorlanum melibiose n extract laddie 1877 the smaller ordinarily to barrel. add the sentence. one-fourth saccharomyces. 34.95 127.2 cents , lOO-h grits formula ehauld be (Total yield -yield of 60 m 40 it can be mashed directly one end of which, etc $250 water (lis.) 438 — oil testing, 15, 1040 . . . 20 from top Imeliblose ^ aid wSSSil?}]- e^PO^foo Ot 483.8631484, 863 SHOULD RIAD 3«= (a+b) page62 60.24 lAeteorologle twice 132feet 66 pounds 198 feet This sugar, also called glucose, grape or starch sugar, is 0.014 ineert Grains i>er Gallon. endosperm melitriose laevosln Tanrot torong line—croee out a-resin /3-resin 7-re8in Briant pasteurianum saccharobacillus pasteurianum melitriose in extract ladle 1887 the larger need not be more than 50 per bbl With Alter use 5-20 chips per bbl. according to size of chip cask one-half saccharo- bacillus 33.95 ]27.9cent8 7004- cereal ?m2<122=yield of cereal it is mashed directly at.. 67" C 1 sq. millimeter so that the volume of liquid between the $360 442 315.l64b !*... melitriose (meliloa^^ .... HDITORIAL STAFF: Editors: RoBKRT Wahl, Ph. D. Max Henius, Ph. D. Directors oi tlic Sriontitic Station for Brewing of Chicago and of the American Brewing Academy; editors of the "American Brewers' Review," etc. Associate Editors: H. E. O. Hbinbmann, LI. M., A. NiLsoN, Ph. Dreesbach, G. Tmbvbmot, Ph. D., L. Henius, H. E. Frbbs, a. Sibbert, A. Schmidt, O. Beyer. J. P. Arnold. J AS. S. Douglas, R. H. Gangwisch, Carl Habpnkr. Franb Hbadden, O. C. Paintbr, Max Stahl, Contributors : L. G. Bohmrich, J. C. Engblhardt, H. F. GuTscH, Wm. Habpnbr, W. A. Lawrence, Wm. A. Rbmenspbrgrr, A. Weingartnbr, Ph. D. Wm. Zeiss, Ph. D. Chas. Buehler, C. Flodin, Aug. HiKUSSERMANN, L. M. Haskins, O. LUHR, Wm. J. Seib, Chas. Wieland, PREFACE. The American Hakhy-Book op tre Brewing, Mai.tip Auxiliary Tradks is designed (o lie a book of ready rei for ilic use of persons connecied with the trades dcsignat does not pretend lo be a IcxI-book. wliieh the stndent of b will read through from beginning to enii with a view of I ing acquainted with the principles and practice of tlii- industry. It aims lo be, as it were, a pocket encyclopedia, erencc lo which the brewer, maltster, refrigerating tr engineer, bottler, etc., as well as a person engaged in ihi mercial activities of a brewery, may find an immediate i lo questions thai may coire up in connection with the e oF his calling, without reijuiring him to wade through volumes and peruse quantities of information in search of a item of knowledge. This purpose, kept steadily in view in the preparation prewnf volume, imposes many difficult tasks upon the coi and editors. While, on the one hand, it necessitates the hi range of information and the most complete collation o possible, covering the entire science and practice of brewing elementary arithmetic and algebra, through the physical sc the rudiments of machinery, steam engines and refrigeratic theory and practical details of malting and brewing, the lalion of materials and cost of production, down to the of tanking, casking, bottling and shipping, and the relali the brewer to governmental agencies, yet, on the other h is imperative lo condense this information, much broader 1 it be in scope than that embraced vn mv ei^ ^Vvc vetV-Viii the smallest compass, both as lo sVattnwn^ m ■wotfe * le imporlance and magnitude would appear, » irrant, while olhers, apparently of equal or g :e, may be deemed lo have been slighted in ll and delail of statemenl devoted to them. H rpancies, in the judgment of Ihc cditura. are on Where so much information is given, the w 'cnl cUtsei of persons to whom the book will msidercd. Jcing such allowance for these existing differen n^t^ ^\n^w V5> >^^ Ha, of ,1,. """"-vcr. ,|„ editor, IW it am, no i»ii„„, '■ '''°™'"e {»"■•»■ of Hot „o,l, '"•"''■»■'" c,;::,'°„T""'"^"""" ■■'■'■" PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. The hope iiuhilgcd by the editors in the preface to the first edition, that they may have been measurably successful in the preparation of this lK:)ok, has been realized beyond all expecta- tions, if the phenomenal sale of the first edition can be taken as a criterion. After the Handv-Book was issued, it was accorded a most friendly reception and favorable review by the trade press of all countries, which, with the recommendation of its readers, soon exhausted the edition. A secoml edition has become necessary in the short space of time of less than one year. This second edititm is substantially a reprint (^f the first, as only typographical errors have been corrected. The editors wish again to thank those who have assisted them in the preparation of tlu book, also its many fri^^nds for the in- Iciest tlK> have taken in the volume. » RoBKRT Waul. Max Henil-s. Chicago. April 30. 1902. IX TABLB OF CONTENTS. Ariihuetic I-SO Fractions. Decimal fractions. Perccniage. Interest, Ratio. Equation. Proportion. Involution. Evolntion. Squares and cubes. Alligation. Arithmetical progression. Geometrical progression. Logarithms. Algebra 5I-S5 Equations. Mensukatiok 56-78 Lines. Angles. Triangles. Mensuration of areas. Round figures. Trigonometrical functions. SoHds or bodies. Men- suration of surfaces. Mensurations of volumes. Capacities of tanks, tubs, etc. Weights and Measures 79-111 United Slates customary measures and weights. Measures of capacity or volume. Measures of weight. The metric sys- tem. Converting metric to common measure. Comparative tables of common and metric measures. Conversion tables. Miscellaneous. Measures of lime. Legal units of electrical measure. Money. Pevsics 112-131 Matter. Forces. Properties of matter. Specific gra\iiy. Atmospheric pressure. Moisture of air. Heat, Light. Elec- tricity. Magnetism. Sound. Mechanics 132-150 Velocity. Gravitation. Loss of motion. Work and energi-. Simple machines. Mechanics of liquids. Brewery hydraulics. Mechanics of gases. Thermodynamics. Elemkmts of Macoinehv IS [-191 Lever, Wheel and hoisting drum. Inclined plane. Wedge. Screw. Block and fail. Differentia! drum. Gears. Worn/ anil iivjrm wheel. Screw jack. Differential screw. Principle of lirtual velocity. Safety vaUf. 'Fi'\tA\oi\. TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI Power 192-229 Standards and measures for steam engines and boilers. Wa- ter. Steam. Combustion. Fuels. G>al> table. Boilers. Grates. Smokestacks. Smoke prevention. Feed- water heat- ers. Economizers. Boiler water and its treatment. Scale. Corrosion. Boiler scale preventives. Transmission of Power 230-261 Pulleys and belts. Shafts. Stresses. Wire rope transmis- sion. Electrical power in the brewery and malt house. The electric plant. Steam Engines 262-293 Portable engines. Stationary engines. Slide valve engines. Corliss engine. Differences of the two kinds of engine. Examination of engine and compressor by taking indications. Criticism of indicator cards. Compressor indicator cards. Steam condensers. Steam tables. Refrigeration 294-346 Ice and freezing mixtures. Refrigerating machines. Com- pression machines. Absorption machines. Relative merits of the different systems. Uses of refrigeration. Water cooling. Cellar cooling. Ice making. Practical tests for material used with refrigerating machines. Properties of different liquids used in refrigerating machines. Solubility of gases in water at atmospheric pressure. Strength of ammonia liquors. Properties of saturated ammonia gas. Operating refrigerat- ing machines. Amount of refrigeration required for a brew- ery. The steam end of the refrigerating machine. Insulation. Freezing tanks and brine tanks. Insulation of partition walls in cellars. Insulation of cold pipes. Irregular bodies, as pump cylinders with chambers. Water cooling towers or gradir-works. Pumps 346-353 Centrifugal pumps. Rotary pumps. Pohle air lift pump. Plunger pumps. Membrane pumps. Piston pumps. Arrange- ment and connection of pumps. Compressed air pumps. Com- pressing air by using waste water. Steam ejector. Steam jet pump. Brewery Buildings 354-3^1 Excavation, filling, concrete work, tu^^owt^ ^xvWtv^Sw^ts^. Iron and steel work. Carpenlet vjotV. '?'aATv>CYCv%. ^'^cJwwt- \ Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. Hollow tile. Tinninc:. galvanized and corrugated iron work. Plumbing. Cement floors. Plastering. Asphalt floors. In- sulating inside walls of cold storage, stock houses, etc. Mis ' cellaneous specifications. Refrigerating machine. Machinery iand millwright work. Coppersmith and tank work. Foun- dation work for machines. Piping. Lightning rods. Appli- ances and apparatus. HEMISTRY 382-433 Definitions. Chemical combination and mechanical mix- ture. Non-metallic elements. Light metals. Heavy metals. Chemistry of carbon compounds (organic chemistry). Alco- hols. Organic acids. Fats and oils. Balsams and resins. Gelatin and isinglass. Carbohydrates. Starch, dextrin and sugars. Pectin substances. Torrefaction. or roaisting prod- ucts. Nitrogenous organic compounds, albuminoids. En- zymes, or soluble ferments. Diastase and starch. Peptase and albumen. Brewing Materials 434-497 General. Water. Hardness of water. General properties of brewing water.s. Improving water. English brew- ing waters. German brewing waters. Extract-yielding brow- ing materials. Starch-containing brewing materials. Barley. Barley malt. Wheat, wheat malt and rolled wheat. Rye. rye malt, rye flakes. Oats. Corn and rice. Corn and corn products. Starch. Brewing sugars. Hops. Hop prcpara tions. Colorants. Varnish. Pitch. Clarifiers. Antiseptic^. I Preparing and packing samples for examination. ^ICRO-ORGANISMS 4^)8-526 General biology. Protoplasm. The living cell. Assimila- tion. Excretion. Respiration. Reproduction. Osmose. Fer- mentation, putrefaction and decay. Biological description. Filamentous, or mold fungi (hyphomycetcs). Table of molds. Fission fungi, or bacteria (schizomycetcs). Table of bac- i teria. Budding fungi, or yeasts (blastomycetes). Table of ) yeasts. Table of cultivated yeasts. Yeasts and Ferment.\tion 52r-55<^> Historical and explanatory. Fermentation other than alco- holic. Alcoholic fermentation. Beer yeast. Differences in the behavior of yeasts. The products of alcoholic fermenta- t/on. Influence of /ernientation products and other agencies TABLE OF CONTENTS. XII on yeasts. Chemical composition of yeast. Carbohydrate Nitrogenous constituents of yeast. Yeast enzymes. Yeai extract like meat extract. Pure Yeast Culture 557-57 General. Pasteur's pure yeast. Hansen's pure yeast. Har sen's pure yeast apparatus. Operating the apparatus. Wal and Hcnius' pure yeast apparatus. Malt House Outfit 57i-5^ Transfer of grain. Elevators and conveyors. Cleaner Malt storage. Barley washing machines. Steep tanks. Floe malt house. Mechanical malting devices. Pneumatic or bo malting. Malting drums. Malt kilns. Malting Operations 587-^M General outline. Principles of malting. Points about m«\l ing. Steeping. Germinating. Common floor malting. Kill ing. American malting operations. Mechanical malting o{ erations. Malting in England. Malting in Europe. Chen ical and physiological data and processes. Losses and gair in storing and malting barley. Insect pests in granaries. Brewery Outfit 647-6f Gravity or tower brewery. Brew house outfit. Cellar ou fit. Fermenting room. Stock cellar. Chip cellar. Was house. Pitching, and pitching appliances. Brewing Operations rx>8-8( General outline. Properties of a beer. Composition c beer. Beers classified. Wort. Principles of mashing. Diasta^ and starch. Peptasc and albumen. Mashing methods an character of beer. Mashing operations. Mashing system Rice and com in brewing. Prepared corn. Pure starcl American lager beer. Treatment of unmaltcd cereals. Wahl lautermash method. A. Schwarz's after-ma?h method. Pre: sure' mashing. Export beers. Extra pale beers. The mas at rest. Running off the wort. Sparging. Slow flow c wort* Boiling the wort. Break of wort. Bottle beer. Hoj ping the wort. Cooling. Influence of different materials an mashing methods on the composition of wort. Tables. Permenting Cellar Operations. — Bottom fermentation. Fei mentation phenomena. The yeast cro^. ¥^\\^^^\Na5Cv phenomena explained. Higbet ^\Ic\v\tv\^ \ftvw^^\'5^.>^'^^^- ^ ^ torn jcast. StrengthenwR xYvt -^^^x. CQ.TwX^^>s>a^^^ WV TABLE OF CONTENTS. yeast. Treatment of contaminated yeast. Factors affecting fermentation. Abnormal symptoms in fermentation. Vac- uum fermentation system. Storage Cellar Operations, — General. On storage C*Ruh"J. Chip Cellar Operations. — Beer in the chip cask. Kraeuscning. Clarification of beer. Bunging. Racking. Carbonating. Fil- tration. Obstinate turbidities. Abnormal taste and odor of beer. Stability of beer. Special American Bottom-Fermentation Beers.— Export bot- tle beer. Export draught and unsteamed bottle beer. Malt tonics. Temperance beer. California steam beer. Pennsyl- vania "Swankey." Production of Thick Mash Beers in Germany and Austria. — Properties of thick mash beers. The decoction or thick mash method. Practice of fermentation in Germany. Chip and storage cellar. Clarifying chips. Kraeusening. Bunging. Special German beers. Top-Fermentation Beers in the United Kingdom, America and Germany. — English top-fermentation beers. Brewing materials. Brewing systems. Top-fermentation appliances. Fermenting vessels. Top-fermentation operations. Top- fer- mentation beers in the United States. American ales, porters and stouts. American Weissbeer. Kentucky common beer. Top-fermentation German beers. Berliner Weissbeer. Broy- han. Graetzer beer. Spontaneous fermentation beers. Bel- gian beers. Composition of various beers, tables. Brewing Losses from Malt Mill to Platform. — Shrinkage in volume from kettle to starting tub. Loss from scouring. Loss from malt hopper to mash-tun. Loss in mash-tub. Loss by transfer of wort from kettle to settling tank. Losses dur- ing fermentation and storage. Losses in chip cellar. Losses from racking bench to platform. Total shrinkage. Treatment and Protection of Surfaces. — Cleaning operations. Cleaning of brewery floors, walls, vessels and utensils. Re- moval of waste products. Varnishing. Varnishing and staining iron vessels. Pitching. Painting. Whitewashing and calcimining. ^^rujzATToir OF THE By-Prodvcts of the Brewery 869-877 '^''^'^oi'ijss and skimmings. Malt sprouts. Brewers' grains. I- TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV Underdough. Dregs ("Trub"). Spent hops. Ufiliiation of waste yrast. Ulili;c;itioii of carbonic acid. The Bonf.iNG Department of a Modebn Bheweky 878-gM Bottle shop. Bolllc soaking. Washing and rinsing. Tap- ping of barrels. Bottle lilting. Bottle closing or stoppering. Pasteurization or "alcaniing." Pinisliing tlie package. Stor- age and delivery. Pipe lines. FitiuKiNt; IN THE Bkewerv 9'5 OS? Calculating the yield of extract of brewing materials. Ta- ble of Balling reading in pounds of extract per barrel. Cal- culations according to R. Wahl. Yield in Ihc kettle. Coiictn- tration of wort in kettle. Calculating the materials. Table of materials for one barrel of wort of different gravities in the cellar. ' Calculating the cost. Calculating the materials according to M. Schwar?. Materials added in keltic. Yield calculations according to M. Schwarz. Siebcl's me- chanical yield calculator. Heat calculations according to M. Henius. Where water only is used. Where malt or raw cereal and water are used. Atthe mash tub. Calculations by means of latent heat, according to M. Henius. Calculalin" of attenuation. Figuring in English breweries. The Brewer's Chemical Laboratory 958-1010 Analytical chemistry. Specific gravity. The sacrharomclcr. Comparative tables of different saccharo meters with specific gravity, and giving pounds of extract in wort per barrel. The balances. The thermometer. Conversion tables of thermometer scales. Worts, Beers, Water an.ilysis. Barley. Malt, Corn products and rice. Brewing sugars. Colorants. Hops. Mineral oil. Chemicals, standard solu- tions and reagents. List of apparatus. Baumhauer's alcohol table. Balling's extract table. F. AUihn's dextrose tabic. The Brewer's Microscopicat. Lauoratobv 1011-1033 Equipment. Apparatus. Reagents, Stains. Culture media. The compound microscope. Sterilization. Staining bacteria. Pure cultures of micro-organisms. Examinations of materials. Rice. Isinglais. Lupulin. Barley, malt and V hops. Water examination. Air examiwaVion. lA\Mtiwn^\«i j\ and botanical examination of yeast. DeUrtmi twiW.^ I \ beer turbidities. .cs payauie lo iiic L iiiicu Mates govcriini tax. Special taxes. Books and returns. R oiise. Bottling \kct. Marking ca>ks. Penal g fermented liquor in bond. Tunic>. cic. \\ ting liquor? Liquor laws of the staler and : United States. xxics AND Economics itjr of American beer. What beer was and is. aitcd States Senate committee on inanufacti i British beer materials committee. Intenip d by general natural laws. Effects of beer rink it. The temperance problem. Statistical n revenue derived from liquor traffic, capital inserts and exports of materials, etc. 10U8 Infoucation dard dimensions of brewery vessels. Sizes ai >f standard G>rliss engines. Memoranda for x>wer of boilers and of belting. Temperatui tipe size brass tubes. Measurements and w iodise. Pressure in pounds of a column of heights. Comparative table of Beau me de] ; gravity. HY !S and authors of original contributions to tl actice of brewing in the United States. ARITHMETIC. Arithmetic is the science that treats of numbers, and of the OKthods of computing by means of them. "Notation" is a method of wriiing numbers by characters or fignres. The number ten is the basis of our system of notation, containing ten numeral figures or "digits." i, 2, 3, 4i 5t 6. 7, 8, 9, o, the last, the cipher or zero, having no value ex- cept in combination. This sysicm is known as the Arabic. (The Roman system uses the capital letters, I for i, V for 5, X for 10, L for 50, C for 100, D-for 500, M. for 1,000. An equal or a mailer figure placed after a bigger one is added thereto ; a smaller one placed in front is subtracted therefrom. Thus. 1888 is repre- sented as follows: MDCCCLXXXVIII ; 67--LXVII, 43 = XLIII. The use of this system is limited.) "Numeration" is the art of reading lipuros cmiiloyt-tl to express numbers. The following table shows the i)l;ices of the figures. which are grouped in periods of three fi>{uics each, counting from the right, commonly separated by commas. lA B O s n o o s I/) •r. l/i tfi CWl M 01 "C « «/> "^ _ '/J *« M I/: «^ ^ 'y> 4_> *« ^v.«^ ^vi4_ =, 'A ^ ffit:5 ^'"5 ~:i'" -■''•'" 225.910.673.4^5 This is read two hundred and tweniy five billion nine hun- dred and ten million six hundred and seventy -l^Arce \\\ows^w^ four hundred Mnd eighty-five. M I 2 ARITHMETIC. I Additioti is the method of finding the "sum" of two or morl griven numbers. The sign of addition is -f-, reads "plus," anJ signifies "more." I "Equation" is an expression of equality of two numbers. ThJ sign of equation is =, it reads "equals" or "equal to." ThuJ 3 + 4 = 7* reads 3 plus 4 equals 7. I Subtraction is the method of finding the "difference" betweeiJ two given numbers. | "Minuend" is the greater of the two numbers. I "Subtrahend" is the smaller of the two numbers. I "Difference" or "remainder" is 'the result obtained by sub J trading. The sign of subtraction is — , reads "minus" ana signifies "less." Thus 13 — 8 is read "13 minus 8," and signified that 8 is to be subtracted from 13. I Multiplication is a method of finding the result produced b)l a given number taken a given number of times. I "Multiplicand" is the number to be multiplied. I "Multiplier" is the number by which to multiply. I "Product" or '*multiple" is the result of niuliiplication. Mul- tiplicand and multiplier are called the factors of the product. The sign of multiplication is X. reads "times" or "multiplied by." Division is the method of finding how often one given number contains another. "Dividend" is the number to be divided. I "Divisor" is the number by which to divide. "Quotient" is the result of the division. The sign of division is -T-, reads "divided by." Division is also indicated by placing the dividend above the divisor, with a line between them. Thus V is read "63 divided by 7," in which 63 is the dividend, and 7 the divisor. Properties of Numbers. An "integral number" or "integer" is a number representing whole things. It is cither even or odd, prime or composite. "Even numbers" are divisible by 2: "odd numbers" are not exactly divisible by 2. 2. 6. 12. 14, etc., are even numbers. 3. 7. 13. 15, etc.. arc odd numbers. "Prime Number" is a number which has no integral factors except unity and itself. 2, 3. 5. 7, 11, etc., are prfme numbers. '^Composite Number'* is a number that has other integral fac- I * AHITHMETIC. 3 Vtori besides uiaty and ilseli. Thus 24 ia a composite number, fsnce 24 = 8 X 3- I "Faclors" of a number arc ihe numbers which molliplicil i toaellier will produce such number, o and 7 :iii- hriors nf hj 1 "Prime Factor" is a prime number used as a factor, and is also ihc prime divisor of it; thus 3 and 5 are prime factors of 15, atid , prime divisors. "Exact Divisor" of a number is one that will divide that num- btr without a remainder. 7 is an exact diiisor of 6j. Exact divisors of a number arc a!so the faclors n! that uumlier. Numbers are "prime to each other"' when ihey have no corn- , mon integral factor or divisor. 7 and 16 are prime lo each other. i- "Factoring" is the resolving o[ a compusiie number into ilj factors, and is dene by divi.«inn. To find tht prime faclors of a composite iii'iiiber: Divide the given number by any prime factor of it, and ihe resullin),' i|iii.- tient by another, and continue the division unlit the Qui.lii'nl is a prime number. The several divisors and the last (|uolieiit are the prime factors. Prime factors of 2310 are; 2) l'.iio 3) 1155 5) .185 7)77 2, 3. 5. 7, n n The product of all ihc prime faclors is the Kivcn iinnilnr. A "Common Divisor" of two or more niiinlitrs is a divis'^r of each of them, and also a conunon factor of each of them. The "Greatest Common Divisor" of two or mure nuniliers is the irrent- est "common factor," and is the product nf nil ihc comnmn prime factor*. To hnd the greaiesi common diz-isor of ivvn iir nvrc niiinlurs: Resolve the given numbers into ihiir [.viiiK- l;icti>ri; si.kct ihe factors which are common, and nmhiply ihctn i..i;<.tlKr. Th,' product will be the greatest common di^i-nr. The Kr'.iic^t cm mon divisor of m and 112 is: 42 = 7 X 3 X 2 C.inmioil to buth fi^ure^ ;in- 7 and 2- 112 = 7 X 2 X 8 Henc 7 X ^ _■ 14 the jrrcnlcst rAnnr.or. divisor or a) 42 112 4. ARITHMETIC. "Multiple* of a number is a number exactly divisible by th given number. 6 is a multiple of 2 and 3. A "common multiple^ of two or more given numbers is a number exactly divisible b; each of them. The "least common mnltiple'* is the least numbe exactly divisible by each of them. To find the least common multiple of two cr more numbers Resolve the given numbers into their prime factors; select al the different factors, taking each the greatest number of times i is found in any of the numbers., and multiply together the faictox thus selected: The least common multiple of 10, 45, 75» 90 is: 10 = 2X5 45 = 3 X 3 X 5 75 = 3 X 5 X 5 ' 90 = 2X3X3X5 and 2 X 3 X 3 X 5 X 5 = 450 Another method is to write the numbers in an horizontal Im* omitting such of the smaller numbers as are factors of the large and draw a vertical line at the left. Divide by any prime facte that will exactly divide two or more of the given numbers, an write the quotients and undivided numbers in a line underneatl Divide the quotients and undivided numbers until they ai prime to each other. The product of the divisors and the fin quotients and undivided numbers is the least common multipl 3 3 10 45 75 90 5 45 75 45 5 15 25 »5 5 5 25 5 — «; or 2 10 45 mm ^ /3 QO 3 i 5 — 75 45 5 5 — 25 15 2X^X3X5 "'5=450 2X3X5>'5V3=45 (» "Cancellation'* is the process of abridging operations in divisio by rejecting equal factors from both dividend and divisor. Divide 13 X 7 X 5 X 3 by 3 X 5 X 7- Then 3 > 4> v = 13 or S4 V ^o _ 7X 12 X gX g2 _ ,2 y 2 = -4 15 X 3 V S X T »v ARrrHMETIC. FRACTIONS. 5 unity be divided inlo any number of equal parts, one or ! of thest parts is called a "fraction/* lere arc two kinds of fractions: "Common" or "vulgar" ions, commonly called "fractions" simply, and "decimal" ions, commonly called "decimals." common fraction is represented bv two numbers, called ms,*' which arc written one above, the other below an hori- al or slanting line, thus: %, %, %, %. denominator" of a fraction is the number of cciual parts which the unit is divided, and is written below the line. s in % the denominator is 4, showing that the unit is divided 4 equal parts. lumerator" of a fraction is the number of equal parts taken )rm the fraction, and is written above the line. Thus: in le numerator is 5, showing that 5 of the 6 equal parts are n or expressed by the fraction. Voper fraction*' is one whose numerator is less than its dc- inator; as %,%,%, mproper fraction" is one whose numerator is equal to or ter than the denominator; as {, J , ^ ilixed number" is an integer and fraction united; as 4%. 15's. REOUCTION OF FRACTIONS. r "reduction" the form is changed, the value remaining the *. Fractions are changed to higher terms by multiplication, iwer terms by division. eduction to higher terms: Ji = *= ^\ sduction to lower terms: ^\ = i~ ~.\ Kluction to lowest tertns: }?= U re numerator and denominator are prime to each other. 7 Reduce an Integer or a Mixed Number to an Improper Frac- : Multiply the integer by the required denominator, and to the luct add the numerator of the fraction, and under the result e the required denominator, to sixths = 31 X6 = iS« 4 = 4X9 + 3=V Reduce an Improper Fraction to an Integer, or a Mixed nbff, Divide the numerator by the denominator, V=Aii=^^* ARTTHICBTIC. 1 denominalor" it a denominator c or more fractions. The "least common denominator" of f more fractions is the least denominator to which thejr can reduced. To reduce two or more fractions to eqwhaleHt fraelions k a common denominator: Multiply the terms of each fracti the denominators of all other fractiont. |. «. H- 7XBX3='&9- Then3X8X3= 73 7 X 8 X 3 = i6B 5 X 7 X 3 =^ 105^ «X7X3 = i68 2 X 7 X 8 = I la 3X7X8=1^' To Reduce Two or More Fractions to Their Least Co Denominator: i. Find the least coincnon multiple of the d< nators of the given fraclions for tlwir leitst common ilcnomi 3. Divide this common dcrominator by the denominator of the given fracti The products ;, and multiply the n , then 3 X 32 = 96, least 96-=- 3 = 32X2= SJ 96h-i6= 6X5= is 964-32= 3X3=. V AWHTION OF FRACTIONS. Tp add fractions, reduce the fractions IS with .1 cnmnion denominator, add the n ;tions. and nnder llic sum write the common dcnirn . To add mixed iiiimhcrs, add the fractions and in lely, and cf>ml)mc the results. by the qu 67?i Ta subtract fraelions. reduce the fractions to eqiiivaler ir/rA a coninum denominator, subtract tbe ti ARITHMETIC. 7 subtrahend from the numerator of the minuend, and under the difference write the common denominator. Subtract ^ from j% —. /, from l\ = f^ 2. To subtract mixed numbers, subtract first the fractions and then the integers. io8% I 90% I /o and 2 — 1 = 1 z=z \ ^^^ i8i MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 1. To multiply an integer by a fraction, divide the integer by the denominator, and multiply the quotient by the numerator : or, multiply the integer by the numerator and divide the product by the denominator. 2. To multiply an integer by a mixed number, multiply by the integer and by the fraction separately and add products. 96 X 23%. g6 X 23 = 2208; g6 X % = 84 : 2^-08 I 84 =- 2202. or 96 or 96 23% 23% 288 84 192 288 84 192 2292 2292 To multiply one fraction by another, multiply the numeratcirs together and also the denominators, and reduce the resulting fraction to its lowest terms. IX A=fJ = A DIVISION OF FRACTrf)NS. To divide a fraction by an integer, divide the numerator or mul- tiply the denominator. i't -^- 7 = A; /i-* 10= ,}„ To divide an integer by a fraction, multiply the integer by the denominator of the fraction, and divide the product by the numer- ator. 63 -+- A = 630 -f- p =: 70. 7i ^ ^=S^S -f-s= Ti3g. o ARITHMETIC. To diz'idc a jraclion by a fraction, reduce the fraelion to equi*- si.ni iraciions with *a common denominatar, and divide the nn- r^trator of the dividend by the numerator of the diviEor. J, -> 'l ^?s^ ||.= 3-r-4='i Or, invert the terms of the divisor, and then multiply the r nieraiors together, and also the denominators, and rcdnce the re- sulting fraction to the lowest terms. !-=.=^ = lt = .J DECIMAL FRACTIONS. Decin^al Fraction is a fraction having for its denominator fjt a number produced by multiplying lO by itself a given Ttumber ol limes, that is, loo, i.ooo, lo.ooo, etc. Decimal (ractio Hiay be expressed as follows : 1. By words, as three-tenths, sixty-hundredths, etc.; 2. By writing the denominator under the numerator, as ,1,. ,"„' 3. By omitting the denominator and writing the numerator the decimal form, as .3, which reads "decimal three;" .6?. which feads "decimal six seven ;" 3. 654, which reads "three, decimal, "Decimal Point" is a period placed at the left of the order of tenths, to distinguish a dedmot from an mleger, as .45. Owing to ihp liahililv of coiifL^ifiTi by llie use of the decimal point alone (■'- ■■ ,. . ,.11: ..- of writing decimals is gradually be- iitj; iuiiiii]ui.i:u. w1111.11 It U.43, wiiling a cipher before the decimkl point where it is a genuine fraction, i. e.. less than i. This style has been adopted by the United States Internal Revenue Office and a number of scientific institutions in this country, and will be followed in this book. "Mixed Decimal Number" is an inl^fer and a decimal written together as one number, as 3.4s, and is also called a "mixed num- ber." Ttie following table gives the names of &\'x. inte^Tal and lix ARITHMETIC. 4eamal orders of units, denoted by the position of the fig ned in expressing a number. Ten units of any order in a n ber make a unit of ihc next higher order : ures mini- ■0 . c in ct JS « lA «j •«-• 9 c 3 Tcn-thousandi en 1 tn J CO •s Ui 1 C CO C c "cfl *-• c u c c zi o c o *-• 1 c 0^ ^^. ffi H 13 p H X H H 6 5 4 3 2 I • I 2 3 4 (/. c en O cn •c c 5 Integral Orders. — Increasing in Decimal Orders. — Decreasing value from rigfht to left. in value from left to right. Decimal fractions thus appear as fractions of which the numer- ator only is written, the denominator being the continued product of so many tens as there are decimal figures. In writing decimals, vacant orders must be filled with ciphers. Thus: 3.107 means 3 units, i tenth, no hundredth, 7 thou- sandths. Annexing ciphers to a decimal, or decimal ciphers to an in- teger docs not change its value ; thus : 0,5 r^ 0.50 - - 0.500, etc. 3-- 30=3.00, etc Removing ciphers from the right of a decimal, or decimal ciphers from the right of an integer, does not cliangc its value; thus: 0.125000=0.125, and 365.00=365. To Reduce a Decimal to a Common Fraction in its lowest terms: Omit the decimal point, supply the proper denominator, and then reduce the fraction to its lowest tcrnib. 25 666 0.25 = = V4 ; 0.666 = = ^U nearly. 100 1000 To Reduce a Common Fraction to a Decimal: Annex ciphers to the numerator and divide by the denominator; point off as many decimal places in the result as there are ciphers annexed. 5000 625 I . 00(X) % = = = 0.625 ; Mj = 0.3333 -j- oooo 1000 3 The sign + is sometimes placed after the result to indicate that there is Miiii m remainder. I '1 lO ij ARITRMETIC. To Add Decimals: Wrile the numbers so that figures of tlw same order shall be in the same column, then proceed as in simplt addition, and place the decimal point at the left of the tenths' order in the amount. 0.9503 11.007 3-4 lOTIS 135.5073 To Subtract Decimals: Write the numbers so that fipires ol the same order shall be in the same column; subtract as in sinipU subtraction, and place the decimal point at the left of the tenth: order in the remainder. 56.600 ia403 56.6 — 18.403 = 38.197 To Multiply Decimals: Multiply as in multiplication of in tegers, point off as many decimal places as there are decima places in both factors. 3-25 X 0-14 = 04550. To Multiply a Decimal by 10. too. ia)0. eli:: Remove Ihi decimal point as many places in the right as there are ciphers ii the multiplier. ' 1.004 X 100 — 100.4: 6.05 X 1000 = 6050. To Diride Decimals: Divide a.= in the division of integers, an( point off as many decimal places in the quotient as the number o decimal places in the dividend exceeds the numbfr in the divisor Ciphers nuist he .iildcd t" the dividend to make its decimal place at least cijual to tho5e in the divisor, and as many more as it is de sired to have in the quotient. ofc? -.- 0.25 = 2.5; 35.05 -^ 2.0721 = 35.0500 -^ 2.0721 = 1(5.9103 -f- To Divide a Decimal by to. 100. lono. el.\: Remove ihe dfci mal point ap mnnv places to liie left .t lliere are ciphers in thi division. 0.04s -;- 100 = 0.00045: 340.12 -i- 10 — 34.012. PERCF.NTAGE. "Pfrrenl" ;.': ,in abhrevialion of Latin "per rei!tiim'' cind sipnific; 'by"or -lo the litwtrcd." Its sign is *, arA "w «4As"^t ctirt.* ABITUUETtC. It Thus I* reads "one per cent," or rio. or o.oi, 5!< reads "five per cent," i8o = o°S; IS* reads "fifteen per cent," (".fu = 0.15. "Rate per cent" is the nnmber of hundredths taken. "Base" is the number of which the per cent is taken. "Percentage" is the resuh obtained by taking a certain per cent of the base. "Amount" is the sum of the base and the percentage. "Difference" is the remainder found by subtracting the per- centage from the base. To Rnd a given percentage of any number, multiply the num- ber by the given rate percentage, and divide by too. 63 X 33 2079 33* o* 63 = = = 2079. or 63 X 0.33 ■-■ - 20.70, 100 100 5X 12 60 i2: 100 --_ 200. $3(^.50 is I2%* of what number? 3(1.5 : w.^ X 100 :- ?.:o.:.oo. INTEREST, "Interest" is money paid for the use of money. "Principal" is the sum on which interest is paid. "Rate of Interest" is the per cent of the prii\ci'pa\, ?a.\4 lox ** use for one year. ■ 12 ARITHMETIC. To find the interest of any sum at any rate per cent,, for and months: Multiply the principal by the rate, and the prodoct is the interest for one year. Multiply the interest for one year by the time in years, and the fraction of a year; the product is tbt required interest. Add the principal to the interest for the amount. Interest of $640 for 5 years and 6 nK>nths at 7^. $640 X 0.07 = $44.80 interest for i year. 5% 246.40 Interest for 5 years 6 months. 640.00 Principal. $886.40 Amount of principal with interest. .S'lx Per Cent Method. — At 6^ per annum the interest of $1.00 For 12 mo is 6 cents or 0.06 of the principal. " 2 mo. or J of 12 mo. ..is I *' o.Oi •* I mo. or ^ of 12 mo.. is { " 0.005 ** " 6 da\*s or J of I mo is ^^j * o.ooi ** " I day or J of 6 days... is ^ '* o.ooj " The following table denotes the part of the interest to be added or subtracted to give the interest at the given per cent: 7 ^ = 6J^-i-^dof6< io^=:V^of6^X 10 7Mjj(=r6^ + Viof6J< 5^z=6J^ — %of 6^ S % — 6^-\-%oie^ 4^ — 6% — %oi6f 9 ^ = 6^-i-%of6j^ 3^ = 6^ — %of 6^ To find the principal, when interest, time, and rate arc given: Divide the given interest for the given time by the interest of $1,00 for the given time at the given rate. Interest gained in 2 years at yi is $84. What is the principal ? At 7i the interest of $1.00 per year = 0.07 At 7^ the interest of $1.00 2 years = 0.14 84 — 0.14 = $600. RATIO. "Ratio" is the relation between two numbers, denoting how often one quantity is contained in another. The ratio of 16 to 2 is 16 U = 8. The sign of ratio is the colon, or sign of division without line, thus: A "simple rath" is the ratio of two t\un\\>tTS, ^& ^\v ARITHMETIC. 13 A "compound rario" is the ratio of the products of the corre- sponding terms of two or more simple ratios. Thus 2 14, 5 :i5» 3^ -3 arc simple ratios, 2 X 5 X 30^4 X iS X 3 is a compound ratio. When the multiplication is performed the compound ratio passes into a simple ratio — 300:180. EQUATION. Equation is an expression of equality between two or more numbers. 4 + 6 = 10; 15 + 5 = 12 + 8. The numbers to the left of the sign (=} are called the "first member/' those at the right of the sign the "second member" of the equation. The numbers of the equation are called "terms." PROPORTION. Proportion is an equality of ratios, or an equation in which each member is a ratio. Ratio of 2 to 4 equals ratio of 3 to 6, J = J. expressed thus : 2 14 = 3 :6, reads "2 is to 4 as 3 is to 6." The first and fourth terms are called the extremes, or outer terms, the second and third the means, or inner terms. The product of the means = product of the extremes. The product of the extremes divided by either mean will give the other mean, thus 14 7 = 6 13 ; 3 X 14 = 42 ; 42 -:- 6 = 7 ; 42 -^ 7 = 6. The product of the means divided by either extreme will give the other extreme, thus: 8:4 = 10:5; 4 X 10 = 40; 40 -^ 5 == 8; 40 -4- 8 = 5. (The sign : : is often used in place of the "equal" mark in proportions, but is not used in this book, as it introduces needless complexity.) SIMPLE PROPORTIONS. A simple proportion is an equality between two simple ratios. When three of the terms are given, the fourth can be found. Of the three given members two must be of the same kind, and the third of the same kind at the required term. The Rule of Three shows how to find the fourth term of a proportion when three terms are given. Of the three quantities given set that down for the third term which is of the same kind as the term required. If the amount to be found will be greater than the third term, make the greater of the two remaining ^Ivctv quantities the second term, and the other iVie fvTS\.\ V\\. \\ V^'s*, put the less term second and the greater first. '^Vv^tv \>a^ n>cv^^ 14 AUTHHE11C. terms are so arranged, multiply the second and third together, and divide the product by the first The first and second teno must be reduced to the same denomination. Example /. — If 3 tons of coal cost $15 what will 11 tons cost? Here the terms are 3 tons, 11 tons, and $15, and the required term is a certain number of dollars, that is, of the same kind as $15, which is, therefore, set down as the third term. As 11 tons will cost more than 3 tons, the required term is greater than 15 ; so, take the larger of the remaining terms, or 1 1 tons, for the second term, and make the proportion thus: 3 tons : 11 tons = 15 : ? fThe fourth term is 11 X I5 or 165 -7- 3. or $55. Example 2. — If 8 bushels of malt give 5.5 barrels of wort, how many barrels will 300 bushels give? i The terms are 8 bushels. 300 bushels, 5.5 barrels and a certain ' unknown number of barrels which is greater than 5.5 barrels. The third term is, therefore, 5.5 barrels, the second 300 bushels L and the first eight bushels. Hence 8 bushels 1300 bushels = 5.5 ]i i barrels : ? The fourth term is 300 X 5-5 -r- 8, or 206.2 barrels. f Example 3. — If 152 lbs. malt give 94 lbs. extract, what will loo lbs. give? The terms are 152 lbs. malt. 100 lbs. malt and 94 lbs. extract, and a certain unknown number of lbs. of-extract less than 94. The arrangement is, therefore. 152 lbs. : 100 lbs. =94:? The fourth teriji is 100 X 94 -^ 1S2. or 61.8 lbs. extract. Example 4. — If 3 tons of coal cost $15, how many tons can Bi4 be bought for $50? The terms are $15. $50, and 3 tons, and the proportion is : $15 : $50 = 3 tons •: ? The fourth term is 3 X 50 ^ 15. or IQ tons. INVOLUTION. Involution is the continued multiplication of a number by itself a given number of times. A "power'* of a number is the prodiict obtained by this process. Thus 8 is the third power of 2, since 8—2X2X2, and 16 is the second power of 4. since i<5 = 4X4. The "base" or "root" of a power is a number which multiplied by itself a certain number of times gives the power. Thus 4 is the base or root of 16. since 4 X 4 = 16; 3 is the root of ly since J X J X 3 = 27. The "exponent" of a power is a number p\aceA ^x xW x\^\ o! ARITHMETIC. 15 the base and a little above it to show how many times the base mast be multiplied by itself to produce the power. Thus 2* or 2 is the first power of 2 = 2 «■ or 2 X 2 is the second power of 2 = 4 2* or 2 X 2 X 2 is the third power of 2 = 8 2* or 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 is the fourth power of 2 = 16 The second power of a number is called the "square*' of the number; the third power is called the "cube" of a number. Thus 3* or 9 is the square of 3 ; 2* or 8 is the cube of 2. If two powers of the same number are multiplied, the product is the same as if the number had an exponent equal to the sum of the two exponents. Thus 2* X 2' = 2°; for 2' = 2 X 2 and 2" = 2 X 2 X 2, hence 2*X2* = 2X2X2X2 X2, or 2' = 32. For squares and cubes see tables under the respective heads. EVOLUTION. Evolution is the finding or extracting the root of any power of a number. The "square root" of a number is that number which, raised to the second power, will give the first number. 3 is the square root of 9 since 3' or 3 X 3 == 9- The "cube root" of a number is that number which, when raised to the third power, will give* the first number. Thus 3 is the cube root of 27, since 3' or 3 X 3 X 3 = 27. The "radical sign" (from radix, Latin for root) is V ; V 100 denotes the square roots of 100 = 10; f 64 denotes the cube root of 64 = 4; v^ 16 denotes fourth root of 16 = 2. The small index above the radical sign indicates what root is to be found. When no index is written, the index 2, calling for the square root, is understood. TO FIND ANY KOOT OF A NUMBER UV FACTORING. I. To find the cube root of 9261. 3 I 9261 3 I 3087 3 I 1029 The prime factors of 9261 are 3, 3. 3. 7. 7. 7*. 7 I 343 hence 9261 = (3 y 7) X (3 X 7) X (sX?)- 7 i 49 therefore the cube root of 9261 is 3 X 7 or 21. 71 7" i6 ARITHHETIC. 2. To find the square root of 144. 2 I 144 The prime factors of 144 are 2, 2, 2, a. 3, 3; hence 144 = (2 X 2 X 3) X (a X 2 X 3)- therefore the square root of 144 is 2 X ^ X 3i or 12. 2i 72 2l 2i 36 18 3l 9 3i 3 Rule. — Resolve the given number into its prime factors, then, to produce the square root, take one of every two equal factors; to produce the cube root, take one of every three equal factors. A perfect square is a number which has an exact square root; such are 4, 9, 16, 25, etc. GENERAL METHOD OF TIXDING THE SQUARE ROOT OF A NUICBOL Example i. — To find the square root of 1522756. Separate the given number into periods of two figures, bepn- ning at the right. The left hand period may contain only one figure. Thus: 1.52.27.56. Find the greatest number whose square is contained in the period on the left, and this number is the first figure in the root Subtract the square of this figure from the left period and to the remainder, if any. anne.x the next period to form a new dividend. The greatest number whose square is contained in i is i and the square of i is i, subtracting i from i leaves no remainder and we, therefore, have the next period, or 52, as divided. Thus: iVrs2r27T56 (I I 52 Double tlic first figure of the root (1) and divide it into the new dividend, omitting the figure on the right (2). the quotient is the second figure of the root. Thus: I V 1.52.27.56 (12 I I 2 ! ^2 li'r/te the second figure of the rod (2) ^XXKi vVvt iv^vi dLVfvmi AKITHMBTIC. 17 n tnult^ly this divisor t^ the last figure of the root, and the product from the dividend (52). Thus: I V 1.52.27.56 (12 I I 22 52 144 8 3ring down the next period and continue as before. Thus : I V 1.52.27.56 (1234 = square root I I 22 52 2144 pie -?.— 243 I 827 3 1 729 2464 I 9856 I 9856 What is the square root of 204504? 4V 20.43.04 (452 = square root. 4 16 8S ) 443 SI425 902 I 1804 I 1804 pie 3. — What is the square root of 498436? 7V49.84.36 (706 = square ^oo^ 7 49 140 o 84 00 1406 8436 8136 umber contains a decimal, begin at the units place and pro- th toward the Mt and right to separate \tvlo ^wo^^, >^^^tv as in the extraction of the square root o\ viVvoXe tvwvv^^x^. i8 ARITHMETIC. Example i. — What is the square root of 104.24^? I V 1. 04.24.41 (10.21 := square roo«. I flo 04 o 00 202 2 424 404 2041 I 9041 I«4l GENERAL METHOD OF FINl/ING THE CUBE ROOT OF A NUMBER. Separate the given number into periods of three figures, begin- ning at the right for an integer, and going left and right from the decimal point for a decimal fraction. Thus: 12.758,927. Example i. What is the cube root of 405,224? Find the greatest number whose cube is contained in the first period 405. It is 7. Subtract the cube of 7 tens from the given number, the remainder is 62,224. Divide this remainder by three times the square of the tens of the first figure of the root (3 X 70"). This will give the quotient 4. 70 + 4 is the cube root 405.224 (70 -h 4 -: 74 70* = 343. coo -JO- X 3 -- 14,700) 62,224 74 is the cube root. Example 2. — What is the cube root of 12812904 (abridge«17 867A27624 «i69911875 671111 876 6745KIS3 676N36I52 67V1514.-W 681473000 683797841 6N612HMH 690807104 6V31541fi 68660(;456 «97*«4103 704909000 707347971 7CW732WJ 7l2l2iy:>7 7l4.SlflHH4 718917375 7I9323I36 721734273 724150792 1l6!t71«!»\ a St. ( 38.9in 38.8310 38.9483 3H.98S5 86.88X8 88.0178 19.0845 04»11 88.0861 O.1083 19.1104 89.1378 38.1548 19.1119 891680 39.3061 89.1333 39.3404 88.1575 0.1746 19.1916 ».3087 39.3158 O.S418 19.3508 ».3769 ».3U39 ».4109 9.4179 »4449 0.46I8 29.4788 ».4K>8 9.5127 19.5296 0.5466 29.5635 29.5804 »S973 29.8142 29.6311 29.8479 39.6648 9.6816 39.fl9H5 ».7153 29.7321 89.7489 39.7658 29.7><25 29.7993 39.8161 Tt.tsaa 0.8496 29.r«64 20.hH3l 29.M998 29.9166 29.933.'! 29.9:i00 0.968A \ 8.4886 8.4141 8.4178 9.4316 8.4351 8.4881 8.4428 8.4488 8.4608 8.4541 8.457A 8.4615 8.4651 9.4890 9.47n 9.4764 8.4801 94888 9.4875 8.4913 9.4949 9.4986 9.5033 9.5060 9.5001 9.5184 95171 9.5107 9.5244 9.5281 9.531? 9..S3&4 9.5391 9.5437 9.5464 9.5501 9.5537 9.5574 9.5610 9.5647 9.56ftl 9.5719 9.5756 9.5792 9.5028 9.5865 9 5801 9.5037 9.5973 9.6U10 9.n>M 9.60K1 9.6118 9.6154 9.6190 9.6136 9.6263 9.6298 9.«:i34 9.6370 9.6106 9.6441 9.6477 ARITilHBTIC. IGHER HOOI THAN THE CUBE. Tlic foi;rth rool is Ihc square rixit of the square root. The sixth rpQi is ilic cube root of the square root or the square root of the cube root. For square rnois and cube roots see tables under their respective OiIht roots arc most conveniently found by the use of Jogaiilhms. ARITHMETIC. 27 ALLIGATION. Alligatioq '§hows the value of a mixture of difTerent ingredients when tlK!" quantity and value of each ingredient is known. » 'Example. — What is the value of loo lbs. of a inixtiire of 200 lbs. of hops at 15 cents a pound, and 100 lbs. of hops at 21 cents a pound? 200 X 15 = 3000 Therefore 5100 -^ 300 = 17.0 cents per 100 X 21 = 2100 lb., or $17.00 per 100 lbs. 300 lbs. 5100 c. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. Arithmetical progression in a series of numbers is a progressive increase or decrease in each successive number by the addition or subtraction of the same amount at each step; as i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., where i is added at each step, or 16, 14, 12, 10, etc, where 2 is subtracted at each step. The numbers in such a scries arc called its "terms," and the equal mcrease or decrease the "(common) difference." The general formula for working an arithtnetical progression is: To find the common difference, knowing the first and last terms and the number of terms: Find the difference between the first and last terms and divide by the number of terms less i. To find the last term, knowing the first term, the common difference, and the number of terms: Multiply the number of terms less i by the common difference, and to the product add the first term. To find the number of terms, having the first and the last ones. and the common differences: Take the difference between the first and the last terms, divide by the common difference and add i. To find the sum of all the terms, having the first and the last ones, and the number of terms: Add together the first and the last terms, divide by 2 and multiply the quotient by the number of terms. . GEOMETRICAL PROCRESSIOX. Geometrical progression in a series of numbers is a progressive increase or decrease in each successive number by multiplication or division by the same multiplier or divisor at each step ; as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64. etc., where each succeeding term is produced by mul- til^ying the preceding one by 2; or 80, 40, 20. 10, S, v«Wt^ ^^Ocv ^v^- 28 ARITHMBTIC. \ ceeding term is found by dividing the precediiip«Qiie by 2- The common multiplier or divisor is called the "(comnuM) ra^'* To find the last term, knowing the first one, the nm^^and the number of terms : Raise the ratio to a power i less than thcTnui^ ber of terms, and multiply by the first term. To find the sum of all the terms, knowing the first one, the ratio and the number of terms : Raise the ratio to a power equal to the whole number of terms, subtract i, divide the remainder by the ratio less i, multiply the quotient by the first term. LOGARITHMS. The logarithm of a number is the exponent of the power to which it is necessary to raise a fixed number to produce the given number. This fixed number or "base" in the common logarithms is 10, in the "Naperian*' or "hyperbolic" 2.71828182a . . . The abbreviation is "log." Logarithms are employed to facilitate numerical calculation, substituting the simpler operations for the more complex, as addi- tion for multiplication, subtraction for division, multiplication for involution, division for evolution. They are peculiarly convenient in computing powers or roots higher than the third or cube. The logarithm of i is o in any system ; the logarithm of the base is I. In a system where the base is greater than i, the logarithms of all numbers above i are positive, those below i are negative. The unit or integral part of a logarithm is called the "index" or ^'characteristic.** the decimal part the "mantissa." In the usual tables of common logarithms only the mantissa it given, with the decimal point in front omitted. To find the index take the number of digits to the left of the decimal point less i. From o to 10 il is o. from 10 to 99 it is I, from 100 to 999 it is 2, etc. The index of the logarithm of a decimal fraction i> a negative nimiber and is equal to the number of places which the first fig- ure of the decimal other than o is removed from the decimal point. Index of log. 0.005 == — 3 or 3- the minus sign being often placed above the figure. The mantissa is always positive, even though the index be negative. The "difference" is the tabular difference between the two near- **/ Jograrithms. ARITHMETIC. 29 The "proportiofnal part" is the dUTerence between the given and the nearest^ftnaHer tabular logarithm. RULES FOR USING TABLE OF LOGARITHMS. To find tilt logarithm of a whole number. For I to 100 inclusive. The complete logarithm is given in the table. For 101-999. Find given number in first column of table. Take decimal part of logarithm from column under o, including the two figures to the left of it, making six figures ; prefix the index 2. For 1000-9999. Find the three left-hand or first figures of the given number in No. column and take decimals from the column under the fourth figure of the given number (including the two figures to the left of the o column) ; prefix the index 3. For numbers consisting of five digits or more. Find the log- arithm for the number composed of the first four figures, as above ; take tabular difference from last column and multiply it by the fifth; fifth and sixth; fifth, sixth and seventh, etc., whatever the excess may be over four figures; from the product reject as many figures, beginning from the right hand, as the excess over four is in the given number, one for five figures, two for six, etc. ; add the remaining figures to the logarithm for the first four fig- ures, beginning at the right hand. For a mixed number: Find logarithm as if it were an integer or whole number and prefix the index of the integral part of the number. For a decimal fraction: Find logarithm as if the figures were all integers, and prefix index according to rule. For a vulgar fraction: Reduce to decimal fraction and proceed as for the latter. Or, subtract logarithm of denominator from that of numerator, the difference being the required logarithm. To find the number where the logarithm is knozvn: First. where the given logarithm is contained in the table: Find first two decimal figures of logarithm in colunm of two figures to left of o column and the other figures in the columns to the right. The first three figures of the number will be found in No. column, the fourth at head of column in which the decimals of the logarithm were found. Point off decimals or prefix ciphers according to the index. Second, where the given logarithm is not conlamed m xVvt V^* 30 ARITHMETIC. ' ble: Find the next smaller logarithm in the taUe^fuid take the number for it, which will give the fint four figuretos^ the re- quired number. Subtract the same logarithm from the gi^39!3 "787 2x82 2576 2969 3^^62 3755 5323 57*4 6x05 6495 6885 7275 7CO4 92x8 9606 9993 — — I — — — — — 038 076611153 1538 3078 34^ 3846 423 4613 4996 537^^ 2216 623 0207 4148 8<-'53 880814 886 49X 892095 897627 90309 908485 913814 919 078 924279 929 419 934498 939519 944483 94939 954243 959041 963788 968483 973 128 977724 982 271 986 772 991 226 995635 3891 S174 1993 6197 0361 44 S6 8571 2415 O61O 0775 48.^6 897S 2619 06 29 Y)2 1 7028 0602 0998 454 8442 4932 S83 8805 9185 1924 23(->9 2694 576 6142 6524 9563 9942 — — — 032 7 a ^ D 433 428 j 425 I 424 : 420 ! 417 ;4i6 412 408 405 404 1 400 398 397 393 3«9 , 3»8 '386 383 383 379 V \> i I07i MSa >8^ ««* s 483" s»* 558 sou & B557 ^ s>gB j^ 1 zij a6i7 9q8s 33S* J 5913 6076 66^ 7004 I 4ai6 s 08- 3785 3 98-656 6 <*- 9905 09B7 1347 >707 "67 "*a* 4570 «34 S^» »7 60O* 8ij6 Sff eSfS 919a 9S5> »6« 899 9J3S ftti ;@: loss i*»3 >747 44S7 4&« 1169 7888 8317 8565 3091 3434 "7n 3"9 3 SSX 58JI 6191 6ui 6 8903 9*4< 9579 99'6 0926 1163 IS99 1934 »37 atoi 394 3375 3 '- 39*3 *'77 4 ■3- 033* " >3- 3539 3 ■3- 6;3i 7 3 1331 156 i8S3 3ai6 3S44 0871 3'98 Si'S S 4504 483 SIS6 S+81 5806 6'3' >7> 145' 19- » 6176 (i«3 61J9 700s 19- 8657 8933 9JC16 w8' 9755 ■5 Iff 439' 4663 5 -096 7365 i 9783 S OJ7 0631 S 3976 3a.V> J SS68 5S26 7 8144 84 3ai6 3488 493* S»4 /6w 7904 I 0319 0586 o8s3 3986 ytS' .15 '8 3 5638 590» ' " 8373 8536 8798 0S9I 1153 I+r, 3496 3755 40'i 60&4 6341 66 8657 8913 9.7 173 »l M89 1567 1846 ; 4S14 479» S^ 5346 5633 : 7181 7556 783a 8107 8381 ■■ 00J9 030J 0577 0S5 17*1 3033 3305 3^77 3848 : 5475 5746 6016 6386 6556 ; 8173 8441 871 8979 9247 3 783 4049 643 6694 906 9313 167s 1936 4374 4533 6858 7115 9)i6 968] 3- 3996 1- SS»8 3- 8046 0704 096 1115 147 3>S 3504 3757 4011 . 578' 6033 6385 6537 I 8397 8548 8799 9049 I J 0799 104S 1197 1546 179s 3 i 3=86 .W34 3783 403 4377 4 3 57S9 6006 6i5» 6499 6745 6 J 8219 &464 8709 B954 9198 9 4 '979 "34 3 4 4S"7 4J7 S J 7041 7393 7 9 9SS 98 4314 4579 : 6957 7" 958s 9846 : 3196 345* '■ 4791 5051 7372 763 9938 - 0193 ; 3743 ■■ i 358 38=3 181 I 3S- 7679 183 36- 0071 1S3 36- a4si 184 . 36- 4818 79'8 8isS 031 054S 36BS 3935 S054 3»9 7406 7641 9746 998 .,. 6337 . 8398 B637 ■ 3 "63 3399 SS»S JTCi 7875 811 3 1446 ' 187 37- 1S43 3074 3306 3S.33 !.. iSa 37- 4158 4389 46J 485 5^' 189 ■ 37- ^03 6693 6931 7'Si 73S 100 37- 8754 898J 9311 .^439 9667 • 190 38- — — — 19' j3- 1033 1161 1488 193 38- 3301 3537 3733 193 I a8- SSS7 55=2 t"? ■9) ! 38- 7801 8016 8149 ID* =9- 0035 0357 048 11* =9- 3as6 3478 3699 197 39- 44** 4687 4907 158 : ig- 6665 68S4 7>04 i« 19- 8853 907' 9*89 5 3368 361 I 343 * 479 5031 24a 3 7198 7439 34' S 9594 9K33 '39 y 1976 3314 338 ) 4346 4583 337 7 6;o3 6937 335 3 9046 9279 ! 334 — — ' "M 4 1377 '6o>! =.U 3&]6 39'7 j 233 ' 3'3i 3Jfi* ' 5S4» S77» 9 7H38 H067 0'33 0351 OJ78 0806 ; 1} 1396 3613 aS*- I 4656 4881 5107 5333 1 6905 71^ 7354 7S78 ; 9'43 9 ' " ■ ■wly ABTTHMBnC seo 30- ,03 .147 "464 i68. .898 3.14 =331 =S47 "TO* "98 31 J 3P- 3'96 34'= 3*»8 38*4 4059 64=5 6639 Ms* 706S 7* 3I6 y>- 535- 55*6 S7Bi 5996 6=>I fft ■»'3 30- 7496 77' 79=4 8'37 8351 8564 8773 8991 9>04 9417 313 3f>- 9*'3 9*43 — — — «M 31- — — 0056 0368 0481 0693 0906 1118 133 .542 s«s 31- 1754 t9f6 ='77 3389 =6 =811 3013 3=J4 3445 3656 «« 3'- 3867 407S 4=89 4499 471 49= S>3 534 555' 576 307 3'- 597 6iS 639 6599 6809 7018 71=7 7436 7646 7854 309 ■xS 31- S063 E173 8481 SbHg SS98 9106 9J14 9S2I 973 9938 N8 309 3=- 0146 03S4 0563 0769 0977 1184 1391 '598 '805 =011 307 3=- 3319 24=6 =633 3839 3046 3=53 345S 366s 387' 4«>77 ao6 31- 41S1 44*^ 4691 4899 S'OS 53' SS'6 S7=i 59=6 6131 31- 6336 6s4t 674s 6m 7'JS 7359 7563 7767 797= 8176 9398 9601 9S0S - - >H ai3 3=- 8.18 8583 8787 8991 9194 «H 33- 0(14 t^'T 0819 I013 1335 14=7 "63 1831 ao34 33j6 ,13- 3438 =64 =S4= 3044 3=46 3147 j6t9 385 4051 42U 3.1- 4451 4'555 4856 5057 S=S7 5458 S65S 5859 6059 636* »>, 317 33- 646 6to &S6 706 7=6 74S9 7659 7SS8 8058 8357 . 300 3lS aiB 33- S456 S6i6 8855 90H 9=53 945' 965 9849 — " ! =«> .14-— — — — — 1— — — 0047 0346 . igg 319 34- am t&i» i*)! 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S9J) 91^ gyA 94S7 96^*9*49 -183 240 3S. 0211 0391 OJT3 0754 o?34 1115 llrfi 1476 1656 iS;7 t8l =41 JS- MI7 =197 =377 1557 3737 =9'7 y^' ,1=77 345^ 36.(6 iSo =4= 3S- S^'S ,3995 4174 4,153 4531 47i= 4*7' S'i? 5=49 IJ-'S 179 »43 ,iS- 56U6 S7'<5 5964 614= 632. 6459 tf77 ('■■<-^6 ^w 7^i= >^ "44,3** 739 7S«S 7746 79:3 t"OI Hiji) S4j6 W^ !«ii 89,^9 178 ARITHMETIC. txl • < 3 ] « S 1 7 B B 1)^ it> 1383 1464 39- !i697 s873 3048 3114 . 4377 ■76 a«8 39- 6'99 W* 6548 &7M 5159 53»6 55°' 5676 585' 6«5 '75 149 685»S 7071 7345 7419 7593 7766 '74 »• 39- 79« 8114 8187 8461 8634 S808 S981 9'S4 9^8 9501 '73 aji 39- 9*74 98+7 — - '73 »S> 40- — — OM 0191 0365 0538 07.. 0BS3 .056 95a 40- 140I IS73 "743 '917 30B9 3361 3433 3605 3777 3949 35J 40- 31JI 3»9» 3464 3635 40- 4834 s™s 5170 5340 3807 3978 4'49 439 449a 4t£3 '7' 1=54 S5>7 568B 5«S8 6039 6199 6J7 »* 4P- 654 671 6381 70S> ffl 739' 7561 773' 7901 807 '70 356 40- 814 841 8S79 8749 90B7 9>S7 9496 9595 97641 169 40- 9933 — — — 169 «S7 4. oioj 0271 044 oCo, 0777 0946 .1.4 1283 ■45' .69 J58 ,.- ,63 ,78a '9^ aiM 4'- 33 3467 3035 3803 9393 346. 3639 3796 3964 iCS *S9 397 4137 4J05 447= 4639 48^ ,67 9I» 4<- 4973 3'4 S3P7 5474 564' 5808 sg74 6141 6308 £474 <67 361 4.- 664r 6807 6)7J 7'33 7306 7473 7638 7804 797 .66 aba 4- 8,J. 8467 86S3 8798 8964 9139 9395 946 9635 979" '65 163 4<-99S6 - - - ■65 3^ 43- - on. a>a6 6S 43- 8.JS 8397 8459 Sfci, 8783 8944 9106 9168 9439 959' l63 «59 43- 97S» 99'4 — — XS9 43. _ - 0075 0336 0398 OS59 073 j6i *:o 43- 1364 "595 '68s '846 30o; a.67 3328 2488 3649 3809 T' 4J- 9969 313 399 345 36' 377 393 160 43- 4569 4739 4888 S043 5367 5536 5685 5844 6004 aji 43- 6'63 6333 6481 6fi| 6957 7116 7375 7413 759= "59 "74 43- 77S> 79^ 8367 8336 8543 8701 8859 9017 9' 75 'S8 >I» 43- 9333 949' 96*8 9806 99^ '5? IS 158 S76 44- 0909 iofi6 1394 '381 .S]3 ■ 69i .H53 9.1=3 '57 ^ 44- 348 3637 3793 39s 3106 . 3j6j 3419 3576 373= 3S89 157 44- 4045 430' 4357 45"3 4669 48=5 498' 156 "79 44- S6iH 576 S9'5 6071 6236 6jS3 6537 6*91 6848 7003 "53 180 44' 8706 886' 9015 917 7778 793,1 80S8 8^42 8.197 855= 381 947» 9633 9787 9941 154 aSi 154 081 45- 0349 0403 05S7 0711 45- 1786 194 9093 3347 0865 .326 .479 •GjJ 38.1 25SJ 2706 3859 3013 3'6S ■S3 aB4 45- 3J'8 347' 3634 3777 393 40S3 4^35 4387 «4 4692 'S3 SS( S6o6 5758 591 6063 aB6 45- 6jlM 6518 667 6S11 45- 7& 8033 8.84 8336 6973 7125 7Jj6 7438 7579 773' 15= S 3487 8638 8789 804 909" 'S' 45- 939* 9543 9*94 984S aSS — 1 0146 0396 0447 0597 0748 "B» 46- («pB tOtS >.98 .348 HiVj 1649 1799 ,948*^ \"^ 35" • ' * t ARITUMBTIC. I 46- 2.198 1S48 2697 46- 3893 43W 4'9» 1 I 46- sjSj ssj» s6» I < 46- 6Sb8 7016 7164 I ; 46- 8347 8«5 8643 i I 46- 981a 9969 — .J9» '43S .583 2756 J903 3049 41 16 4,161 4508 5671 5816 sg6a 7121 7166 7411 8s66 8711 8Sss 0007 0151 039t 4B- STSI s^j 600s ' 7138 73S 74»' Sss. 869J S833 2847 a997 434 449 SSaa S977 73" 746 879 8so8 3146 3196 4639 478S 6116 6174 7608 7756 908s 9^33 »43 3S9t 3744 4936 sons «4 ^3 0371 67I9 7904 Sosa 8j 9j3 9s»7 967s 173a 1878 3'9S 3M' 4^ 4799 6107 6ija 7SSS 77 8999 9>43 0438 osSi 1 871 30l6 33" 3445 4727 4869 6147 6289 7S63 7704 8974 9114 OSS7 "Tttf o8si 0998 II4S 3<»S 317' »3'8 34^ »i 3487 ^33 3779 3)1$ 407' 4au JK>9 533s 5381 S5a6 6687 6S33 6976 S133 8273 8423 ISJI 9719 9*3 loi: 1156 1199 344S 35S8 373' 387a 401s 4'S7 6J97 6hj e 7844 7989 s 9*87 9431 9 6* J 6571 7S4S -9S6 9=55 939^ I 5=95 S+37 5S79 67 r4 6SSS 6997 8127 8269 841 9517 9677 9818 0099 0239 033 051 0661 oSoi ixni 49" ij6a 1502 1(142 178; 19J2 , 2o6; :x79 33>9 13453 3597 JO- ji«< iXii iiii i^-!i d7ii ' iSs 4989 .:^33 t'ilf- I 49- 693 706S 7X16 i ; 49- 83" 8448 8586 > 49- 96S7 9S14 95*» 5S6 6099 7344 7483 8;z4 8363 ■ S999 9137 9275 9,13 955 1,141 =481 2611 ' 140 3737 3S76 4015 "39 5128 5267 54(*, 139 6513 «33 6J9' "J9 7S97 S035 S173 138 317 50- 10S9 "96 "333 "47 '607 31S 50- 2417 25(14 27 1837 2973 . 3"9 50- 3791 3937 4063 4199 433S ■ »" . SO- S'S 5^36 5421 5557 5693 331 ■ so- 6305 6&4 G;7« 6911 7046 333 SO- 7856 7991 S126 826 S395 333 50- 9J03 9337 9*7' 9606 974 5828 5964 TiSi ;ii6 853 t«54 3=4 S'- 0545 0*79 0813 0947 "o8i ■ J 49*6 5079 Sin ,VW4 } bi;i 6403 65.55 C063 759' 77-4 TSsS 7987 J S909 904 9171 9303 - 7 -96 73=3 7 - Ssu B646 8 ■ 9838 99S9 ; «3J 064S o;8s 0933 137 2017 3IS4 3391 : 137 3.1S: 35'8 365s 1^ 4743 4S78 50'4 Kfi 6099 6334 637 136 7451 75S& 7721 13s 8799 8934 90M I '35 ^-^ ^_ -^ I ;-» 14S; i5i6 17s 134 oSiS 2951 30S4 133 4145 *f^ ■;4'5l>3J 5476 !.Ck9 S74I ■ 133 63 tvjjj 7064 13a 8119 ,Si5i 8333,133 9134 9566 9697 , 131 .ID SJ- =14*4 2573 3705 = JLit JJ- JU6 jS,-6 4006 4 ; 0745 0S76 1007 131 ! 2053 2.83 3114 13' * 3356 34*l> 3&16 130 & ^6* :^^as 4 49'S I IJ ARITHUSTIC. 8IS [ 5"- SO*S S"74 5304 5434 SSO 6469 6598 6727 6S51 " "-.6 81+ 7 904s 9"74 93" 943 0328 0456 0384 oj" J 1607 1734 iSfia "99 t aB8a 3009 3130 3161 : 5 4153 *l8 4407 4531 ■ t 54" 5547 5674 58 ] i 668s 681. 6937 7063 ■ 5693 S8m S95I 6081 621 6935 7114 7'4J 7,17» 75^1 Bj71 84M 8531 K06 sjas 9559 t^l 9S15 9943 — ? 045S 05S 0705 0S3 < 9 1704 1819 1953 =078 ■ 5 39s 3074 3199 3313 . - 4068 419" 43'G 444 4564 ■ 7 54.11 SS5S 5678 5S03 3 6660 6789 6913 7036 S 7898 So:> 8144 Si07 3 9116 9149 S1371 W9t 7 JJ4S a.l7> »5 ^J=7 I ■ 35"8 364s 3^;» .1*» 1 4787 49'4 5- -vj^..™ .,,, .^.3 ..,„ . 3 =79 =9" 3033 3'S5 13=76 3.198 3519 3'J4 3762 .3 4004 4126 4247 4368 . 44S9 4"' 473' ■i^^^ 4973 I 4 S»'S 5336 5457 5578 I S099 5«3 KH OUit OiHi 1 .3 6423 6544 O664 6785 ,690.? 70JO 714'' 7267 ly^? 17 7627 77+8 7S6S 7983|Sio8 ^-':8 S,i,1 S^(/) tJs-^ 9 8829 8918 9068 9188 1 930S 94-S 954S 9C67 97^7 ; 7— — ~~i ~ — — _p . 0026 13146 0265 0385 I 0501 0614 074.1 <*'J3 ".■^= ■■ SOS 56- 2293 ; 366 56- 3481 : 367 56- 4666 . 368 56- S&48 , 369 ; 56- 7oa6 ■ 784 4903 5021 5'39 ■ 5=5; ,'!37'> 5194 .^l" 966 O0S4 (aal 633 I O437 OJ55 &j;i •■■7-V 144 7J62 7379 7497 I 76'4 773= 7>^49 TM 57- OS43 ofi6 0776 0893 " 57- 1709 1825 194a J058 s ST- Mja 3 S7- 4031 0076 O103 03^ 0426 S 1343 '3.=i9 '4/6 159= 1 2407 ^5=3 ^39 =75S 2 35&S 3W54 3* 391s > S303 S419 5534 565 ,. _.> li4S7 6572 6687 6803 ■ 57- 7«» 7607 77" 78.16 795' 1 , 57- WJP 8734 886B SgSj 9097 | ^ Vjll 7;! -^ETIC. •«r jAu ^m jo^v ^A tf ■!* '*'i .«•» J. •# 4» #H* »** WU& *.. ■^r, *■ •^Ti «••• )^ a,. ?J*t 9SIH* AUTHMBTIC. 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Na 5 e 7 ■ D fM at> 8189 &>5< 83" 8374 8435 8497 8559 863 8683 8743 63 70A B,r 8865 8866 8928 8989 90Si ,9113 9'74 9335 9»97 9358 61 707 8«- 9419 9(8r 954» 9604 9665 9726 97SS 9849 99" 9972 61 70B 8s- oojj 009s ois6 M17 M79 034 0401 0463 0534 0585 709 Ss- o6«6 0707 0769 083 089. 0933 ,0,4 '■J75 "36 1197 6j IW 85- 115B 13a 1381 IMJ 1303 1361 1625 .686 .747 >8o9 6. 71 J 8s- 1B7 19J> 199a ^Si a>"4 2,75 3336 3297 3338 3419 61 71a Ss- 14S IS*' 16™ 2663 3714 2783 3846 3907 396S 3039 61 T^S 8s- 309 3'5 3»" ;l»7" 33J3 3391 3453 35'6 3577 3637 61 714 8i- 3698 3759 38a 3881 3941 4«a 4063 4,14 4,85 4345 61 Tit 85- 4306 4367 4438 4,88 4549 461 467 473' 4793 4853 6r 716 5I'6 5277 5337 5398 5459 61 717 8s- SS'9 558 564 S70I 3761 5823 5B83 5913 6003 6064 61 718 85-6.34 618s 6345 6J06 C366 6437 6487 6548 6608 6668 719 8s- 6729 6789 685 69. 697 703' 709' 7'Sa 7213 7272 60 7td 85- 7332 7393 7453 7S"3 7S74 7634 7694 7755 78,5 7875 60 731 Ss- 7935 7995 8056 S116 S176 8236 8297 8357 84.7 8477 60 jaa 8S- 8S37 8597 S637 8718 8778 8S38 8893 8938 90'a 9078 60 7=3 85- 9>33 9'93 9358 931S 9379 9439 9499 9559 ^"i 9679 60 734 85- 9739 9799 9859 99"8 9978 60 T»4 se- — — — — — 0038 0098 0,58 03,8 0278 60 »S 86- 0338 0398 0458 OJ18 0378 0637 0697 07S7 o8r7 0877 (So 7=6 86.c^„o995 .056 .1.6 -.76 i3,j6 129s 1353 ■4'5 '475 60 7>7 86. 1334 ,594 "Sjl '714 1773 '833 1893 '952 3011 2072 & 738 86- 3131 2igi 315I 231 137 243 2489 3549 2608 2663 60 739 86- S7J8 27S7 S847 =9°6 =966 3023 3083 3'44 3204 3263 60 !S« 86- 33'3 3,182 3443 3501 3561 363 368 3739 37'W 3S58 731 86- 3917 3977 403S 4096 4135 43,4 4274 4333 439a 4452 59 73> 86- 4311 4ST 463 46S9 474S 4S08 4S6J 4926 4985 504s 59 733 86. 5104 5163 5123 3282 5341 54 S4S9 S5I9 SS78 5637 734 86- S696 S75S S8t+ 5874 5933 5992 6051 611 6,69 632S 59 I8G 86- 6:37 634O 6405 6,65 6534 65S3 6642 6701 676 68,9 59 73^ 86-6Sj8 6937 6996 7«5S 7m4 7>73 7232 7291 735 7409 59 737 86- 7467 7536 7585 7644 770J 7762 7831 783 7939 7998 59 738 86- 805& Sus K174 8333 MJ93 835 S409 B46S 8527 85S6 59 739 86- 8644 S703 8762 83^1 8.S79 8938 8997 9036 9114 9,73 86- 913a 919 9349 9408 91<^ 9555 9584 9642 9701 976 59 86- 981B 9877 993s 9994 — 74' 87- ~ — — — 0033 oil, 0,7 0238 0387 OJ45 87- 0404 C463 0331 0579 0633 0696 0755 0S13 0S72 093 s8 743 87-0989 .047 II06 1.64 T233 ,281 .339 1398 ,456 .515 1 38 744 87- 1573 1631 J69 '748 i8c6 ,865 [923 ,981 304 3098 58 I4fi 87- 3156 32,5 "73 =33' 2389 3448 2506 2564 2623 36S1 ! 38 746 87- 2739 =797 2855 2913 2973 303 308S 3<46 3204 3^ 1 58 747 87- 3321 3379 3437 349S 35S3 36,1 3669 3737 3785 3844 748 87-. 3902 396 40'8 4076 4"34 4.9a 435 ^308 4366 4424 53 749 87- 4483 454 45J3 4656 47'4 4772 483 4saa 4945 5«>3 S8 760 87- 506r 3„9 5177 5^35 5=93 535" 5409 S466 5534 3582 S8 7S' 87- 561 5698 5756 58,3 .SK7. 5929 59S7 6045 6l03 616 58 75a 87- 6218 6276 6333 639, (1449 6307 6s6i 0611 668 ins\ \ '^ I?? S7- 679s 0SS3 69' 696S 7036 ,c8i i.v ni-ft 1'* TO \* 733 "7- "} 'MJS?- 73. h/ 7 75* 87- 737' 7429 7487 7S44 T^OJ \ 76W 11^-1 111^ ^'^^S^ -i^»7i Kg* a 361 B8- tjSs 1443 1499 IS9& i6ij tin .7»7 "j«« »a«« iSi SI 76" M- I9S5 »o>» >J6? f^ !»8j 88- IPS =581 3638 b69S *7S» 334 »97 »3J4 »4>I H** SI 763 >eo9 •«66 >9«3 ,98 3°» ST 7&« 83- JOSO 315 3»7 3^64 »" 3377 3*34 3491 3*48 360s ST :«s 88- 3661 37'8 377S 3*3" 3SSS 3945 4°c» 4059 4'>5 4>T> ST i66 83- 4i>9 4a8s 43M 4399 44S5 45" 4569 46>S 4683 4739 ST 767 88- 4795 48S» 4909 496s SO» S078 S'3S Si*» 5^48 S305 ST. 7M 8S- sifn S4i8 54J4 SS.1' SSS? 6309 *o6s 6331 6378 6434 'i 769 83- s9j6 S983 fe» 6096 6>si 8S- 6491 6547 66ai fitt 67.6 6773 6639 68SS 694J 6998 S» 77' 88- 7054 7""' 7rt>7 7»3 7»8 7336 739i 7449 7SOS 756' 58 77» 88- 7617 3674 773 77» 7843 SS- Si79 &.35 ta9» ai4S 8,04 7898 79SS Soil S067 8ti3 ST 85.6 8573 86,9 861^ sS 96 774 SB- S74> 8797 HM Sgep 8965 goii 9077 9134 919 9x46 50 II( 88- 9303 9358 9(14 9*7 9S»6 9581 9638 9694 975 9606 ^ 776 56 88- 9S6a 9918 9974 — — 736 89. _ _ - «y 00S6 0141 0197 0233 0309 036s S6 89- 0411 0477 f>533 0389 <*4S 07 0736 0S.3 0S6S 09M 56 778 89- 098 103s >o9' '>47 IK13 I1S9 i3'4 137 '436 1481 96 T79 89- '537 '593 1649 1705 ITS 1S16 1873 IgiS 19S3 1039 S6 7ga 89- J09J aij M06 w«a 3317 >373 1439 1484 254 259s 96 78. S9- 36s. ^T S6 78a 89- 3»7 3a6a 33.8 3373 34=9 34^ 354 3593 jOS" 37"* S6 783 89- 37^ 38'7 3S73 39*8 3984 4039 4094 4'S 430S +26. 55 J84 89- 43'6 4371 4417 44SJ 4538 4593 464S 4704 4759 4814 SS tsi 89- 487 4935 498 y>fi 5091 SI46 S*>' SIS7 S313 5367 55 796 89- 54« 5478 SS33 S58S S^ 5699 5754 5809 5864 59^ 35 787 6>si 6306 6^, 6,16 &,7' S5 788 68ca «S7 69.3 6967 70J3 55 789 89- 7077 7133 7187 7143 7J97 73S> 7407 746J 7S'7 757= S5 W 89- 7617 j68i 7737 7793 7847 79<" 79S7 80" 8067 8.33 8»S" 8sc6 8s S9- 8176 8311 8386 8341 8396 89- 8735 8;! B83S 8S9 S9M 7*' 8999 9054 9.09 91&4 9118 55 7M 89- 9273 9J»8 9383 943J 9493 9347 9tol 9654 971. 97« 89" 9"' 9**7S 993 9985 "" 7W 90- — — — — 0O39 0094 0149 MO3 MSS OJIJ 51 1»G 93- 0367 0413 0476 ojji osB6 064 C69S 0749 o8q| 0859 796 90- 0913 0568 lOM 1077 1.31 1.S6 114 .395 13,9 ,404 55 797 90- .458 .SI3 i^ i6)3 1676 1731 '78s '«* 'S94 191S S4 798 90- aoo3 ao57 3113 3166 3331 "75 3339 1384 14.18 1493 799 90- 3547 ^m 36ss 171 3764 38i8 3873 3517 2981 3036 54 SM 9t>- 309 3'44 3199 3»S3 3307 3361 34'ii 347 3514 3S7E Sai 90- 363J 3OB7 374' 3795 3849 390^ 3958 4<"a 4066 4" Hoi 90- 4.74 4*>9 4^83 4337 439' 444S 4499 4SS3 4607 4«. ^J 90- 47'6 477 **14 4878 493a V^ StH !PW 5,1* <.««' i^ ^ *- «5e W JJ&I 54.8 S47i ss*6 ss» st-M ^*a •=■)'<. , W ARITHMETIC. A M. • ■ > ) « 9 E 7 B g D MS 9©^ S756 58s 5904 S9S8 60" 6066 6119 6173 6aa7 6j8i 54 806 90- 6,135 6389 6443 O497 6551 (604 6658 67.1 6766 633 54 807 90- 6874 6937 6981 7035 70H9 7'43 7196 735 71Q4 7358 54 808 90- 74" 746s 7519 7S73 76^ 768 7734 7787 784' 7S95 54 809 90- 7949 Booa 8056 811 8163 8al7 837 8324 S378 8431 BID 90- 848s ES39 S592 8646 8699 8753 8807 886 B9.4 S967 54 90- 9031 9074 S'lo 9'8i 9»3S 9289 934a 9396 9449 9503 54 813 8» 90 95s6 91^ 9663 9716 977 9833 9S77 993 9984 - S4 813 9' 035S 0411 0464 0518 0571 S3 8.4 9' 0624 067S 0731 0784 083S 0891 0944 0998 1051 1104 S3 Bit 9' i.jS .211 1264 1317 1371 J4!'4 1477 '53 '584 '637 53 8.6 9' T69 1743 1797 185 i9fJ 1956 2009 3063 aii6 3169 S3 B17 9" aaaa 1^75 ajaS ajS. a435 2488 as4i 2594 3647 37 S3 818 9' 2753 =8=6 2859 agi3 ag66 3019 307a 3125 3178 3231 S3 819 9> 3284 3337 339 3443 3496 3549 360a 3655 370S 376' 8)0 3B14 3867 39a 3973 4026 4079 413a 4184 4237 429 53 831 91 4608 466 4713 4766 4819 S3 8m 9' 487a 492s 4977 503 S083 5'36 51S9 534' 5394 5317 S3 833 54 34S3 SS05 SS58 S6ii 5664 57'6 5769 SBaa 5875 S3 8>4 9' S937 59" 6033 608s 6138 6.91 6243 6296 6349 6401 BIB 6454 6507 6SS9 »I3 «*1 67.7 677 6823 6373 6927 S3 816 9' 69S 7033 70SS 7138 719 7343 7395 7348 74 7453 53 8*7 9' 7506 7558 7611 7663 J7i6 7768 78a 7873 7935 7978 sa SaS 9' 803 B0S3 8135 8.88 824 8293 834s 8397 845 Ssoa 5a 8j9 S355 8fc7 80s9 S7'3 37&J 88.6 8869 B9ai S973 9™6 Sa SID 91 5078 913 91S3 ijajs 9187 934 9»a W44 9496 9549 S' 83. 8ji 9' 96o> 9653 9706 9738 98. 986J 9914 9967 -- — S» 833 93 D113 0176 o2aS oaS o3ja 0384 0436 0489 054. 0593 IS 9= 0645 0&97 0749 oSoi 0853 0906 09s3 101 106a 1II4 S» 8J4 ,.66 .2.8 .27 .32a ,374 1426 1478 153 1582 i6j4 S' 8B6 93 16S6 1738 179 1842 .894 19,6 1998 205 2102 2154 s» 8j6 93 a2o6 2258 33. 2362 241+ 2466 35.3 357 a62a 2674 S" B37 27=5 3777 a8a9 aSBi =933 3985 3037 30S9 314 3'93 S3 B% 9* 3=44 3396 3348 3399 345' .T503 3555 3607 3658 37' 8» 93 37O2 33.4 3865 39.7 3969 4oai 407a 4134 4176 4338 841 9=- 4279 4.13. 4.183 44J4 4486 4538 45S9 464" 4693 4744 s» 841 93 47Gi6 4848 4S99 495' 5«>,1 5034 S'o6 S'S7 5309 5361 aia S\'^ .s,lC4 SI'S 5467 SS'S 557 5621 5673 5735 5776 5" 9^3 93 s!<2(( SS79 59JI 5982 6034 60S3 6137 61B8 624 6391 a« 9= 6,142 6jrJ4 6443 6497 6548 66 66s. 67" 6754 6305 6857 690S 6959 70" 706* 7,14 7'65 7316 7368 7319 846 9a 7,17 74=3 7473 7524 7S76 7627 7678 773 778. 78ja 8J7 93 7883 7915 79S6 8037 8088 814 S191 8343 8393 8345 84S S396 Kh7 5498 S349 8601 R6s2 8703 8754 S80S SS57 8^ 9a 8908 B9S9 901 9°6i 9"3 9.63 93.5 9366 93'7 9,T«f 8(D 8ji 94>9 9*7 9531 957a 9623 9*74 9735 9776 9837 9879 8S' 93 Di8s 0336 0387 0333 0389 w 85s 044 0491 054a 059a C643 060* 01*5 oi^ (A\i (S*#,\ w «JJ, ft' 09,9 • losi I103 i'53lii03 iiM i»>5 iT^f* ^WnX* 1^ 9.S-_ .45» 'S°9 >l6 161 ,661 171a i-jfej ^&t^ \«.i iii ^\ ABITUMETIC. ^ a 1 3 4 J « T S. ■ ■ sts 93 ~l^ 3017 ^68~ 11 rS IT69 3» 1>7I SJM 3371 ^^ 31 856 93 3Si4 ;A,6 ^77 =717 377S 3Si9 3379 193 5» 8S7 93 2gBt 30J' 3081 3133 3'83 3>J4 31S5 3115 33S6 3437 i> 8s8 ^487 3538 35S9 3639 369 374 379' 3341 3*>» 39M 51 859 93 3993 4:146 4»96 4147 4448 810 93 «98 4549 4S99 465 47 4751 4801 4S51 490a 4953 90 861 93 5104 5154 5305 5J5S 5.106 5«6 54=6 5457 99 861 93 5507 555S s6oS S6S8 STC^ 5759 5S09 536 596 90 863 3 -362 .46:. 50 8;^ W ■Sit .SO' .76 1S09 i»S9 1909 "938 9" s:s 9+ 200S ^58 IIS7 3=07 Z2s6 =306 J3SS J7S2 =tei s^it =4^3 9* 8;6 94 =554 =603 =653 =7" S95 SO 8J7 3 3^9 3US 3'9S 3^47 3B)7 XM6 yv/i 3445 49 87» 91 31^5 354-1 jS'y 3*43 3^= 374= 3791 3^4" .v*-> 3939 49 in 94 3Vi9 4'>3S 4C-SS 4<37 4i« 4336 4.-SS 4jj5 4ji( 4433 49 8M 94 453= 4SS< 4631 4S* 4739 4779 4S=S 4S77 49=7 49 BSi 94 4976 SMS S'>;4 5"3 Si7' 51^' 537 S4'9 49 8S3 5469 S5'3 S07 j6.6 "5^.,5 ST'S 57^4 S3l3 SSJ3 49 883 .'■^i to?) 610S 6ij; C3:.7 6356 CJOS tiS* ^4^3 49 8&1 91 0453 OjJi 655" 66 i;64j to)8 6747 6796 li!i*5 0i94 49 (0*3 709 7'4 71S9 71,18 7aS; 73* 7.1SS 49 836 74-^3 75^1- 703 7<1» 77J« 7-77 7i36 -"(S 49 8S7 91 7971 t.i-jd ^3I7 ^26!i f.VS ^=04 49 ^^tl3 K+Gj Xi'i Ko.^ S6S7 S;«i K75S SSt-4 *^,'3 49 889 S^l ^35' t->» !>-44 9>>7 9H6 9.93 9:44 9J92 95:' 49 SDO 919 94W 9t^-< ■>536 95S5 9634 9W3 9731 c.;f o'.-g 49 f" 9S;S 99:6 99J5 49 891 0121 017 03T9 03&7 P31C B93 ^i 03OS 046.' 0511 0* o«oS 0657 O7o(i S93 95 «15I °9, o>4<) 09^7 1046 'OBS 'MJ 1103 13S9 49 804 W .33S 13S6 I43S 14S3 153» ISS 1639 1677 i;:6 '7-5 49 A« 9> 1^3 .3;2 191 ■^ "-7 3=66 =.14 =16.1 43 89O 93 =3«i J5i6 --405 :45i ISOI =55 3.109 30(7 if'^yS 48 f'i 93 379f :S4i ;s*, =9j3 19S6 3''34 3--;^3 3131 .lis Si=s 48 89S ^ 3J=5 3373 34.;' 347 3Sli 3S66 J6is 3'Al 37" 4S sw 95 376 3S0S S-V-' 3305 3753 4-.»l 4049 4098 4.46 4'94 4» •M 95 4.1S7 M35 44-'^ 453" 45^* 4&:8 4''77 48 901 -i;=3 4773 4Kii 4Sf9 V"* jq66 50.4 *:«= 48 903 95 5=07 SJ5S S.W3 535' 5.W0 5447 549^ 554.1 559s ■4 43 903 95 ,«iSS S73f> 57S4 5S« 5SS 5138 S976 <>«14 48 9S (ijM 6j<6 6165 6313 Oj6i (.409 6*51 byJS ^':V\ y"-\ * ARrTHUBTIC. Hn s I a ) 4 s a ; e e D *0S 93- 6649 669; 6745 6793 684 6SS8 6936 69S4 703= 708 4S 906 93- 7"S 7i;& 7"4 7=?= 73» 73™ T4'6 7464 7Sla 7559 48 907 9S- 760; 7GJS 7J03 77S' 7799 7847 7894 7943 799 3oj8 S 90S 95. 80S6 8134 8181 S1J9 8=77 831s 8.173 84=' 8468 8316 % 909 93- 8564 86ij S6S9 8707 8755 3303 SSj-* 8898 89,6 8^ S fflO 9S- 904' 9389 9137 9185 9J3» 938 9328 937S 94=3 9*7' 48 911 91a 9S- 9S'8 9S-9995 9S66 5614 9661 9709 9757 9804 985= 99 9947 48 9" 96- - 004= "9 O'SS oiSs 0=33 038 0328 oyfi 0423 s 9'3 96-047< 0318 0566 0613 0661 0709 0756 0804 0851 0899 48 914 56- C946 "994 '041 '089 "136 1184 1231 1379 1326 1374 47 >1S 96- US' .469 .S>6 .36,1 i6m 1658 '7d6 1753 'Boi 1848 4T 916 96- .895 2133 3iS 7227 M75 2322 917 96- 3.i&) 3417 »4 3268 47 919 96- 311& 355= 3599 3646 3693 3741 47 «10 96- 3783 3835 3S8J 39=9 3977 4024 4071 4.18 4165 4212 47 931 96-4=6 4307 4354 4401 4t*3 4495 4542 459 4637 4684 47 93a 96-473" 4778 4815 4871 4919 4^ 5013 S061 5108 515s 47 9»3 96- SH« 5W9 s»96 5343 5,19 5437 S484 S5J' 5578 5635 47 924 9^ 567a S7"9 5766 5H13 586 5907 S9S4 6001 6048 6093 47 OtS 96- 614a 6189 6J36 6183 63J9 5376 6423 647 6si7 6564 47 926 96-66.1 C6s8 670s 6,5= 6799 6ais 6892 6939 6986 7033 47 937 •fo- 70S 7. =7 7-73 7== 7=67 9>8 96- 7543 7595 7643 7633 7735 9=9 96-8016 Mo6a 8109 8156 8k>3 8349 8396 83+3 839 8436 47 •to 96- 8483 853 8576 86J3 K67 8716 8763 SSi S856 8903 47 931 96- 89s 8996 9043 909 9136 9183 9229 9376 9323 9369 47 93> 9&-94^6 9463 9519 9556 960= 9'it9 9695 9742 97S9 983s 47 933 9; — — 3 13S4 1601 16,7 1693 % 937 9: ■74 17S6 t3ji 1879 '9=5 1971 2018 2064 311 2157 4S 933 2103 2=49 s=9S =34= =388 3434 =481 25=7 =373 =619 % 939 97 =666 =71= =753 =304 =851 =897 1943 3989 303s 3083 % 940 97 3174 3== 3=66 3313 3359 3405 343' 3497 3S43 4S 3636 36S3 37=8 3774 382 3866 39'3 3939 4"S 46 9: 42S' 43=7 4374 44= 4466 40 9*3 97 4S'' 4558 4 "W^^ "i^^l "5^"i\ ■* RW/97- 95J« 9S9* 96J9 9683 973 \ 9Tlt» q»^^ '^^ Sfi'1 ^^-X 99-8695 99- 9"3« 99-9S6S 760s 7648 S041 SoSs 8477 852. 8913 8956 ftH* 939" 97S3 9816 J691 7736 S119 8171 S216 8564 8608 86si 9 9043 9087 I 9435 9tT9 95'^ j 987991 3 9957 I ALGEBRA. In arithmetic figures are used to express quantities. In Al- gebra quantities of every kind are denoted by the characters of the alphabet. The first letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, etc., are used to denote known quantities, while unknown quantities, or those which are to be found by calculation, are represented by the last letters, r, x, y, etc. The signs in algebra have the same meaning as in arithmetic. a + b is read "a plus h" and means that the two quantities are to be added, a — b is read, "a minus b," and means b is to be subtracted from a. a X b is read, "a times b," and means that a is to be multiplied by b. This may also be expressed in the follow- a ing way: a X b, or generally, ab; abc = a X b X c; — = a -r- 6, b means that tf is to be divided by b. Quantities having the sign + prefixed are called "positive." Those having the sign — are called "negative." When no sign is prefixed to a quantity it is always understood to be -f- or posi- tive. The sign of equality is =, as in arithmetic; a + b = c, a = b, a — z=z d, ab =: c, are "algebraic equations." b The part on the left side of the sign of ec\>iaL\\Vv ^^ C3J\^^ ^^ "fin* member'' of the equsLtion ; the part on tVve n^V «v^^ \% 51 52 ALGEBKA. i called tha "tecond meinber." The parts of each member -tfinfrH by + or — are called "term*." Parenthesis is used to denote that several temu are to be cctt sidered as one. (a -J- b)d meads that the mm of a + b u to fat multiplied by d. (,a + b — e)d shows that « and b are to bi added, e subtracted from the sum, and the remainder mtalti^id by d. Thus, if in the equation (d + ^ — t)d = f. a shonht bt = S,b = 3,c = i,d = 4,tbe equation would be (j + J — *) 4 = f, or f = 24. Instead of a parenthesis, a straight line ove the terms is sonielinKs used, thus (a + b)c, or a -(- 6 X C. A number prefixed to a letter is called a "numerical coefficienL' ja signifies that a is to be taken 3 times, or a + a + a. Mb sigai- fies ab + ab. If a quantity is 10 be multiplied several times by itself, a smal figure, called an "exponent," is placed a little above and at tb< right of the quantity. Thus, a' means j X o X a; o' is called thi "second power," or the "square" of o. b' or 6 X ^ X & is tht "third power" or "cube" of b, d' is the fourth power of d, etc (See also Arithmetic — Involution.) A "root" of a quantity is one of (he equal factors, the prodiK of which is equal to the quantity. ^ is a root of 4, because 4 = i y. 2. f is also 3 root of S, 16. 32, etc.. because these number) can be produced by muhiplying 2 by itself 3. 4, j. etc., times, a ii a root of a', because 0' = a X "■ is also a root of 1^, o*, o", etc Roots are named from the number of limes they must be taket to produce the given quantity. Thus, if the factors are taken twice each is a second root, or "square root." 3 is the square root of p, I is ihe square root of b'. If the factors are taken three times, eacV is a third root, or "cube root." 4 is the cube root of 64, becausi 4 y. 4 "A 4 = 64: a a \iiK cube root of a". The sign of root or the radical sign is v' ' thus ^/ ^ =- 2. f jy ^= j. When no inJex is wrilten over the raJioal sign, the square too is understood, j/a' stands for J/o' and is equal to a. \^a' z= a. (See also .■\rithmetic--Evolution.) The sign > means "bigger than," the sign < means "snialtei ALGEBRA. 53 EQUATIONS. An equation is an expression of equality between numbers or quantities. In an equation there may be one or more unknown quantities connected by algebraical signs with one or more known quantities. To solve an equation means to find all such values of the unknown quantities as will make the two members of the equation identical, if substituted for the unknown quantities in such equation. The degree of an equation is determined by the powers, or number of factors, of unknown quantities contained in any term Thus x+a^=b, x + a = b^ — 3x, are equations of the first de- gree, or "simple equations." jr* = a, ^ + ^jr + J = 7, are equa- tions of the second degree, or "quadratic equations." jr* = ^7, X* 4- ^^ + x + b = c-^Sd are equations of the third degree, or **cubic equations." SIMPLE EQUATIONS. To solve a simple equation we make use of the following prin- ciples : 1. The same quantity may be added to, or subtracted from, both members of an equation without destroying their equality. 2. The two members of an equation may be multiplied or divided by the same quantity without destroying the equality. Example: If a + x = c + d then a + x + b=ic + d + b and a + x — b=zc + d — b and 2 (a + x) =2 (c + d) a-\:x c + rf and = 2 2 By means of these principles the unknown quantities can be brought together in one member of the equation, and all the known quantities in the other member. Example: 7 + x = 12, Subtract 7 from both members. J" = /^ — 7» or ^ = 5. It will be seen that a term may be transposed from oiv^ tcv^vcv- bcr of an equation to the other by chatiging its sv^tv itoxtv -V \o — ^« or from — to -/-. The following rules are, tVieteioTe, o\>\.^ca«A. W^ solving a simple eqiatha : HENSURATION. Mensuration treaU of the nKUuranait of lioe^ s Tolumcs. A "point" is thst which hu only position, hot n A "line" is that which has only one dimension— that is, I but neither breadth nor thickness. The lines we dnw on paper are only symbols to represent the ideal lines. A "straight" or "right" line is a continuons line, p M r anin g the same direction at all points. A "curved" line is a tine of which no portion is straight "Parallel" lines are lines having the same direction and an equal distance from each other at all pcunts. An "horizontal" litw is to the horizon. A "perpendicular" line i; line so as to incline no mi Fie 1— Parallel Lino. Fiii' j-Pcipendienlar Liu. line parallel to the water level Of Kin. . -V..-rlicil Line. FiK. 5 -Angle. Fig. 6-Ki|?hl Aimltt. A "vertical" line is a straight line perpendicular to an hori- zontal line, or a line pointing to the center of the earth. An "angle" is the difference in direction of two lines proceed- ing from one common point. A "right" angle is formed by two lines pei^tidicolaT to etch M ENSURATION. 57 An "acute" angle is an angle less than a right angle. An "obtuse" angle is an angle greater than a right angle. A "surface" is that which has two dimensions — that is, length and breadth. A "plane" is a surface in which a straight line joining any two points of it will lie wholly in the surface. Fig. ;-Acd K. B— Oblusc AnRls Fid. 9— Trianile > a part of a plane surface bounded by s figure is the surface included within A "plane" figure straight or curved lines. The "area" of a plan the lines which bound i: A "triangle" is a plane figure bounded by three sides, composed of straight lines, and having three angles. A "right-angled" triangle has one right angle. An "obtuse-angled" triangle has an obtuse angle. An "acute-angled" triangle has all its angles acut An "equilateral" triangle has all three sides of c 6 = 10. Base = 2 X 30 -^ 10 = 6. 7 Fig. 19— Caiheiae. Fig. so— To find the area of a Fig. 21— Parallelogram. Triangle. **Polygons" are plane figures, having three or more sides. They are regular, or irregular, according to whether their sides are of equal length or not; and are named from the number of their sides or angles. A "triangle" is a polygon of three sides or angles. A "quadrilateral'* is a polygon of four sides or an^es. Quadrilaterals are divided as follows: "Parallelogram/' which is bounded by two pairs of parallel sides. 'Trapezoid/' having two sides parallel. 'Trapezium/* having no two sides paraWeV. •<' //» MENSURATION. A parallelogram with right angles is called a "rectangle." A rectangle whose sides are all equal is called a "square." A "pentagon" has five sides. A "hexagon" has six sides, heptagon" has seven sides. An "octagon" has eight sides. 59 L Fig. aa— Trapezoid. \r\ Fig. 23— Trapezium. Fig. 24— Rectangle. The "perimeter" is the boundary line or circumference of a plane figure. To find the area of a parallelogram, multiply the base by the height, which is the perpendicular distance of the base from the parallel side opposite. Area = ad X h. Fig. 25— Square. Fig. 26— Pentagon. Fig. 27— Hexagon. Fig. 28— Heptagon. In a rectangle, the height is equal to the side which is per- pendicular to the base. Hence, to find the area of a rectangle, multiply the length by the breadth or height. Area = ad X ab — ab X be. Fig. 39 — Octagon. a^ Fig. 30— To find the area of a Parallelogram. Fig. 31 — To find the area of a Rectangle. To find the area of a square, multiply the side by itself. Area = ad* = ab* =. be* = cd'. To find the area of a trapezoid, multiply the sum of the two parallel sides by the height or perpend\cu\2iT ^\^l^vvc^i. Xitv^^^'^ tifci^ !^n4 divide the product by 2. Area = (^^^ -V ^^^ ^ '*'' 6o MENSURATION. To find the area of a trapeaium, divide tt into triaiq^es hf drawing a diagonal, which is a line connecting two points of the figure not connected by a single side. Multiply the diagonal by the sum of the two perpendiculars falling upon it from the opposite angles, and divide the product by 2. Area = ac (be + df) -- 2. To find the area of an irregular polygon, divide the polygon into triangles and add the areas of the triangles. Area = A + B C. i See Fig. 35. pasre 62.) b, X Fiu. 31 — To find the area of a Square. Fig 33— To find the area of a Trapezoid. H»K> 34— To find the area (.•f a Trape/ium. To find the area of a regular polygon, multiply the length of a side by the perpendicular distance to the center, divide the product by 2. and multiply the quotient by the number of sides. (See Fig. 36.) ab X oc Area = X 6. } ROl'XD FIGURK<. — CIRCLE. The "circle'* is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, of which all points arc at an equal distance from a point within called the center. "Circumference" or "periphery" is the curved line which bounds the circle. "Diameter" is a straight line passing through the center and intersecting the circumference on both sides. a> abc. (Fig. 37.) "Radius" is a straight line, extending from the center to any point on the circumference, and is one-half the diameter, as bd. An "arc" of a circle is any part of its circumference, as cd. A "chord" is any straight line joining two points of the cir cumference. as ed. A "segment" is any part bounded by an arc and its chord, as A. A "sector" is any part of a circle bounded by an arc and its tfvo radii as B. A ''semicircle" is half a circle. MENSURATION. 6l dxauetess, circumferences and areas of circles (l to i50 diameter). Diam. Circum. 1 3.1416 2 6.2832 S 9.4248 4 12.6664 5 15.7080 6 18.850 7 21.901 8 ».133 28.274 10 31.416 U 34.558 12 37.609 18 40.841 14 43 982 15 47.124 10 50.265 17 53.407 18 56.540 19 59 600 20 62.832 21 65.973 22 69.115 28 72.257 24 76.398 25 78.540 26 81.681 27 84.823 28 87.965 29 91.106 80 94.248 81 97.389 8^ 100.53 83 108.67 81 106.81 35 100.96 36 118.10 87 116.24 88 119.38 89 \22.h2 40 125.66 41 128.81 42 131.95 43 135.09 44 138.23 45 141.37 46 144.51 47 147.65 48 150 80 49 158.94 50 157.08 Area. Dlam. Circum. 0.7854 51 160.22 8.1416 52 168.86 7.0686 58 166.50 12.5664 54 109.65 19.635 55 172.79 28.274 56 175.93 38.485 57 179.07 50.266 58 182.21 63.617 69 185.35 78.54C 60 188.50 95.038 61 191.64 113.10 62 194.78 132.73 63 197.92 153.94 61 201.06 176.71 65 204.20 201.06 66 207.34 226.98 87 210.49 254.47 63 213.63 283.53 69 216.77 814.16 70 219.91 346.36 71 223.05 380.13 72 226.19 415.48 73 229.34 452.39 74 232 48 490.87 75 235.62 530.93 76 238.76 572.56 77 241.90 615.75 78 245.04 660.52 79 248.19 706.86 80 251.33 754.77 81 261.47 804.25 82 257.61 %5.30 83 260.75 907.92 84 263.89 962. If 85 267.04 1017.88 86 270.18 1075.21 87 273 32 1131.11 88 276.46 1194.59 89 279.60 1256.64 90 282.74 1320.25 91 285.88 1385.44 92 289.03 1452.20 93 292.17 1530.53 94 295.31 1590.43 95 298.45 1661.90 96 301.59 1734.94 97 304.73 1809.56 98 307.88 1HK5.74 99 311.02 1963.50 100 314.16 Area. Diam. Circum. 2042.82 101 817.80 2128 72 102 820.44 2206.18 103 328.58 2290.22 104 826.78 2375.83 105 829.87 2463.01 106 888.01 2551.76 107 336.16 2642.08 106 389.29 2783.97 109 842.48 2827.43 110 346.58 2922.47 111 348.72 8019.07 112 851.86 3117.25 118 3.55.00 3216.99 114 358.14 3318.31 115 361.28 3421 . 19 116 864.42 3525.65 117 867.57 3631.68 118 370.71 8739.28 119 378.86 8818.45 120 876.99 3959.19 121 880.13 4071.50 122 383.27 4185.39 128 386.42 4300.84 124 889.56 4417.86 125 392.70 4536.46 126 395.84 4656.63 127 398.98 4778.36 128 402.12 4901.67 129 405.27 5026.55 130 408.41 5153.00 131 411.55 5281.02 132 414.09 5410.61 133 417.88 5541.77 134 420.97 5674.50 135 424.12 5806.80 136 427.26 5944.68 137 430.40 6082.12 138 433.54 6221.14 139 436.68 6361.73 140 439.82 6503.88 141 442.96 6617.61 142 416.11 6792 91 143 449 25 6939.78 144 4.52.39 7088.22 145 455 53 7238.23 146 458.67 7389.81 147 461.81 7542.96 148 461.96 7697.69 149 468.10 7a'>3.98 150 471 .24 Area. 8011.86 8171.28 8382.20 8494.87 8669.01 8824.78 8992.02 9160.88 9831.32 9503.32 0676.89 9852.03 10028.75 10207.03 10386.89 10568.32 10751.32 10935.88 11122.02 11309.73 11499.01 11689.87 11882.29 12076.28 12271.85 12468.98 12667.69 12867.96 13069.81 13273.23 13478 22 13684.78 13892.91 14102.61 14313 88 14526.72 14741 14957. 15174.68 1.5398.80 15614.50 16836.77 16060.61 16286.02 16513.00 16741.55 16971.67 1720:i.36 1743(5.62 17671.46 14 ,12 62 HfiNSURATION. A "quadrant" is a qnafter of a cirde» as C "^^.'^ A "tangent" is a straight line which touches the drde witlioiil intersecting it, as f g. Circumference of a drde = Diameter X 3>i4i6. Diameter of a circle = Qrcumference H- 3.1416. Area of a drcle = Square of diameter X OL7Q54; or = sqmure of circumference X 0.07958; or, = 14 diameter X ii dfctmifereiMe; or, = square of radius X 3.1416. Examples. — Diameter is 8 feet, what is drcumference? 8 X 31416 = 25.133 feet. Circumference is 28 feet, what is diameter? 28-7-3.1416 = 8.91 feet. Diameter is 8 feet, what is area? 8 X 8 X 0.7854 = 50.265 square feet Circumference is 28 feet, what is area? 28 X 28 X 0.07958 = 59-5^5 square feet. % diameter is 4 feet, % circumference 12.56, what is area? 4 X 1-.56 = 50.24 square feet. Radius = 4, then 4 X 4 X 3-i4i6 = 50.26 square feet "/ 0-^ Fig. -^5— To find the Fig. 36-To find area of an irregu- the area of a lar Polygon. regular Poly- Fig. 37— Circle and Fig. 38 — Trigonometri- gon Parts. cal Functions. To compute the area of a circle greater than any in the table. Divide the dimensions by 2, 3. 4, etc., if practicable, until it is reduced to a diameter to be found in the table. Take tabular area for this diameter, multiply it by the square of the divisor, and the product will be the area required. TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS. If we have a circle of the radius r and we consider this line pivoted in O, the center of the circle, while the other end of the radius forms the circumference, and at any position of the travel- ing radius given by the angle w, we erect a vertical line upon /Ae starting^ line Oa through the traveling polnl b oi lV\e taidius. i MENSURATIOK. 63 we font) a triangle obc, and the proportion of each two sides of it are the trigonometrical functions of angle w, called sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent, and written respectively "sin, cos, Ian and lanw = .i-c .- oc. cotw = oc : be. Further ab = are, oba = sector At 45° At 90 Triani JIM iin 1e P w = cos w, tan w = cot w = c'* is a right, rectangular prism, or a parallelopiped. having ail its sides equal squares, and all its angles right angles (Fig. 10). A ''cylinder" is any solid whose ends are parallel, similar and equal curved figures, and whose sections, parallel to the ends, are everywhere sirr.ilar and eijual to the ends (Figs. 11-13). ) K un.! L\i;:ilt r. K'.Iiptir.ii K< I'.iid Fi»{. i4->Rifiht Trt.inicular Pvr.iiiiid. A "right" cylinder is one whose ends are perpendicular to its sides (Fig>. II. 12): when otherwise, it is "oblique" (Fig. 13). The nio>t common form is the "right circular" cylinder, whose ends are circles (Fig. 11). Another f-^rm frequently used is the "right ellipiical" cylinder, whose ends are ellipses (Fig. 12). The altitude, or height, of a cylinder is the perpendicular dis- tance between the ends. A "p>Taniid" is any solid which has for its base a plane figure of any number of sides^ and for its sides vV^wt uXaii^ts m^t^m^ MENSURATION. 65 in onrpoint called ^'vertex" (Figs. 14-17). They are triangular, qvsdrangular, rectangular, etc., according as the basis is a triangle, quadrangle, rectangle, etc. When the base js a regular figure, the pyramid is said to be "regular" (Figs. 14 and 16), .L. Fip. X5— Oblique Fig. i6— Quad- Fiff. 17-Pen- Fig. 18— Right Fig. 19- Oblique Triangular raugular tagonal Circular Circular Pyramid. Pyramid. Pyramid. Cone. Cone. Otherwise "irregular" (Figs. 15 and 17.) The "altitude" or "height" of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance from vertex to base (Fig. 15). A "cone" is a solid, of which the base is a curved figure, most commonly a circle, from which the surface tapers uniformly to a point called "vertex" (Figs. 18 and 19). The "altitude" or b Fig. 20— Frustum of a Cone. Fig. 21 Frustum of a Pyramid. d Fig. 22— Ellipse. "height" of a cone is the perpendicular distance from vertex to base (Fig. 19). Any section of a cone parallel to the base gives a figure similar to the base, but smaller. A section of a cone or cylinder when cut obliquely by a plane passing through the curved surface, or "mantle," without inter- secting the base, is called an ellipse (Fig. 22") \ o, tt.TA.«\ ^ «i^^^^ lod; a c, long diameter or axis; b d, sboxl ^\^meltT ox ^-^x^. 5 66 ICSHSUKATION. To and the area of an Mpu, mnltiplr the ptodnct qfflhMMl- axes by 3*1416; or, tmiltiply the product of iti axes bf a9€|s4^*v Example.'-'Thit long axis is 12 feet, the short axis 8 feet, what iB**'^ the area? 6X4X3.1416 = 75,3984 tq. ft.; or, 12 X8Xa7«54 = 75-3004 sq. ft. To find the circumference of an ellipse, approxiiiiatetf* D d being the two axes, use the fdlowing fdmnda: Circumference =3. I4i6u/ — ^ — The "frustum" of a cone or of a pyramid (also c^M a truncated cone or pyramid) is that part which remains after cutting o£F the upper part by a plane parallel to the base (Fvs. 20 and 21). A "sphere" is a solid in which every point of the surface is at an equal distance from a point called the center. It is gen e filed by the revolution of a circle around its diameter. The surfooe of a sphere is = 12.5664 r* = 3.1416 diameter' = 0.3183 circnmfcr- ence" = diameter X circumference. The volume of a sphere is 4.1888 r* = 0.5236 diameter* = 0.01689 circumference* = % diameter X s^rea of surface. MENSURATION OF SURFACES. The unit of measure for surface is the "square foot." To find the surface of a right prism, ascertain the areas of both ends and all sides, and add them together. Areas of ends + areas of sides. Example. — The side of the end of a square prism (a rectangular box or bin) is 6 feet, length 15 feet. What is the surface? 6 X 6 = 36 = area of one end. X -2 = 72 = area of both ends; 6 X 15 = 90 = area of one side, X 4 = 360 = area of four sides; 72 -\- 360 = 432 square feet. To find the surface of a cube (a box of equal length, width and height), ascertain area of square forming its sides, and mol- tiply by 6. Area of end X 6. Example. — Side of square is 4 feet. What is the surface of the cnbe? 4 X 4 ^ t6 = area of square; 16 X 6 = ^ vvaax^ iw*.. MENSURATION. 6y To.fmd the surface of a cylinder, multiply the circumference of die end by the height, and add the areas of both ends. Height X circumference + 2 X area of end. Example, — Diameter of round cylinder is 18 inches, the height 72 inches. Find the surface. 18 X 31416 = 56.54 = circumference ; 56.54 X72=:^ 4070.88 ; Area of end is i8* X 0.7854 = 254.472 X 2 = 508.94 = areas of both ends. 4070.88 + 508.94 = 4579.82 square inches. When internal surface only is to be computed, omit adding areas of top end, or both ends, as the case may be. What is the height in an upright cylinder (round tank) is the length in a horizontal cylinder (storage vat). To find the surface of a. right pyramid, multiply the perimeter of the base by the slant height, measured along the slanting sur- face (that is, from the vertex to a point midway between two successive corners of the base), divide the product by two, and add to the quotient the area of the base. (Perimeter of base X slant height) -r- 2 + area of base. Example, — In a quadrangular pyramid a side is 8 feet, slant height 24 feet. What is the surface? 8 X 4 = 32 = perimeter of base ; (32 X 24) -f- 2 = 768 = area of sides. 8 X 8 = 64 = area of base ; 768 + 64 = 832 square feet. To find the surface of a frustum of a pyramid, add the perime- ters of both ends, multiply the sum by the slant height (that is. from a point midway between two successive corners of the base and a point midway between the two corresponding corners of the top), divide the product by 2, and add the areas of both ends. [(Perimeter of base + perimeter of top) X slant height] -4-2-1- area of base -|- area of top. Example. — In a frustum of a quadrangular pyramid the side of the base is 8 feet, of the top 6 feet, slant height 20 feet. What is the surface? 8X4 = 32; 6X4 = 24; 32-1-24 = 56 = sum of perimeters ; 56X20= ii20-i-2 = 560 = area of sides ; 8 X 8 = 64, area of base ; 6 X 6 = 36 = ^xz\ oi Vc>v\ s6o + 64 + 36 = 660 square ieftX.* 68 « MENSURATION. To find the surface of a right coue, nmltsply the of the base by the slant height (thit is, from the circumference of the baae), divide Ibe prodnct by a, and adi the area of the base. (Circumference of base X shmt height) -S- a + area of faaa^ Example,— Tht diameter of the base is 5 feet, die slant heigbt'15 feet. What is the surface? 5X31416= 15.708 = circumference of base;' iS7dBXi5 = 235-62-r-2= II7.81; 5' X 0.7854 = 19.63 = area oi base; 117.81 + 19.63 = 137445 square feet. To And the surface of a frustum of a cone, add the drcnm- ferences of the two ends, multiply the sum by the slant beii^ (that is, from a point in the circumference of the base to a corresponding point in the circumference of the top, the line so drawn to He in a plane perpendicular to the base), divide the product by 2, and add the areas of the two ends. [ (Circumf. of base + circumf. of top) X slant height] -f- 3 -{- area of base -|- area of top. Example. — The diameter of the base of a frustum of a cone is 10 feet, of the top 8 feet, slant height 12 feet. What is the surface? 10 X 31416 = 31.416 = circumference of base ; 8 X 3.1416= 25.1 ji = circumference of top; (31.416 + 25.132) X 10 = 565.48 -r- 2 = 282.74; 10" X 0.7854 = 78.54 = area of base. 8" X 0.7854 = 50.265 = area of top. 282.74 + 78.54 + 50.263 = 4". 545 square feet. MENSURATION OF VOLUMES. The unit of measure of capacity is the cubic foot. To find the volume of a pristn or parallclopiped, multiply the length by the breadth and the depth, or, the area of the base hf the height (length). Length X breadth X depth. Example. — The three dimensions of a straight box arc : Length 6 ft., breadth 2 ft., depth 4 ft. What is the volume? 6 X 2 X 4 = 48 cubic ft. To Hnd the volume of a cube. This applies to boxes, bins, etc, where length, breadth and height are equ«il. The volume is the cube of the dimension ; that is, multiply the dimension twice by itself. MENSURATION. * 69 Bxompt€,—The side of a cube is 24 inches. What is the volume ? ^ itffoT 24 X 24 X 24 = 13824 cu. in., or 13824 -^ 1728 = 8 cu. ft. To find "the sise of a box or bin to accommodate a required capacity. First, reduce busheb to cubic feet; then, if a bin of equal length, width and height (that is, a cube) is wanted, extract the cube root of the number of cubic feet. The result is the inside dimension of the box. Example, — Required capacity, 500 bu., dimensions of bin to be equal. 500 bu. = 625 cu. ft ; ^'625 = 855 = 8 ft. 6i in. If the bin is to be square, but not a cube, one of the dimensions must be given. £;raif»^/e.-^Required capacity, 500 bu. ; depth, 6 ft. 3 in. 500 bu = 625 cU. ft. ; 625 -T- 6 25= loo; \/ioo = »o The length and width of the bin is 10 feet Example, — Required capacity, 500 bu. ; side. 10 ft. 500 bu. = 625 cu. ft. ; 625 :io X 10 = 6.25 = 6 ft. 3 in. If the bin is to be simply rectangular, but neither cubic nor square, two Of the dimensions must be given. Example. — Required capacity, 500 bu. ; length, 12 ft. ; depth, 6 ft. 500 bu. = 625 cu. ft. ; 625 :i2 X 6 = 8.68 = 8 ft. 8% in. To find the volume of a pyramid or cone, multiply the area of the base by one-third the perpendicular height. Area of base X % height. Example, — ^The base of a rectangular pyramid is 3 feet by 4 feet, the height 6 feet. What is the volume? 3 X4 = 12; 12 X -= 24. or 3X4 X/)^ 2^ ^^ fj 3 3 Example, — The diameter of the base of a cone is 3 feet, height 12 feet. What is the volume? 7 068 X 12 Area of base = 7.068 ; t = 28,272 cu. ft. To Und the volume of a cylinder. This is the shape of most water tanks, mash tubs, etc. Multiply the area of the base or end by the perpendicular height (or length, in case of an horizontal cyUudetV Area of base X height. /O MENSURATION. Example. — The diameter of a round cylinder is 3 feet, th cheig l l t 12 feet. What is the volume? ***- Area of circle of 3 feet diameter = 7.06B; 7.06B X 13 = 84^1* cubic feet. To find the capacity of a cylinder in gattoms, nmhiply area of bottom in square inches by length in inches, and dMde by J31. Example. — The diameters of an elliptical horizontal cylinder are 8 feet and 6 feet, the length 12 feet. What is the capacity? 96 72 — X — = 48 X 36 = 1728 X 3.1416 = 5426.68 sq. in. 2 2 5428.68 X 144 = 781730 cu. in. 781730 -7- 231 = 3384.1 gal. CAPAOTIES OF TANKS, TUBS, CISTERNS, CASKS, BINS, The formulae for rectangular prisms or parallelopipcds, cniws. pyramids, cones, cylinders, frustums of pyramids or cones, apply to all the boxes and vessels of regular geometrical shape wed in the brcwer>'. For those of irregnlar shape, approximate wodc- ip.g fornuilse are given. For calculating capacities, take inside measurements. JV or king formula for calculating capacity of a round tank: (Diameter in feet) *X depth in feet X S.878 = gallons; (di- ameter in feet) *X depth in feet X 0,1865 = barrels of 31% gal. Example. — Diameter of tank 6 feet, depth 10 ft 36 X 10 X 5.878 = 2116.09 gal. 36 X 10 X 0.1865 = 67.14 barrels of 31% gal. To find the volume of a frustum of a pyramid or cone. This i> the shape of most tubs, tank's and cisterns used in the chip cel- lar, fermenting cellar, etc. 1. »3 perpendicular height X (area of top 4- area of base + |/arca of top X area of base) ) 2. For conical vessels only (approximate value) : /Top diam. -^ bottom diam.>j«^ ^ ^^ y ^^.^^^ or. Top area -4- bottom area ^^ height MENSURATION. 7I Example. — The inside measurement of a fermenting tub are: Bottbm diameter, 10 feet; top diameter, 9.5 feet; height, 7 feet What is the cai>acity? I- K X 7 X (78.54 + 70.88 + /78.54 X70.88 = 2.33 X ('49-42 -f 74.42) = 521 547 cu. ft. 2. ( ?J±i?) X 3. 14 X 7 = 522.2 cu. ft. ^ 70.88 + 78.54 X 7 ^ 5„.^7 cu. ft. Abridged working formula for calculating the capacity of round tanks in barrels of 31 gallons: 1. Reduce all measurements to inches ; add diameters of bot- tom and top, and divide by 2, to obtain mean diameter. Square the mean diameter, multiply by o.oooii, and the product by the height. Example. — Bottom diameter, 10 feet; top diameter, 9.5 feet; height, 7 feet. I20-Hi4_^j^. 1 1 7« =13689X0.00011 = 1.505X84=126 42bbl. 2 2. Reduce all measurements to feet; find mean diameter as above. Square the mean diameter, multiply by 0.19, and the product by the height. Example. — Same dimensions as above. 10+9.5 _ ^^g . g y5«__. Q5,o6 X o 19 = 18.06 X 7= 126.42 bbl. 2 Manufacturers of tanks commonly calculate the capacities of tanks in the following way, the taper of the tanks being so slight — about % inch to the rising foot — that the difference between the height of the vessel and the length of the side is ignored. Square the mean diameter of the tank in inches, multiply by the length of the stave in inches and the product by 0.0034 1 the re- sult is the capacity in gallons. To obtain the length of the stave for this purpose, take off 2 inches from the actual extreme length, then take off 5 inches each for top and bottom for 2-inch lumber, and 6 inches each for 3-inch lumber. (Mean diameter)* X stave X 0.0034 = ga\.', s\.vit ■=- ^K.V>aa^ ]eogrtb-'2 In, —2X5 (or 2X6) in. /a imsmuumxii. EsampU.^NLtmn diameltr u lt» Ml kagfli of Htve inch Imnber. Find the captci^. Length of stave i6 feet, lew 2 hadba, ten aXS.indMKsIS fed Hence, 144 *X 180 Xoloc^= 13960431 gaLs= 40913(9 beer temit. r/fifl^cv^ vertex being cut off by the trap at the \>o\lom. CAPAcmes OP < i^rr Uli.1 "dh: Hisr TT In Ubls Id Bblt. ID Bbli. In Mk. Jo. Id "»~'~ 0.7» 150.6 ta.Hi 180 .S "isM tl9.t MS 1 OM lU. ».0I Pl.R 1 0£ ISIS 19.« Ktl sii!» sbIst i.«i IM. m. u!i 111. W.11 «: les !«:» x'n IMS 43.1 11) .ft H.tS la.i aa. 1091 lU. n.Hi til. W.M w^ 15 la.B w.m ISIS 31 01 IBSiS m!si m.ft ».» «s s:si l.S a). a 1M. M9t tl«. • J7 SI. &.W St.N isi:s ViK IM.S ».1K K. , I'.'n la. tD.9l IB. ai! nin a. , R..i. %.&| -". la.t at. 73 lA.t 4s's ■u.t «.it n.s : W. : im' x'.a (a.iu tH. e!a n'-a lU.S tt.l4 iw!s tie.ft M41 wis AK bt" 'S' l' ^ tIT. n.K «T, 9!.S ist!s' a!s iin!t m:« IIT.ft «.■ «I.S w. 1S8. 1 K.8B IW. 118. *«, W.& ia.6 iL.7! IH.S 31.01 (S:78 II8.S «!n «.& «,1- w. , t:i 190. x.r. ik! 47.01 IW. M.11 w. fl.a W.!i ii!s a!oT lae.s, sam IN.B a.4i 8W.5 s;s4 1«D. ! ».« IDC TO. IW^a i.ai i3>:s leo.s: 31 w a>!s niw ■M.S (I..S; I.J: K^.V m'. (x'oi ai. 84.fr V- IIU S i«rsi»i:s m.i 4H.M M.ST fi.a IM. Iftl MM ss' 84. M i!. fl.ra IM.fi s.ie 13J.S 99JI I«i S M.Tl ives (h'ti za.G 8S.1S W.S «.«: lUS. i.« isa. 2a. ai les M.« ss. 13. itn.s im.s SiAl im.S' ».ii l«t!5 4e>2»i n.B 7-1 liM.. l!-J! IM. 49. S3 2S4! stios :!■. 4 3- imis ».« IMS 49 79 M.O T(.» !■* 1». ■H.SK IM. as.* it«. »! l«.ii 1K..^ it.ifl S0!3U w!92 ra.K i'.!t liM i.rit IX. iwi! so.ss s!nl B7.S T«. lii».S IM.fi iwis i«t D IM.S .SO.Kl SM-S M-S isr. «:7ii 1*7. ».70 §?.' m.^ 137.S sia- 107. .1 si.ii; Min K7,« 9.M 77 .S l*. s S 1».. 3AIM 1i»i. 31 M S1.S9 K.41 IS' IW.n IW.S 3; ST M.M 80. Tl 7B.S M. k.a IN. »:« W. a; w 81.01 T» im.f, s.n. I».S is. HI iai.i> sr.M [M!!> k'.3< satis 80.x 7»-S IW. s>.n im. ».(i! K.tM 80 .M H). x.v^ iwia is.se 170:-, w,* »>!s 80. at f.Xt 931 IM.W 1:1. w.w S31. ma S'*. AM W.»< 171 ,i Sl.71 surs sit:4i n.u £1* :M.S.-I S.1.T0 ^! n.n «i. Hit; l«.S ai.w iK.s »:i. iw's SJ.flT 2«.S TI.I4 IIS tiW M.«l an. M.£< sn. 71.44 S-. • m mh «.« iTsis »:« j,as M.M s»,s TI.75 WR It,!" 7.ia N(. 174. SI.M s». n.os e-ai 7,M «■(< 174 !. llMK sa^M SMS Tt.i; l.W 7 « IT": 17.1. (II. »l Af>. SS.31 SB. 7!.a* L-TM ITS..'. *..A: Mi s».a 7t.9S »!iv; IW a*tf. IT", lii,7rt airt. H.ifli sw. 73.10 xa. fl r T«l 3> is a«.R 3M.S 71.81 Mi -J8 J4 S»7. w IIT-S iHW it:.s (ij; T4!ll -;« ->M ■iw!' 71. M ».(« srisi III! «iU 20 ii IT»' (SIT STB.' 5b.' nm a* 5 ST.Tii Stt.'i n.m ».h IX I.™ 2(0. Ti.tn /ew:^ MENSURATION. 75 Bstmple, — In a bin with hopper the box is 5 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, 4' ft. 9 in. deep. The hopper (pyramid) is a ft 6 in. deep. Wlmt is the capacity? Vol. of box = 5 X 5 X 475 = "875 cu. ft. 5 X 5 X 3.50 Vol. of pyramid = = 62.50 cu. ft. 3 Capacity of bin and hopper = 181.25 cu. ft. = 146.16 bu. To find the volume of a combined round cylinder and cone that is, the capacity of a sleep tank with hopper and similar ves- sels (approximate formula). Add the volumes of the cylinder and of the cone. 6 _J , ^ 6. Fig. 23— S<]uare Box with Pyramid. (Bin with Hopper.) Fig. 34— Round Cylinder with Cone (Steep Tank with Hopper.) Example. — In a steep tank, the tank proper (cylinder) measures 6 ft. diameter and 4 ft. depth, the hopper (inverted cone) 2 ft. depth. What is the capacity? Vol. of cylinder = 6* X 0.7854 = 28.2744 X 4 = 1 13.0976 cu. ft. Vol. of cone = 6* X 0.7854 X % = 18.8496 cu. ft. * Capacity of steep tank and hopper = 131.9372 cu. ft. = 106.4 bu. The brew-kettle is a vessel of wholly irreg^ar shape, from a geometrical point of view. Its shape varies according to the requirements of the brewery, sometimes being broader and more shallow, and again deeper and more slender. The measurements given in the subjoined table are not intended to give the net contents of kettles, but the net brewing capacity, according to the methods customary among copptTSTiv\V!d%, NiVCvcJcw "ax^. "s^tossrSv. eotirely empirical Thus, for a ico-YjatteV VoXCifc, ^5o» \*3JCw» 76 UENSUKATIOK. ^ diameter (B) ia 8 feet 6 indwt, Oe Iai|«M diameter (Ai^T*^ feet 6 inchea. This give* a mcu diameter (rf g feet 6 indm. The heiglit of the shell (D) ii 6 feet TnatJnc thg TCMd ISn a nc. It-Oral Cuk. cylinder of the mean diameter of 9 feet 6 inchet, the c^Mci^ is (9' 6')' X 07854 X 6 = -PS-ag coWc feet = ioa.73 barrda of 31 gallons. The bottom below B is not fipired at all, altowance being made for boiling down. Out of a copper of this size some brew- ers will tarn out 1 15 barrels, some 1 10, some only 100. Architects and coppersmiths generally specify kettles large enough to allow for all methods of brewing. It is possible to get approximate figures on the contents of a Icetlle by talcing inside measurements at A and B and the height " ^od ffgnriag as above; then adding thereto the coiAtiAi dl ftit MENSURATION. 77 bottpfil calculated as a spherical segment, according to this for- mula: Square the radius (or % diameter) of circle B, multiply by 3; to the product add the square of the height (C) of the segment; multiply this sum by the height (C), and this last product by 0.5236. The formula accordingly for the whole kettle would be, for inside measurements: (^^)'X 0.78:4 X D +[(4-)* X3 + C«] X C X o.5»36. There is no way of calculating the capacity of a kettle, or of any other vessel, for that matter, with mathematical accuracy. The only strictly accurate test is to fill the vessel with water and measure its contents by a meter. Customary dimensions and capacities of kettles, fermenting and stock tubs, round and oval casks: ROUND CASKS. Barrels. A K C Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. 90 6 6 6 6 40 6 2 7 6 2 60 7 7 10 7 60 7 6 8 2 7 « 70 7 10 8 6 7 10 80 8 2 9 8 2 90 8 6 9 3 8 6 100 9 9 7 9 no 9 4 9 11 9 4 120 9 6 10 3 9 6 130 9 6 10 7 9 6 150 9 8 11 10 8 170 10 11 6 10 200 11 13 11 OVAL CASKS Barrels. A B C D Ft. In. Ft In. Ft. In. Ft. In. .'K) 6 H 8 6 8 6 8 101) 8 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 1(« 7 rt 10 6 9 3 9 3 125 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 150 9 2 10 4 9 3 9 8 170 9 8 10 7 9 8 9 8 175 10 6 11 9 1 9 1 186 10 « 12 10 10 200 10 2 11 4 10 2 10 2 250 11 13 4 11 4 \ \V \ 312 / 10 6 14 Vi. ^ 8o WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ~ The tiandaid in common commerd^ use in ihe UDilM.5txte is the "avoirduiiois" or "commercial" pound, which confaint 7,000 grains snd is pracdcally idcnlical with the Brilish avoit- dnpois ponod, which is the weighl of 37,7013 cubic inches o( distilled water in air at 39.2* F. wiUi a baronieier ol 3c inches. While the pound is ihe iheoretical standard, the pnctical anil is the grain, which is equal in Troy, apoihecaries' and avoirdu- pois or commeccial weight. WEASunes of capacity. The measuTCs o! capacity in use in the United Stales hare no exact equivalent in the measures of any other cotintry. Wlule many names arc derived from the British, and, in some easu, are identical wilh the same, their values, as a mie, are qutlc differem. The units of capacity are the "gallon" for liquids and dte "bushel" for dry measure. The "standard liquid gallon" of the Untied States contains 231 cubic inches and is equal to 8.3389 pounds avoirdupoiB tA pure water at 39,2' F. at a barometer of 30 inches. The "half peck" or "dry gallon" contains 268.8 cubic inches. The "iio- perial gallon" of Great Britain contains 277.274 cubic incbes, being the volume occupied by 10 pounds of water weighed in air at 62° P. and 30 inches barometric presEure, and is evial to about 1,2 United States liquid gallons. The "standard struck bushel" of the United States contahis 3150.42 cubic inches (the old British Winchester struck bushel), or 1.2445 cubic feet, or 77.6274 pounds avoirdupois of pure water at 39.2° F. It is a cylindrical measure i8t4 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep. A "heaped bushel," which is like the foregoing, wilh a heaped tone not less than 6 inches high, is equal to iVi struck bushels. The "imperial bushel" of Great Britain contains 2216.192 cdImc inches, or 1,3837 cubic feel. The United Slates "standard barrel" contains 3iVj gallons. The United States "beer barrel," according to the Internal Revenue laws of the United States, contains 31 gallons even. This should be used to measure water tanks, coppers, coolen; rtr„ 3s well as chip casks, fermenting tubs, etc. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 8l . -^ METRIC SYSTEM. The metric system is compulsory in France, Germany, Austria Hungary, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Sweden. Switzerland, Servia, Roumania, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela and the Argentine Republic. It is legalized but not com- pulsory in the United States (act of 1866), Great Britain, Den-* mark and Japan. In the United States, however, and in Great Britain, both custom and the greater convenience of com putation — aside from notation — in the duodecimal over the deci- mal system have prevailed to maintain the old customary stand- ards in common use. The Federal government has furnished exact metric standards to the several states. The metric sj^s- tem is used extensively in scientific work, as it requires no adaptation of different national standards, and thus facilitates the mutual exchange of scientific research in different countries The metric unit is the meter, which was intended to be the ten-millionth part (77-— -—- ) of the earth's quadrant, i. e., of that part of a meridian from cither pole to the equator. After this length was obtained and a set of standards prepared and deposited in the archives of France, it was discovered that errors were made in the calculations. Nevertheless, the standards were left undisturbed. The metric measures of surface and capiicity are the squares and cubes of the meter, its decimal fractions or multiples. The metric unit of weight is the gram, being the weight of a cubic centimeter of pure water at 39.2* F. By convention among the leading nations of the world an international bureau of weights and measures has been created, with its seat near Paris, which has prepared two ingots of pure platinum-iridium. From one of these a number of standard kilograms have been made, and from the other a number of standard meter bars, both derived from the standards in the French archives. Certain of these copies were preserved as international standards, and others were distributed among the contributory governments. Those sent to the United States arc in the possession of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. These copies of the international prototype mcltt ^xvd VWo^x-axcv Vi\^ the basts of official metrology in the United S\.^V.^%. e 82 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Table of contributors to the International Bnreau of IVitgkf^^d Measures, Countries. Popala- tlon. Ar^ntine Con- . federation. Austria HuHKary i Itelgium France ! Germany i Italy I Norway Peru Portugal Roumanla 2,000.C00 30.13n.383 15.5Q8.!i7S 5.835.45.2 lt«)8.803 45.191.173 28,'(».«30 1.900,000 3,009.945 5.400.000 5.000,000 Metric sys- tem. ObLlntor>- Do. Do. Do. Da Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Coontrlet. Serrlm Spain Swltserland Venezuela. ..... Great BriUln and Ireland... 9 W OQen ..aa*. •• Turkey United States... Denmark Japan Russia Popala- tlon. 1.600.000 obiigRtonr. Si.4Ga.46B t.ai,787 1.781, IM 86.112.096 4.577,781 S2.084.000 50,000.000 1.080,625 87.011.001 9S.I44.4M Metric aya- Do. Do. Permlaslre Da Da Do. Non-metric Da Da NoTB.— The amount of eacb coantrf*s contribution to the malntenaiiee of the International Bureau has been determined by the population as given above and by the rating Indicated by obligatory, i>ennlsslve, and non-metric. The figures do not show the present |K>puratlon. The relation of the South and Central American states to the metric system is shown in the following table: Argentine Re|».. Bolivlii Bni/11 Chile Colnmbiu L'o^tii Kioa Ei'iiatlnr Giiati'ni:r.;t llavti Popula- ilon. _ 3..K>il.0iV •i.StW.OOH Remarks. Ci 11 1 ana: Ilri'l-li Kr.'jn'h . . . . iJii^fli , H'Mnl!:ni'< >I«'xiio NU-ar.i::ij:i Para-tia\ . INtm SaUaiior San l)4)niirii:o. ('ni:siiny W'tif^iit-.n fiiRt -.Ml*'. UNI (■II li.m lIlMl (MX) Metrli* i«'m o»»lijraiory : the law of 1887 pre- M'rit»e>"|H.*naltle'* for :hen>e of any other. Coin and cu-ioni-hi>U'ie welirhtN metric; old Cas- tlllan wfiirhts and measure** in common uite. Metrio \V'.tem obllL'aiory : ohl wei^rhts and meas- \\xy< \\-^y\\ In the Interior. Morrlc xyNtcm leiral slnct^ IWH. Mi.'irlo -^x.-ivm obiiiratorx. Mftrii- ^yNtvm obliinitory »; I noe Antrust. 1885. but lfj:aUzvil '.ince 1858. M-!.-io -vsioni obliinitory. Mc'.ric sUti'm usctl In oolnaiie and In land meas- ■irv. uititT \vt'iL'ht'« ami nn-asnres in common ll-.!-. Mi-irii' (.'oinairo. uld Frenoh wei^'ht sand measures '.II '.'.M'. Hriii\ -.itin. MrtrltToinau'f.o'Jirrw i^- mt-tr:)* <> ^.tem not In use. .M«^irl«- -y-.tfin If-'a-i/.i'il anil oMi'-'iitorx in all gor- ernrn«'ni :r;iii'«:i«'; ion^. i}\y\ wnirnt"' and meas- II rr-. in U'io. M».trio -.y-.ti in l»--'a!I/fd. ^ir. oM \xt'iirlit«i and meas- II rt'"' iri M-e. Mr'.ric «.\'.;«ni o'»;ii.';i*«ir\ . ■■ :iiH l.lt .Mil ■«■ Ml :Sh J, :uj« ^ .«u M Si H :!!S V Sf JMl :IS M MM :•!» JM ^ :!mI ■« ;S t :i « £b H iBS X JM u-n iirS M» :iiii tt s H 1 1 "11 n S "™ s iln 9 "K '5b M n-R H M :«■ K :•». M N .«■ :mS -at .Ml n-B IIM N X Sj ■ta !iIS :™ MM :SgB Mm »s .»u N jS H :™ >< S?. " ilR »* ss n-n :!iil JM :5m Mm i^ i X H X H " «s ■E * S la ,.-. SURFACE OR SQUARE MEASURE. 144 squares inches (sq. in.) = i square foot. sq. ft. y square feet — I square yard. sq. yd. = i.»)6 square inchc*. 40 sruarc {loki, or rods — 1 rood. joJu sQuare yards, or 272^ square feel =: i square rod. or perch. J?, rrf, P. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 8^ 4 rp^s, or lo sq. chains, i6o square rods, or 4840 sq. yards, or 43*560 sq. feet = I Acre, A. 640 acres = i square mile, sq. mi. sq. mi. A. sq. rd. sq yd. sq. ft. sq. in. I = 640 = 102,400 = 3,097,600 .r= 27,878,400 = 4,014,489,600 100 square feet = i square (Arch, and Build, measure). CIRCULAR MEASURE. 60 seconds, " = i minute, ' 60 minutes, ' = i degree, ' 90 degrees. ' = i quadrant. 360 degrees, ' = circumference. A circular inch is the area of a circle i inch in diameter = 0.7854 square inch; i square inch = 1.2732 circular inches. LAND MEASURE (SURVEYORS* SQUARE MEASURE). 625 square links (sq. 1.) = i pole, P. 16 poles = I square chain, sq. ch. 10 square chains = i acre, A. 640 acres = i square mile, sq. mi., or section. 160 acres = i quarter section. 36 square miles (6 mi. square) = i township, Tp. I township = 36 square miles = 23,040 acres. MEASURES OF CAPACITY OR VOLUME. CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURES. 1728 cubic in. = i cubic ft., cu. ft. cu. yd. cu. ft. cu. in. 27 cubic ft. = I cubic yd., cu. yd. i = 27 = 46.656 LIQUID MEASURE. gal. qt. pt gi. 4 gills (gi.) =1 pint, pt. i = 4 = 8 = 32 2 pints = I quart, qt. 1 = 2 = 8 4 quarts = i gallon, gal. 1 = 4 Cu. ft. = 62.5 pounds (lb.) of water. Gallon (gal.) = 231 cu. in. =:= 8.34 lbs. water. To reduce cubic inches to gallons, divide by 231 ; cu. in. ~ 231 = gal. To reduce gallons to cubic inches, multiply by 231 ; gal. X ^31 = cu. in. To reduce gallons to cubic feet, divide \jv *JA^- "^^ \^^>a^^^ cubic feet to gallons, multiply by 7.4I8. 86 WEIGHTS AMD 1UASUBB& uiiiiiD stAns GAumn ui cimc rr. OaDOiis. Coble Ik Ol... ciMBn. <»-. — ^5: .184 J87 .401 .885 .688 .808 .986 1.089 ijm L887 M68 • IMMi ayBOB 4J0B0 fj900 7^008 fjOOO MyS 181681 48UM8 884.781 80a468 «i5.78« 1,008.4«4. 1,808.188 f-fflffi 4,flOij088 7,680.608 8j808j068 8Lj000u608 68UILf BK7«1 688^60U 88Mnji 88i.1«» 10 m—f-rm 1 . - CUBIC FSET Ur UMIBED STAHS GALLOH& Cubic Ft OaikMM. OMcWt, QMIOML OttbtoFk OflHOMU* 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.75 1.50 8.81 8.99 8.74 80 60 90 80 90 •74.0 4«L8 888.6 568.4 8.068 8^868 tojm aojooo WfiOO «5u 74gM3 14BJ8I6L4 a8l^41&i 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 4.49 5.S4 5.96 6.78 7.48 lOp 900 800 400 500 748.0 1,496.1 8.844J8 8,902.8 3,740.8 40.600 60,000 60,600 70,000 80,000 896iJ888j8 874J086J 448^J fl88jB8l8 866,4418 8 8 4 6 6 14.96 8il.44 S9.92 37.40 44.88 600 .TOO 800 •800 .000 4.486.8 5.8S6.4 5.964.4 6,7».5 7,480.5 90,600 100,000 800,000 800,000 400,000 678.8«lT 748,6818 1,496,168l8 8.844,]56.T 7 8 9 10 80 58.56 50.81 67.83 74.80 119.6 8.000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 14,961.0 22.441.6 89.»».1 87,400.6 44,883.1 600,000 600.000 700,000 800,000 900,000 8,740JB8i( 4.46ejlM 5,886,8688 5,984.418.t 6,78;!,467a 80 40 2»4.4 899.8 7,000 52,368.6 ljOOO.000 7,480,518.0 Beer barrel (bbl.) contains 31 gal. = 4.14 cu. ft. = 7,161 cn 11 To reduce cubic feet to beer barrels, divide by 4.14; cu. ft - 4.14 = beer bbl. To reduce beer barrels to cubic feet, multiply by 4.14; bc4 bbl. X 4- 14 = cu. ft. Cubic foot = 0.24 beer bbl.; cubic inch = 0.00014 beer bbl. Barrels and hogsheads are fixed measures only for the article on which an Internal Revenue tax is levied, as beer, whisky, eb For ordinary commercial purposes they are not fixed measures. A hogrsbead of beer is two barrels, or \\o\ \.o t^^c^t^ (i-x^ ^S!i^^ac i , WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 87 The-United States beer barrel, under the Internal Revenue law, a^ compared with other measures, is as follows: Beer Barrels. Bushels. Cubic Feet. Gallon<*. Cubic Inches. 1. 0328 0.2413 0.0823 3.33 1. 0.804 0.1074 4.144 1.244 1. 0.1387 31. 0.809 7.47« 1. 7161. 2150.4 1728. 231. FOR aSTERNS, TANKS, RESERVOIRS, ETC. 31% gal. = I barrel, bbl. 63 gal. = I hogshead, hhd. hhd. bbl. gal. qt. pt. I r= 2 = 63 = 252 r= 504 I = 3iMr = 126 = 252 For hot water as for cold, barrel of 31 gal. = 7161 cu. in. = 4.14 cu. ft. ; I cu. ft. = 0.24 bbl. The contraction of volume of water or wort in cooling from boiling to greatest density is 4.5 per cent. To find the volume that boiling hot water or wort will occupy when so cooled, multiply the volume of the hot fluid by 95% and divide by 100, or multiply by 0.955. United States standard barrel contains 31% gal. = 4.21 cu. ft. (in practice often figfured roughly at 4.% cu. ft.). To reduce cubic feet to United States standard barrels, divide by 4.21 (roughly 4.25) ; cu. ft. -^ 4.21 = standard bbl. To reduce United States standard barrels to cubic feet; multiply by 4.21 (roughly 425) ; standard bbl. X 421 = cu. ft. apothecaries' fluid measure. 60 minims, or drops = i fluid drachm. 8 fluid drachms = i fluid ounce. 16 fluid ounces = i pint. 8 pints = I gallon. To reduce United States liquid measures to British, of the same denomination, divide by 1.2; or to reduce British to United States, multiply by 1.2. The British Imperial gallon contains 277.274 cubic inches, or is equal to 1.2 United States gallon. MISCELLANEOUS FLUID MEASURES. Tierce = 42 gals. Butt of sherry — 108 gals. Pipe of port =115 gals. Pipe of Teneriffe = 100 gals. Butt of Malaga = 105 gals. Puncheon of Scotch whisky = iio-Jjo gzh. Puncheon of brandy : gals. Puncheon of rum = gals. Hogshead of brandy gals. HogsVxead ol d?ii^ -=■ : 110-120 lOO-lIO = 55-60 88 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ^^ •. A hogshead is ^, k qnsrter M, an octaYe % of a pipe, ^ytt or puncheon. "^ . DRY MEASURE. United States bushel (bu.) = 2150.42 cu. in = 1.2445 en. ft. = 77.6274 pounds avoirdupois of pure water at 39.2* F. ; i en. ft = 0.80356 struck bushel. To reduce cubic feet to bushds, divide by 1*24 ; cu. ft -h i*.24 ac bu. For practical purposes subtract from cubic feet one-fifth of their number to obtain bushels ; cu. f t — % cu. ft. = bu. To reduce bushels to cubic feet, multiply by 1.24; bo. X I*^ = cu. ft. For practical purposes add to the number of bnshds one-fourth of their number to obtain cubic feet; bu. + K bo. — cu. ft. The half-peck or dry gallon contains 268.8 cubic inches. 2 pints (pt.) = I quart, qt 8 quarts = i peck, pk. 4 pecks = I bushel, bu. bu. pk. qt pt cn.hL I = 4 = 32 =r 64 = 215042 I = 8 = 16 = 537-6 1=2= 67.2 A heaped bushel contains 2747.715 cubic inches. The dry flour barrel = 3.75 cu. ft. = 3 struck bushels. The dry barrel is not a fixed measure, however, and barrels vary con- siderably in size. The imperial bushel of Great Britain contains 2216.192 cu. in., or 1.2837 cu. ft. To reduce United States drj' measures to British, of the same denomination, divide by 1.032; to reduce British into United States, multiply by 1.032. COMPARATIVE TABT.E OF MEASURES OF CAP.VCITV. rii. In. Cm. In. , On. In. Cu. lo. in One tn (»nc in Ono 1 In One Gallon. Qiiarl. Pint. GIH. L1; 7^, Dry mvasiire -JrtS^ OT^ »:<.{ 8 J SHIPPING MEASURE. 100 cu. ft. = I register ton. U. S. shipping ton = 32.143 U. S. bu. = 31.16 Imper. bu. = 40 cu. It ^ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 8y Brit)0h'^8hipping ton = 3375 U. S. bu. = 32719 Imper. bu. = 42 , - cu. ft. ' WOOD MEASURE. In measuring wood, a pile of wood cut 4 ft. long, piled 4 ft. high and 8 feet on the ground, is called a cord. 16 cubic feet = i cord foot, cd. ft. 8 cord f^et, or 128 cubic feet = i cord, cd. In board measure, boards arc assumed to be one inch in thick- ness. To obtain the number of feet board measure (B. M.) of a board, or piece of square timber, multiply length in feet, breadth in feet and thickness in inches, I board ft. = i ft. long, i ft. wide, i inch thick. 12 board ft. = i cu. ft. Board feet -h 12 = cu. ft. Cu. ft. X 12 = board ft. To find surface in square feet, all dimensions being in feet, mul- tiply length by breadth. When either dimension is in inches, multiply as above, and divide the product by 12. When all di- menions are in inches, multiply as above and divide by 144. To find volume of square cut timber, all dimensions being in feet, multiply length, breadth and depth, the result will be the volume in cubic feet. When one dimension is in inches, multiply as above, and divide by 12. When two dimensions are in inches, multiply as above and divide by 144. When all three dimensions are in inches, multiply as above and divide by 1728. To find the volume of round timber. — When dimensions are in feet, multiply the mean girth by the diameter, divide by 4, and multiply by the length. The result gives the cubic feet. When the length is in feet, girth and diameter in inches, proceed as above, and divide the product by 144. When all dimensions are in inches, proceed as in the first case, and divide the product by 1728. STONE AND MASONRY MEASURE. Masonry and stone are measured by the cubic foot and by the perch, or, superficially, by the square foot or square yard. A perch is 16% ft. long, 1V2 ft. wide, i ft. high, and contains 24.75 cu. ft. In m^uring a stone wall a perch is often figured at 22 cu. ft. of stone. 275 being allowed for mortar, and in some ol the New England states a perch \s caWed iWi c>\. \\. ^t.^v^**.- go WEIGHTS AND MBASUBKS. \ tions are measured bgr the adMc ystd; z en. yd. it caMl^joed Brickwork is figured by the thousand of bridn» or in enbir^|t MEASURES OF WEIGHT. AvontpuFois OB ooMimoAL wncax. This is the measure used in all ordinary bosfaieas tra mafllm i ^ and is understood to be taken for the standard, mless otfaerwiM specified. i6 drams = i ounce (oz.) = 457.5 gruns» gr. 16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.) = 7QCX> graina. 28 pounds = I quarter, qr. 4 quarters =: I hundredweight, cwt = zia UMb 20 hundredweights = i ton of 2240 lbs., or long ton. 2000 pounds = I net, or short ton. 2204.6 pounds = I metric ton. I stone = 14 pounds; i quintal = 100 ponnds. The long, or gross ton, hundredweight and quarter were form- erly in common use, but now are used almost exclusively by the United States custom houses, and in freighting coal and selling it by wholesale. TROY WEIGUT. 24 grains (gr.) = i penny- weight, pwt., or dwt. 20 pennyweights = i ounce, oz. 12 ounces = i pound, lb. lb. oz. pwt. gr. I = 12 = 240 = 5760 I = 20 = 480 I = 24 Troy weight is used for gold and silver. A **carat'' is used by jewelers in weighing precious stones. In the United States it is = 3.2 grains = 0.205 gram. In London it is = 3.17 grains, in Paris = 3.18 grains, which is subdivided into 4 "jewelers' grains." The term "carat*' is also used to designate the fineness of gold, pure gold being 24 carat, and alloyed gold, according to the ratio of gold and alloy, 22. 20, 16, etc., carat. apothecaries' weight. 20 grains (gr.) = i scruple, sc. or ». 3 scruples = i dram, dr. or 3 = 60 grains. 8 drams = i ounce, oz. or 3 = 480 grains. 12 ounces = i pound, lb. or lb. = 5760 grains. Ib = 3i2=:596 = 3288 = gr. 5760^ The pound, ounce and grain of apothecaries' weight are the s^jTie as those of Troy weight, the ounce beiu^ d\iiE«^ivtly divided. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 91 .v* MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS. /^*!rhe following weights are in general use, cither by virtue of custom or of law : 32 lbs. of oats = I bu. 48 lbs. of barley = i bu. 56 lbs. of rye = i bu. 56 lbs. of ind. corn = i bu. so lbs. of ind. meal = i bu. 60 lbs. of wheat = i bu. 100 lbs. of meal or flour = i sack. 100 lbs. of grain or flour = i cental. 100 lbs. of dry 6sh = i quintal. 100 lbs. of nails = i cask. 196 lbs. of flour = I barrel. 200 lbs. of beef or pork = i barrel. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. In computing weights g^ven in different measures (Avoirdupois, Troy and Apothecaries') in any of the other measures, reduce all to grains, the grain being the same in the three standards. Troy. Avoirdupois. Apothecaries'. I pound = 5760 grains = 7000 grains = 5760 grains. I ounce •= 480 grains = 437.5 g^ins r= 480 grains. 17s pounds = 144 pounds = 175 pounds. COAL MEASURE. Anthracite cu. ft. = 1.75 broken. Anthracite 50-55 lbs. per cu. ft. Anthracite 41-45 cu. ft. = i ton broken. Bituminous 70-78 lbs. = heaped bushel. Bituminous 40-50 lbs. = cu. ft. Charcoal ^hardwood) 18.5 lbs. = cu. ft. Charcoal (pinewood) 18 lbs. = cu. ft. WEIGHT OF HORSES. Weight of horses ranges from 800 to 1,200 lbs. THE METRIC SYSTEM. The metric system employs the decimal notation, being based upon decimal calculation entirely. The primary unit is the- meter for the measure of length. Derivative units are : "Are" for surface, "liter" for capacity, "gram" for weight. Denominations of decimal fractional parts, or decimal multiples of the units are formed by prefixing Greek numerals for the higher denominations, as dekameter r= 10 meters, hektometcr =: 100 meters, kilometer =1 1,000 meters, myriameter = 10,000 meters ; or Latin numerals for the lower denominations, as decimeter =0.1 meter^ cet\ticcvt.t^t = o.oj nwtcr, millimeter = o.ooi meter. 92 WEIGHTS AND MEASUSES. ELEMENTS OT THE ItrmC STSIKII. V Len^ta. Surface. Capacity. Weight. Notation. Hektare Dekare Rtlollter Hektoliter Dekaliter Matrlc Ton QalnUl MTrlagraaa KIlogTain Hectogram Dekagram Myrlameter Kilometer Hektomcter Dekameter 1000000. 100000. 1OO0O. 1000. 100. 10. Meter. Are. Liter. Oram. 1. Decimeter Cent 'meter Millimeter MicromKllmeter Centlare Deciliter OentI liter MllUilier Decigram Centigram miUgmm 0.1 0.01 0.001 O.OOOOOI MEASURES OP LENGTH. I Millimeter, nim. = i,ooo microtnillimcters. I Centimeter, cm. = lO millimeters. I Decimeter, dm. = lO centimeters. I Meter, m. = lo decimeters. I Dekameter, Dm. = lo meters. I Hektomcter. hm. = lo dekameters. I Kilometer, km. = lO hektometers. I Myriametcr, Mm. = lO kilometers. 1356 mm. may be written 135.6 cm. or 13.56 dm. or 1.356 m. of 0.1356 Dm. The micromillimeter is vsed in microscopical measures. The millimeter is used in mechanical and scientific measures. The meter is used in measuring short distances. The kilometer is used in measuring long distances (roads, etc). MEASURES OF SURFACE. The units of square measure are squares, the sides of which are equal to a unit of long measure. I sq. mm. I sq. cm. = 100 sq. millimeters. I sq. dm. = 100 sq. centimeters. I sq. m., or I ccntare. ca. = lOO sq. decimeters. I sq. Dm., or are. — 100 sq. meters. I aq. hm., or i hektare, ha. = 100 sq. dekameters. I sq. km. = 100 sq. hektoir.cters. MEASURES OF VOLUME. The units are cubes, the edges of which are equal to a unit of /o/7^ measure. J WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 93 I ctr. centimeter, c. cm. or cc. =: looo cu. millimeters, c. mm. I'cu. decimeter, c. dm. = looo cu. centimeters. '' I cu. meter, c. m. = icxx) cu. decimeters. I cubic decimeter liquid or dry measure = i liter, 1. WOOD MEASURE. I cubic meter or stere = lO decisteres = lOOO cu. decimeters = 0.2759 cord, or 35.3165 cu. feet. I dekastere = 10 steres = 2.759 cords. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. The unit of capacity is the liter, for liquid and dry measure, being equal to a cubic decimeter of water, which at maximum density will counterpoise the standard kilogram in vacuum. The hektoliter is the unit in measuring large quantities of grain, fruits, liquids (beer), etc. I Centiliter, cl. = 10 milliliters. I Deciliter, dl. =: 10 centiliters. I Liter, 1. = 10 deciliters. I Dekaliter, Dl. = 10 liters. I Hektoliter, hi. = 100 liters. I Kiloliter, kl., or stere = 1000 liters. I Myrialiter, Ml. = loooo liters. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. I Milligram, mg. I Centigram, eg. = 10 milligrams. I Decigram, dg. = 10 centigrams. I Gram, g. = 10 decigrams. I Dekagram, Dg. = 10 grams. I Hektogram, hg. = 10 dekagrams. I Kilogram, kg. = 10 hektograms. I Myriagram, Mg. = 10 kilograms. I Quintal or meter hundredweight, Q. = 10 myriagranis or 100 kilos. I Tonncau or metric ton or millier = 10 Quintals or 1000 kilos. The kilo is the common commercial weight in countries using the metric system, and is the weight of a liter (cu. dm.) of water at greatest density. The ton is used for weighing very heavy articles and is the weight of a cubic meter of water. CONVERTING METRIC TO COMMON MEASURE. AND VICE VERSA. To change the metric to the common system^ x^'^^^'t \.V\^ nsnr.\.\Vl number to the Jenoinination of the pT\uc\p^\ >\m\. o\ ^^ Vi^^\ 94 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. then maldply by the equivalent in tlie oomnKm qritem the product to the required denomination. Example. — ^4.6 km., how many feet? 4.6 km. X 1000 = 4600 m. 39-37 in. X 4600 =: 181102 inches = iSoSj feet To change the cotnmon to the metric system, reduce the given quantity to the denomination in which the equivalent of the prin- cipal unit of the metric table is expressed; then divide by thu equivalent and reduce the quotient to the required denomination. Example. — In 12 lbs. 6 oz. Troy, how many kilograms? 12 lbs. 6 oz. = ia.5 lbs. 12.5 lbs. X 5760 grains = 72000 graina. 72000 grains -4- 15.432 grains Tr. = 46(^5-^ grams. 4665.63 grams -r- looo = 4.6^563 Kg, APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS OF COMMON AND METRIC MEASURES (SUFFICIENT FOR ORDI- NARY PRACTICAL PURPOSES). LONG MEASURE. 1 meter = 3.280833 feet = 3 feet 3% inches. 1 1 meters = 12 yards. I decimeter = 4 inches. I centimeter = full % inch. I millimeter =: ^^ inch. I kilometer = 0.625 mile, j I mile =1.6 kilometers. ' I pole or perch = 5 meters. \ I chain = 20 meters. j 1 furlong = 200 meters. I 5 furlongs = i kilometer. I foot = 3 decimeters = 30 centimeters. To convert meters into inches, multiply by 40. To convert inches into meters, divide by 40. To convert meters (or fractions) into yards, add i\ part or 0.090^ of the number of meters. SQUARE ME.\SURE. I square inch = 6.5 square i acre = 1.16 per cent over ccnt:ny:ters. 4.000 square meters. I square meter = 10.75 square i square mile = 259 hectares, feet. ' MEASURES OF VOLUME. I gallon = 3.85 liters. I liter - 0.26 gallons = 1.06 liquid quart = 2.11 pints. I ciibic foot 1= J8.3 liters. I cubic meter r= 1.33 cubic yards. / cnb/c yard = 0.7$ cubic meter. WEIGHTS AKD MEASURES. 95 f kik>liter of water = 2204 ll>s. JL hectoliter = 2.8 bushels = 26.4 gallons = 1.17 beer barrel = 1.19 standard barrel. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. I ton = 1. 016 kilo^ms. I gram = 15.5 grams. I kilogram = 2.2 lb. avoir- dupois. 1,000 kilograms (i metric ton) = I English ton, less 1.5 per cent. ALPHABETICAL COMPARATIVE TABLES OF COMMON AND METRIC MEASURES. LONG MEASURE. Measures. Feet. Inches. Miles. Meters. Kilo- meters. Centimeter 0.03S280 0.3987 0.01 20.117 0.1 10. 1.8288 0.3048 201.16 0.1016 100. 0.0U54 1«00. 4827.9 0.002116 * 0.2032 1. 1609. 0.001 10000. 5.0290 0.2286 0.9144 Chain 0201 Decimeter 0.32808 S2.808S3 6. 1. 660. 0.3383 838.0833 0.0833 3280.833 18241. 3.fl37 8»8.7 72. 12. rm. 4. Dekameter Fathom Foot Furlone 0.125 0.0621 20116 Hand Hekiometer 1 Inch 1. Kilometer 0.6213 3.46 \ League 4 8279 Line 0.0633 8. 39.37 63860. 0.U9937 Link 0.666 8.28083 5280. 0.00328 Meter 0.00062 1. 01 Mile, Statute .... Millimeter 1.6098 Myriameter 6.21:8 10 Perch, Pole, Rod . . 16.5 0.75 3. 198. 9. 36. 005 Span 6.60O6 Yard 0.0009 SQUARE MEASURES. Measures. Sq. Centimeter. Sq.Dekara't'r.Arc Sq. Decimeter... Sq. Foot Sq. Kilometer 8q.M't'r{Centlare) Sq.Mile Sq. Millimeter Sq. Bod Sq. Yard Acre Dekare Hektare 8qa»re Inch Sq. In. Sq. Feet. I Sq. Yds. 0.155 15.5" 144. 1550. 0.'66i,5.*» 1296." 0.00107641 1.07&110I 0.10764101 I. 0.3861 sq. ml. I0.7W101 119.601 * o.iii Acres. 0.0347 1.19601 3097600 / /. 0.00001076 272.225 30.25 9. 1. 43560. 4840. I 107tM 1 ] 1196.01 1 107641. 1 IIVWO.W / 0.007 247. 610.' 0.00635 0002 1. 2471 ^.VIW Sq. Meters. 0.0001 100. 0.01 0.0929 1000000. 1. 6'66()c6i 25.393 0.8361 4016.86 loot). 96 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. CUBIC MEASURES (iCEASUSES OP VOLUICS). s- ^. Measures. Cubic Feet« Incbcs, or Yard». Metric. Cubic centimeter Cubic decimeter Cubic foot Cubic inch 0.061035 cu in. 61 .OSSA cu. In. or O.OKtS cu. ft. 1738. cu. in. 1. cu in. SS.t\M cu. It. or 1 .30«) cu. yd. 0.00610 cu. in. 27. en. ft. 1 . c. em. 1. cdm. ».SI61 e.dm. 16.S886 ccm. Cubic meter, or Stere Cubic millimeter 1 . cm. 1- c mm. Cubic yard 7^tS9 c. m. EQUIVALENTS OF LIQUID MEASURES IN COMMON AND METRIC URES, AND CUBIC FEET OR INCHES. Measures. liarrel. lieer. i*. S llarrel Standard. U. S. Ilarrel. Iteer. liritlsii . Centiliter Dekaliter IK'cllittr Firkin, ISrlil-h Fluid Dracijm. I'.S.... Fluid Oimoe. l". S Gallon. Staiulurd. r s. Gallon. Imi»orial It it Isli *) \J ft a 1 • \ a <^ >•■■ •••■■• ••■• •• Gin, Hritlsli Hi'litolilor Hog>head. U. S Hou'-^lit^ail. liritNh KlUlvrkln. Ilritish KiloUttT. :-oubu' nietff Lltt-r Milliliter. - IMpe. Itrliish (Huti ) l'un('h«'t»n. r. S l*i;nrh«'on. IJritish (^Miart.r.S Quart, llritisii TIerco. l. S TkTO*'. nriii>h Tun. r. N T»i,i. Hrliish r. S. Meas- ure. Cu. In. o rFL cu. ft. ' Krlti»h 1 Measures. Lltan. M. pal 4.144 S.8100 Kml. 1I7.S40 3I.R ■ « 4.311 • k • • S6 2I3 • « ngian 43.31 ISS • * 5.776 k • •■ 96. • • 18SJM64 O.onfi7 Ml. 0.610::»4 *• IQ. 0.0880 qt. aoi ic.vr • • 0.SS31.56 «• ft. 2,2008 Kal. la or 2. WIT eal. o.nw: .|!. 6 10eM • • In. ■ 0.8808 qt. 0.1 lu.Hr> g:il. 1 444 »» ft. tt. P«'. 4a80 0.1)1)39 qt. 0.2256 • t in. 0.00825 qt. aOO909 •i.ftJlJo t » I.AM7 « • •• 0.1X3608 ft t o.€eg67 1. cal. •231. • * •t 0.833 pal 37851 1.AW2 m « 277.274 ii •. 1. •• 4.MS 277.463 • • •* 4.5465 (new ) (new) 0.1 -.ES «|!. 7.2187.S CIK in. 0.1041 qt. 0.II8B O.I.V'l • * 8.661?* •• % « 0.125 • • 14S r».4i?.« pal. 3..S3156 • • ft. 22.008 pal. too 63. • ■ H 4-215 •• • ■ .V2.4^ k » 238.473 64.1^173 ii&\. 8.6647 • • • • 54. ■ « 245.34S ci.Avs: ■• '2.}ii4.i:v» • • :ii.3i56 * t •220.09 «l looa l.a->rt7 q^ ♦)i.i>-i34 * ■ in. t»8*M« qt. 1. o.(nnifir ■ 1 . • n.isi »« »» 0.0nlh8 %• 0.001 •'.=> " •> ^Ih tt • « 0.4163 fti a4731 •i.f'UO-i •• 3t6iS«>-2 % • i* U.5 1 0.S699 126. L-al. 16 JM37.1 • I ft. I04.vrr2 pal. 476.M7 ievM«4rt •• 17 32\^4 * • ■ • uv. k ft 4*V7 Si. •■ 11. L*--".) » * tW.t^ 1 • 3I7.96& luVfiltS •• iT.ifii^i " • • 108. «• 4<^K7 1. «it .ST. 7.=-^ ■• in. S«I ft ft (>.M6t 1 2»X<« «* 3IS.S •• • • I. ft • 1 1856 4J. »:al. .V6114.'. » • ft. 8-4.W t « I58.fl6 13.2115 *i f>.776f> •• •• :«. •■ 163.506 2f»J. * • 3;i «6!<73 '• * • 2lH».l»4 •• 953 806 •jw.irro ' ' M '^88 ' ■ ■ ■ 216. 1 < UM1.414 •/Jin;>erial (;:illon of 1824 Since 18\)n. i imp. Gallon -4.54^^718 Utvr: / iiter -0.2107 Imp. ual. 277 463 cubic inches. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 97 EQUIVALENTS OF ONE CUBIC FOOT IN COMMON AND MRKIC ^ MEASUKE8. Measures. Barrel, U. S.. Standard, 81.5 gals ... Barrel. U. S.. Beer, 81 gals Bushel, struck, U. S., tlRO.42 cu. In Bushel, Brltlsb, 2218.19 cu. In Gallon, U. S., liquid, 231 cu. in...., Gallon, U. 8., dry ^.., Gallon, British, 277.274 cu. in Inches, cubic Liter , Peck, U.S.. Peck, British Pints, U. S., liquid Pints, U. S.,dry Pints, British quarts, U. S., liquid [uarts, U. S., dry [uarts. British , ^ard.cubic 1 Cubic Foot = 0.28748 0.94181 0.808664 0.779018 7 48068 6.42861 6.28810 1728. 88 8161 8.81486 8.11606 69.84416 61.48800 49.86684 89.98806 86.71406 84.93848 0.087087 EQUIVALENTS OF DRY MEASURES IN COMMON AND METRIC MEASURES AND CUBIC FEET OR INCHES. Measures. U. S. Measure. Cubic Inches or Feet. British Measure. Liters. Bushel, U.S., Win. Bshl, Brit., Imp... Centiliter Coomb. British.. Dekaliter 1. bu. 1.031516 •• 0.018162 dry pint 4.126064 bu. 9.081 dry qt. 0.18162 dry pint 1 . RSl. 1.031516 " 2.83783 bu 28.3783 •' 0.9081 dry qt. 1 peck 1.031516 *• 1. pint 1. qt. 8.252128 bu. 41 2606 2150.420 cu.ln. 1.2445 " ft. 2218.192 •' in. 1.2837 " ft. 0.610251" in. 5 1347 " ft. 610 254 - in. 6.10254 •* " 268.8025 •• " 277.2788 " " 3.531.56 " ft. 35.3156 " " 61.02{>1 ** in. .537.6050 " *• 5.54.548. •• " 33.600:1 •' " 67.2006 •• •* 0.9091 1. 01761 4. 8.818 0.1767 0.9691 1. 2 7511 27.511 0.8813 0.9691 1. 0.9691 9691 bu. it dry pint bu. dry q». dry pint gal. It bu. It qt. peck It pint. bu. .1 86 2868 86.3480 011 145.3920 10. Deciliter Gallon, U. S . Gallon, British*.. Hektollter . KiloliterCcu. m.). Liter 1 4.4046 4.5435 100. 1000. 1. Peck, U. S Peck, British Pint 8 8008 9.0&I0 0.5506 Quart 1 1010 <; uarter, British.. Wey. British 10.2694 " ft. 8. 51 3170 " " 40. 290.781 14.53 92 * See Note Liquid MesHure. 98 WRIGHTS AND MSASUSBS. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. s. EQUIVALENTS OF AVOHVUIOCS AND MCIUC WKIGHfS. Measures. OeDtrigram DckA^imm Deelgnmi Dimm. U. 8. and Brit. Avoir Dram, U. S. and Brit. A|K>th.... Grain. D. S. and Brit Oram Hektogram Hundredweight, ('. S Hundredweight. Brit Kilogram Illliier. or Tonne Milligram Myriagram I Ounce. Avoir.. V. S. and Brit I Ounce. Troy and A}K>th.. U. S-l and Brit Pennyweight. Trov, I'. S. and Brit Pound. U. S. and Brit. Avoir....*. Avoirdupois. Pound, r. s.and Brit. Troj and Apoth • Quarter. U. S Quarter. Brli Quintal. l'.S.ana Brit Quintal. French Scruple. U. S and Brit Stone. Brl! Ton, U. S. and llrli.. long Ton. r. s.. >iiort Tonneau. Kronch 0. IM. 60. 1. \ 15 0. t.KT4 100. IK. S.SMtt S9M.6e 0.0IM3 SS.Oftt 437.5 Sr»tns graina gmlas grains grains irrmln grains oi. OS. lbs. lbs. Iba. Iba. fS. Ins grains 180. 000 grains 24. k 1. • TOW. I 0.8S!M l.'iTOO. 25. •28. 100. 221). 4«2 AV 14. 2e44>. 2*4. ft2 grains \b. grains llis. grains lb$. lbs. lbs. ll»s. gra!n in. l*ounds ATdlr. 0.26m875 lbs. 1.1M195 2.0KW 8.33R6 2rt2.57I4 DRY MEASURE. Dry gal. - 1. 16365 liquid gal. Liter = 0.26417 U. S. gal. = 2.202 lbs. water at 62° = 0.28377 bu. IMnl Quart Gallon Pfck Bushvl. :s truck. t"«M:o liiohf>. rounds .Vvoir. 1.21234 2 42468 9 t^?2 19 *rr44 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 99 WEIGHT OF WAfER. (Approximately.) Standard temperature 62** F. ; i cu. ft. water = 62.5 lbs. avoir. CONVERSION TABLES. Common to Metric Measure. LINEAR. Fractions of an inch to millimeters. I inch = 25.4 (25.399541) mm. A = 1.587 mm. % = 3- 175 mm. 4.762 mm. 6 = ft = 6.350 mm. 7.937 mm. % = 9.525 mm. J- = 1 1. 112 mm. 12.700 mm. A = 14.287 mm. % = is.r = 17.462 mm. = 19.050 mm. }I = 20.637 mm. % = 22.225 mm. }g = 23.812 mm. [5.875 mm. To obtain centimeters, move decimal point one place to the left. For higher metric meastires, move decimal point accordingly. Inches to Millimeters. Feet to Meters. Yards to Meters. Miles to Kilo- meters. 1 =- 25.4001 0.304801 0.914402 1.60985 2 = bo.mn 0.609601 1.828F04 3 21869 8 = 76.2002 914402 2 743205 4.82804 4 = 101.6002 1.219202 3.657607 6.437.% b = 127.0003 1 .i>24003 4.572009 8.04674 6 =< 152.4003 1. 828004 5.4K6411 9.65608 7 = 177.8004 2.133604 6.400K13 11.26543 8 == 203.2004 2.438405 7.315216 12.87478 9» 228.6005 2.74:1205 8.229616 14.18412 To obtain other metric measures, move decimal point accord- ingly, thus: I foot = 0.304801 meters = 3.04801 decimeters = 30.4801 centimeters = 304.801 millimeters, or i foot = 0.304801 meters = 0.0304801 decameters = 0.00304801 hectometers = 0.000304801 kilometers. SQUARE. Square Inches Square Feet S<|uarc Yards Acres to Hectares. to S 5 853 2.8328 8=< 51.613 74 323 (\.6!H.m 8:{.613 \ T ^y^ 100 WBIGHT8 AMD HBASUU8. Cubic Inches OaMe Vael Coble Yuds Bosheist^^ to Cable to Cable to Coble HeetoUten. Centimeters. HeCem. Helen. 1 =■ Ifl.387 O.OMl 9.166 9'a889 s ^ Se.774 •.flMBB 1.189 o.itm 3 aa 49.161 O.OMK 8.961 1.66618 4 ^ 6&.549 0.11367 3.666 1.66886 5 ^ 81.986 9.14188 3.883 1. 18168 6aa 9B.ta 0.16680 4.687 8.1M68 7 cs> 114.710 0.16866 6.66t 8*48888 8-i 131.097 9.S68M 9.116 S.8I8M 9b 147.484 0.65MK 9.681 3.1TIM « Plotd Drsms to Ullllllten or Cu- bic Centlmeten. Fluid Oances to UUllllters Qoeruto latere. OOloBS to Utefo. 1=. 370 9.67 0.94686 3.166tt %zs 7.39 69.15 1.86813 Tjioor 3^— 11.09 88.n 3.88806 11.3B866 A *s 14.79 118.89 3.TBR43 1S.MI74 ^b^s 18.48 147. K7 4.78180 16.68711 wSS 22.18 , 177.14 5.07816 23.71361 4 SZ 26 88 1 507.02 60S4A2 36.4880< 8= 2» .S7 2:«.'i9 7.67068 30.883:8 9= xi.a? 266 16 8.51734 34.06891 I 1= 2= 3=i 4- 6=- «=: 8=. 9= WEIGHT. Grains to 12i» .tS>T8 IM :fi)6H 2?» I«>7 %» VM6 :*8.7««> 4.W .•W»24 51H..'W14 583 190Ci .Vvoirdui>ois Ounces to Grsms. 28.3495 .'M.euoi 85 04S6 113.30H1 141.7476 170. VW2 198 4467 226 7962 2^^ 1457 Avolrdu|>ols Pounds to KUo- 0.45350 ai7t9 1.36iy78 1.81437 2.20796 2.721.T6 3.17515 3.62874 1 (18233 Troy Ounces to Grmms. 31.10818 02.90066 93.310M 124.41383 165.61740 80.02066 17.73437 248.82786 279!931SS I Metric to Common Measure, LINEAR. Meters to Indies. Meters to Feet. Meters to Yards. 1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 5 = 6 = • — /f - 9 = 30 37a) 7h 740l> IIS IliiO 157.4NX> 1\16 S5i^» 2*» 22lXi 275 iV*H> 3 2HKJ 6..V»1»57 9.M-.5Vi3 13.12333 16.4»« 26 24667 29.,=»27SO 1.09:{iUl 2.1Kr222 S.2NHS3 4 .-174444 5.I»*»nY»6 6..V>1667 7 6reV*7>* 8.74>»8>*9 Kilometers to Miles*. 0.02137 1.24274 1.86411 2.48548 3.10685 3.72823 4.34959 4.\»7«196 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. SQUARE. lOI Sqnare Centi- meters to Stiuare Inches. Square Meters to Square Feet. Square Meters to Square Yards. Hectares to Acres. 1 = 1550 10.764 1.196 2.471 2 = 0.3100 21.528 2.392 4.942 3 = 0.4650 32.292 3.588 7.413 4 = 0.6200 43.055 4.7H4 9.884 6 = 0.7750 53.819 5.980 12 355 6 = 0.9300 64 583 7.176 14.826 7 = 1.0660 75.847 8.872 17.297 8 = 1.2400 86.111 9 568 19 768 9 = 1.3960 96.875 10.764 22.239 CUBIC Cubic CenU- meters to Cubic iDcties. Cubic Deci- meters to Cubic Inches. Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet. Cubic Meters to Cubic Yards. 1 = 0.0610 61.023 35.314 1.808 2 = 0.1220 122.047 T0.629 2.616 8 = 0.1831 188.070 105.948 8 924 4 = 0.2441 244.091 141.258 5.232 5 = 0.3051 306.117 176.572 6.510 6 = 8661 366.140 211.887 7.848 7 = 0.4272 427.164 247.201 9.156 8 = 0.4882 488.187 282.516 10.464 9 = 0.5492 549 210 317.880 11.771 CAPACITY. Milliliters or Centiliters Liters Decaliters Hectoliters Cubic Centi- to Fluid to to to meters to Ounces. Quarts. Gallons. Bushels. Fluid Drams. 1 = 0.27 0.3:)K 1 (I567 2.6417 2.8377 2 = 0.54 0.676 2 1131 5.2834 5.6755 8 = 81 1.014 3.1700 7.9251 8.5132 4 = 1.0« 1 353 4.2267 10.5668 11.3510 5 = 1.35 1.001 5.2K34 13.2086 14.1887 6 = 1.62 2.029 6.3401 15.8502 17.1-265 7 = 1.89 2.367 7 3ii6H 18.4919 19.8642 8 = 2.16 2.705 8.45:y> 21 . 1336 22.7019 9 = 2.43 3 013 9.5101 23.7758 2>.5397 WEIGHT. 1 2 8 4 ft 6 7 9 9 Milligrams to Grains. = / 0.01.543 0.030H6 0.04»«0 0.06173 07716 0.09259 0.10803 0. V^46 I3t*m Kilograms to Grains. Hectograms to Ounces Avoirdupois. 15432.36 30W1-.71 46297.07 61 729 43 77161 .78 92IS94.14 10S026.49 123458.85 ].'««)1 .21 8.5274 7.0548 10.5822 14.1006 17.6370 2i.imi 3\ .1\«i Kilograms 10 PoundH Avoirdunois. 2.20462 4.40924 6.61:{M7 8.81H49 02311 13.22773 11 I02 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Quintals to rounds A v. Mlllienor Tonnes KHogimmsto to Pounds At. Ounces Tivy* 1 = ^0.40 saoi.fl as.isov o _ w — 440 95 14UII.S 61.3015 3 = W\ 3d WIS 9 06.460 4 = S81.85 8H18.5 128.60BO r» = itixi.at IKttS.l lOO.TStr rt = l.-ttJ.TT issn? 19S.0044 i — l»43.d4 1M32 4 Sa.OBfit 8 = IT«i.70 1707 S7.90G9 9 = U)H4.16 19841.6 »0.3R67 MISCELLANEOUS, I Gunter's chain = 20.1168 meters. I sq. statute mile = 259.000 hectares. I fathom = 1.829 meters. I nautical mile = 1853.25 meters. I foot = 0.304801 meter. I avoir, pound = 453.5924277 gram. 15432.35639 grains = i kilogram. A CUBIC INCH IS EQUAL TO le.rfHtiin milltlittTs: or 1.639663 cent ilhers: or 0.1638663 deciliter: or 0.016SM6 Wwt: or 10 0.0i^>57>*7 cubic ft. : or to O.KVJP C. s. pill; or 1.9U9KR Bpherical in. A CUBIC YARD IS EQUAL TO 87 cu. ft. or to ii»l.&74 r. S. iraU. I66W cu. in. 0.076I.S:U inyrlii:i!«>r. 0.7rt4.W4 kllt>li:t.r. or cu. m»^:rr. 7.6tf».'M iit.HMoUwrs. 7.2 ili»ur Itarre:*. <»f ri struck bu.>bels. i 76.4.>:i4 dei*alitors. i 76l..'>34 liters, or cu. dvcimeters. 7rtlfi.34 decllllors. LM.eJ^jtfi r. .'N. husiielb (litruck). 21.«.>33:« Bri'. bushels. POUNDS IN A BUSHEL. .\n!«-;r>. 3J -S :E^! * ^ . 2'fi > X .- -1-. llar:«\ .Si' - - 1^ 4H 4^ 4^ V.' — 4f-. lb |K 4k - t»< 4** 4"^ 46 17 — 16 4!> 48 Corn vj .-rf^ .v; .v: .v\ :^^ %,\ >; . :^ V v^ :vj - v, .^^ -^ :v\ srt — .16 ^6 56 I'orii :tn-;ir ... - 7i» -'. i\» _ - .._..— __. — t'l-ru Meai - - 4'*.=V' .>> - .V'.vii - - .V- - i'nal _ ._ . S.I 711 . _ ____**!> - — < >-i :."i VJ ■> - :«- ;ij u'l :«■ v: :u.i ;ki -- :^2 :'►."• .^' '<> :i-J ;i-' 84 ,t: ■ - 3 36 3t ro::i'.or«. — '-' - Oil lilt i>'jv»' - twi - - tVMli'rt •<« — rt» - 6 - .vi :^; -sij ^r, .v> - .v» 50 ^ live Mral - — - - . - .VJ Tiif - _ - - _ .Vi _ _ Sill*. - - - - • .\ ."»!' .^I» - — -—.'>«•- - .T«» — — — WZ/t-af r^' .V) (V"'" '^1 »'iinV) »** iv« ■>■ r*» »*t> «'*» ''»i v'tv^r^xi^x _ «vmV) 60 ft'/zf.'/: Untti — — - A' - ji' -jn - -- - "i* - — > WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 103 WSIGHTS or GRAINS AND OTHER ARTICLES. The table on page 102 gives a few of the weights by volume fixed by statute in many of the states of the Union. These weights are understood in buying and selling in the respective states, unless other values are specifically agreed upon. COMPOUND UNITS. PRESSURES AND WEIGHTS. 144 lbs. per square foot. 2.0355 tn. of mercury at 32'' F. 2.0416 Id. of mercury at 02° F. 2.809 ft. of water at 82^ F. 27.71 in. of water at 02* F. 2116.8 lbs. per square foot. 33.947 ft. of water at 62* F. 30 In. of mercury at 62** F. 29l9S2 in of mercury at 32*' F. 760 millimeters of mercury at 82* 0361 lb. i>er square inch. 5.196 lbs. per square foot. 0.0736 in. of mercury at 62* F. 6.2C21 lb<«. per square foot. 0.086125 lbs. per square Inch. ( a438 lb. per square incb. = •< 62.355 lbs per square foot, r 0.888 in. of mercury at 62** F. ' 0.491b. per square incb. I IneH of mercury at (&<> F. (2.64 cm.) = < ^Jls/Jf; ^VaTe?at te^^. L 13.58 Ins. Of water at 62^ F. 1 kilogram per square inch = 317.46 lbs. per square foot. 1 kilogram per square centimeter = 14.228 lbs. per square inch. 1 tod per square inch = 157.49 kilograms per square centimeter. 1 pound per square inch = 0.07031 kg. per sq. cm. 1 kUogiam per square centimeter ~ 14.228 lbs, per sq. In. 1 lb. per square inch (453.59 g.) 1 atmosphere (14.7 lbs., or 6.6679 per iq. In.) 1 inch of water at 62° F. 1 Inch of water at 82? F. 1 foot of water at 62° F. kg. ,1 [ H F ^t^ POWER AND WORK. 'Work/' in a mechanical sense, is the sustained exertion of pressure through space. The unit for measuring it is the "foot- pound" (ft.-lb.), being a pressure of one pound exerted through a space of one foot, or in the metric system, a "kilogframmeter" (m. kg.), being a pressure of one kilogram through a space of one meter. I ft.-lb. = 0.138 m. kg. (For explanation of horse-power and heat unit see chapter "Power.") I horse-power = 1.0139 Cheval-Vapeur (metric hOrse-power) . I ft-lb. = 0.13825 kilogrammeter. I Cheva}'Vapeur = o.g863 horse-power. / kUogrammeter = y.22^ ft.-lbs. 104 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ^ I caloric (metric heat-unit) = 3.968 heat-miit (B. T. Uj> ^ I heat-unit = 0.252 caloric I U. S. mechanical equivalent or i joule (772 ft.-lbs.) = 1061/33 kilogramroeters. I heat-unit per sq. ft = 0.^13 caloric per sq. m. I foot per second = 3600 -?- 5280 or 0.6818 inches per hoar. I foot per second, minute; etc..= a3047 meter per second. I mile per hour = 0.447 meter per second. (For measures of temperature see "The Brewer's Chemical Laboratory.") MEASURES OF TIME. 60 seconds = i minute. | 365 days = i common year. 60 minutes = i hour. 366 days = i leap year. 24 hours = I day. In civil computation, i. e., for all the practical purposes of life, the day commences at niidniglit and is divided into two portions of 12 hours each, from midnight to noon, and from noon to mid- night. In nautical time and astronomical computation the day begins at noon. In nautical time the day is divided into watches of 4 hours each. In astronomical time the day is counted through the 24 hours. A "solar dav" is measured by the rotation of the earth upon its axis with r'-jpect to the sun. A "solar year" is the time in which the earth makes one revo- Union around the sun. Its average time, or the "mean solar year" j^ 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes. 40.7 seconds, or nearly 365% days. A "mean lunar month" is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes. 2 sec- oihis and 5.24 thirds. By the Julian (or old style) Calendar, mtroduced by Julius C'csar. the year was taken as 365 days. 6 hours. To equalize the loss of time, one extra day was inserted every fourth year (leap year), being plr.ced at the end of February. The slight difference between the length of the year assumed in the Julian Calendar and the actual length of the year, amounting to 11 minutes, 12 seconds every year, had accumulated lo ^ v^^^^ ^^ ^^ d^aiYS «t tAe time of Pope Gregory XIII, who suvpre^^t^ \o ^^>j^ o>aX ^ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. IO5 ^ ttut, ftSLT 1582, going from October 5 to 15. In the Reformed or Gregorian (new style) Calendar, the repetition of thi3 accumu- lation of error is prevented by leaving out 3 of the extra days • every 400 years, making this omission in the years which are not exactly divisible by 400. Thus of the leap years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, only the last is made leap year. This Gregorian Calendar was introduced in England in 1752, when 11 days were omitted. It is now in force in all Christian countries, except Russia, which is 12 days behind the rest in its time. LEGAL UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASURE. In accordance with a resolution adopted by the International Electrical Congress, held at' Chicago, in 1893, the Congress of the United States has established the following units of electrical measure : First. The unit of resistance shall be what is known as the international "ohm," which is substantially equal to one thousand million units of resistance of the centimeter-gram-sccond sys- tem of electro-magnetic units, and is represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice fourteen and four thousand five hundred and twenty-one ten -thousandths grams in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of the length of one hundred and six and three-tenths centimeters. Second. The unit of current shall be what is known as the international "ampere," which is one-tenth of the unit of current of the centimeter gram -second system of electro-magnetic units, and is the practical equivalent of the unvarying current, which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water in accordance with standard specifications, deposits silver at the rate of one thousand one hundred and eighteen millionths of a gram per second. Third. The unit of electro -motive force shall be what is known as the international "volt," which is the electro-motive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one inter- national ohm, will produce a current of an international ampere, and is practically equivalent to one thousand fourteen hundred and thirty-fourths of the electro-motive ioTce \it\.vi^wv ^^ ^Ov^'^ or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as C\atV% c€v\, ^V ^ Ve^- I06 WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES. "^ , V perature of fifteen deip-ees centignule, and prcpmred in the tier described in the standard specifications. FourtfL The unit of quantity shall be what is known as the international "coulomb/' which is the quantity of electricity trans- ferred by a current of one international ampere in one seoond. Fifth. The unit of capacity shall be what is known as the in- ternational "farad," which is the capacity of a condenser charged to a potential of one international volt by one intematiooal ogq- lomb of electricity. Sixth. The unit of work shall be the "joule," which is equal to ten million units of work in the centimeter-gram-second sjys- tem, and which is practically equivalent to the energy es^ended in one second by an international ampere in an international ohm. Seventh. The unit of poller shall be the "watt " which is equal to ten million units of power in the centimeter-gram-second sys- tem, and which is practically equivalent to the work done at the rate of one joule per second. Eighth. The unit of induction shall be the **henry," which is the induction in a circuit when the electro-motive force induced in this circuit is one international volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere per second. MONEY. UNITED STATES. Nominally there are two units of value. The gold unit of value is the gold dollar which contains 25.8 grains of standard gold 0.900 fine. The amount of fine gold in the dollar is 23.22 grains, and the remainder ot the weight is an alloy of copper. No more $1 gold pieces have been coined since the .\ct of September 26. 1890. Gold is now coined in denomina- tions of $2.50. $5, $10 and $20, called, respectively, quarter eagles, half eagles, eagles and double eagles. The silver unit is the standard dollar which contains 412^ grains of standard silver 0.900 fine. The amount of fine silver in the dollar is 371% grains, and there are 41H grains of copper alloy. I eagle = 10 dollars ($) = 100 dimes = i.ooo cents, c. I dollar = 10 dimes r^ loo ctTv\«», t. I dime = \octT\l%,t, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 107 Sobsidiary coins are: Half dollar = 50 cents, quarter dollar = 25 cents ; dime = 10 cents, all in silver. Minor coins are: Five cents (nickel) and i cent (copper). There remain in circulation small amounts of coins no longer coined, and being gradually withdrawn, as : Trade dollar, nomi- nally worth 100 cents, but in reality much less ; twenty cents (sil- ver) ; half dime (silver) ; three cents (nickel) ; two cents (cop- per). DENOMINATIONS, WEIGHT AND FINENESS OF THE COINS OF THE UNITED STATES. GOLD. DenomlnatloD. One dollar ($1) Quarter eagle (12.50) , bree dollars ($3)... Half eaffle ($5) Eagle ($10) Doable eav le ($20) . . . Fine Gold Alloy Con- Weight. Contained. tained.* Grains. QralDs. Grains. 23.22 58 "W 2.58 25.80 6 45 64.50 69.66 7.74 77.40 116.10 12.90 129. (^ 232.20 25.80 258.00 461.40 61.60 516.00 •The alloy neither adds to nor detracts from the value of the coin. SILVER. Denomination. Standard dollar Half dollar 8 uarter dollar.. Ime Pine Silver Contained. Grains. 871.26 173.61 86.806 84.722 Alloy Con- tained. Grains. 41.26 19.29 9.645 3.858 Weight. Grainn. 412.50 192.90 96.45 88.58 MINOR. Denomination. Five cents*. Onecentt... Fine Co])per Contained. Alloy Contained. Gralnn. 57.87 45.60 Grains. 19.29 2.40 Weight. (1 rains. 77.10 18. •Seventy-ttve per cent copper, 25 per cent nickel. tNlnety-flve per cent copper, 5 per cent tin and zinc. Troy weights are used, and while metnc Yit*\^X.^ •ax^ Xs^ \v« assigned to the half and quarter doUar and dime, \to^ vi€v^\& %^i^ I08 WEIGHTS AND MEASIIUa. m contisue to be employed, 1545a gnioa being ooofldeied equivalent of a gram, agreeably to tbe Act of Jtily tB, 18IS6L The weight of $1,000 in United States ^old 0(^ it 53*75 tnqr otmces, equivalent to 3.68 pomids avoirdttpois. Tbi wijgK of $1,000 in standard silver dollars is ^K>>37S troy oonecs, eqidvntat to 58.92 pounds avoirdupois, and the weight of $t,ooo in ifibaMHaiy silver is 803.75 troy ounces, eqtuvalent to 55.11 pounds vroiidi^ois. Gold coins and standard silver dollars, being standard eoini off the United States, are n6t ^'redeemable." Subsidiary coins and minor coins may be presented, in soms or multiples of twenty dollars, to the treasurer of the Uniled States or to an assistant treasurer for redemption or exchange faito lawful money. United States notes are redeemable in "coin," in sums not lesi than $50, by the assistant treasurers in New York and San Fran- cisco. Treasury notes of 1890 are redeemable in "coin," in sums not less than $50, by the treasurer and all assistant treasurers of the United States. National bank notes are redeemable in lawful money of the United States by the treasurer, but not by the assistant treasurers. They are also redeemable at the bank of issue. In order to pro- vide for the redemption of its notes when presented, every national bank is required by law to keep on deposit with the treasurer a sum equal to 5 per cent of its circulation. Gold certificates being receipts for gold coin, are redeemable in such coin by the treasurer and all assistant treasurers of the United States. Silver certificates are receipts for standard silver dollar's de- posited, and are redeemable in such dollars only. "Coin** obligations of the government are redeemed in gold coin when gold is demanded, and in silver when silver is de- manded. COINS AND PAPER CURRENCY. There are ten different kinds of money in circulation in the United Ststes, nanjely, gold coins, standard silver dollars, subsidi- ary silver, gold certiBcates, silver cerliiicalts, Vit^s>iT>j tvov^.-^ W I y WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. lOQ 8ued4t^der the Act of July 14, 1890, United States notes (also cilled greenbacks and legal tenders), national bank notes, and nickel and bronze coins. These forms of money are all available as circulation. While they do not all possess the full legal-tender quality, each kind has such attributes as to give it currency. The status of each kind is as follows : Gold coin is legal tender at its nominal or face value for all debts, public and private, when not below the standard weight and limit of tolerance prescribed by law ; and when below such stand- ard and limit of tolerance it is legal tender in proportion to its weight. Standard silver dollars are legal tender at their nominal or face value in payment of all debts, public and private, without re- gard to the amount, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. Subsidiary silver is legal tender for amounts not exceeding $10 in any one payment. Treasury notes of the Act of July 14, 1890, are legal tender for all debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. United States notes are legal tender for all debts, public and pri- vate, except duties on imports and interest on the public debt. Gold certificates, silver certificates, and national bank notes are not legal tender, but both classes of certificates are receivable for all public dues, while national bank notes are receivable for all public dues except duties on imports, and may be paid out by the government for all salaries and other debts and demands owing by the United States to individuals, corporations, and asso- ciations within the United States, except interest on the public debt and in redemption of the national currency. All national banks are required by law to receive the notes of other national banks at par. The minor coins of nickel and copper are legal tender to the ex- tent of 25 cents. FOREIGN COINS. The following values arc given in a circular of January i, 1901, by George E. Roberts, director of the United States vv\\w\, 1q>x V:^^- eign us compared vv/fh United States corns*. WBIGHTS AND HEA80RBS. TALDCS or rOBXIGR OQOrak i p ^^ AreentliM U Belgium .. BoIItU.... Uniil \l tmt Jt«Ui«^ '^ HGMd^ lOudSOtlUH. auwi't ^ll>«:bo]Ltl*aokDdtflTl(taM. old &,10.anda>ml1rc1s. SUnr: M, 1. ■odlmllraU. I.MBoald^ t.G.ia>ndiacoloiu IMSIir). O'WBsllTFr: i««o ud dIvUloni »Uo-d: CMudo (tl.n»). donblooD n.eo. androador i(7.m». MU- •The 'BrtitJh dullar- has ibe laiiK ngliOBn. the 5mfisS«lllen>enti, « ia-goM. S-allrer. I valueas tb« U«xtcan dollar in WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Ill ^ VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS— Continued . Country. •2 1 *s p t a o (19.13 «p5 > Coins. Cuba Denmark Ecuador Rmrni, G. G. S. 0. G. Q. G. G. G. G. G. O. 0. G. S. G. G. G. 8. (;. G. G. G. G. 0. G. G. G. Peso Crown Sucre Pound (100 piasters). Mark Franc Mark Pound sterling. Drachma.. Gourde.... Rupeef.... Lira Yen Dollar Dollar Florin Dollar Crown Kran Sol 9S0 0.208 0.468 4 M3 0.103 0.193 0.238 4.866i 0.193 905 0.324 0.193 0.498 1.000 0.509 0.402 1.014 0268 0.086 0.487 1.080 0.515 0.193 0.268 193 044 1.034 0.193 Gold: Doubloon Isabella, centen (16 017). Alpbonse (84.823). 811. : peso. Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. Gold: condor (19.647) and double- condor. Sllverrsucre and divisions. Gold: pound (100 plasters). 5. 10. 20, and 50 plasters. Silver: 1, 2, 5, 10. and 20 plasters. C^ld: 20 marks (83.859), 10 marks ril.VS). Gold: 6.10.20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver: 6 francs. Gold : 5. 10, and 20 marks. Gold: sovereign (pound sterling) and H sovereign. Gold: 5. 10. 20. 50. and 100 drachmas. Finland Fiaooe Gennan Empire. Qrett Brluln .... Groece Haiti Silver: 6 drachmas. Gold : 1. 2. 6. and 10 Kourdos. Silver* India gourde and divisions. Gold: Sovereign (84.8666). Silver: rut>ee and divisions. Qolcl: 5. 10. 20. 50. and 100 lire. Sil- ver: 5 lire. Gold: 5, 10. and 20 yen. Sliver: 10. 30, and 50 sen. Italy Janan Liberia Mexico Matherlands .... Newfoundland . . Norwav Gold: dollar (10.983). 2H. 5, 10. and 20 dollars. Sliver: dollar (or |>eso) and divisions. Gold: 10 florins. Silver: %, 1, and i\i florins. Gold: 3 dollars (12 027). Uold: 10 and 20 crowns. Persia Gold: H. 1 and 2 tomans (83.409). Sil- ver: M. H, 1. 2, and 5 krans. Gold: libra (84.8666). Sliver: sol and divisions. Gold: 1.2, 5 and 10 mllrels. Peru Portugal Russia Hllreis... . Ruble Peseta Crown Franc Plaster.... Peso Bolivar.... Spain Gold: Imperial, 15 rubles (87.718), and H Imperial, 7H rubles (88 869). Silver: H> H.and 1 ruble. Gold: 25)>eKetas. Sliver: 5 pesetas. Gold : 10 and 2*1 crowns. Sweden Switzerland Turkey Gold : 5, 10. 20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver: 5 francs. Gold : 25. 50. 100. 250. and 500 plas- Uruguay Venezuela ters. Gold: Peso. Silver: Peso and divisions. Gold : 5. 10, 20, 50. and 100 bolivars. Sliver: 5 bolivars. •The "British dollar" has the same le^al value as the Mexican dollar iu Hongkong, the Straits 8et tieraents. and Labuan. ri'he t/ororeipn is the standard coin of lnd\a,b\\l \.\\^iTM\«sfc\^^'^^'^^'^^'^ ofmecount, current at 15 to the sovereign to— gold, 8—BHver. Physics, popularly called "NMural PbiloK^qr.** u dM ■ which treats of such changes in bodtei u do aot i affect ihe properties of such bodies (new bodie* «re not fi A lump of sulphur can be reduced to ■ powder by | melted by careful heating, nude electric by nibbing with a ■ doth; but, after all. these changes, still remains sulphur, ud such changes, therefore, belong to the domain of physjca. But if sulphur is ignited it burns with a pale blue flame, emitting a sulTocating odor, it disappear:, ami is no longer sulphur (new bodies axe formed). Such a change is not a physical change^ bat a chemical, and the study of such a <:haiige belongs to the tcieoce of chemistry. "Matter " is anything that takes up space or ha;: weight. Dif- ferent kinds of matter arc, f. i., earth, mcials, animal and vegetable substances, water, air and other gases. Air is malter because ii has weight and lakes tip space. One cubic foot of air wrighs 1.3 oi., whereas one cubic foot i>i water weighs 1000 r ?7J II STATES OF MATTER. Matter occurs in three slates, solid, fluid and gnseous. Many substances are met with in n.ilure in all three of those statu. Water is solid ice below 32' F.. fluid waltr from 32° F. to aia* P., above 212° F. water is in the state of a gas and is called steam. If the heat is high enough, all substances will take the form of a gas. even metals, such as zinc, iron, gold, etc. "Solids"' arc bodies that have a strong tendency to keep the same shape in all positions. ''Fluids" are bodies wliose shapes depend on the vessels that cttniain them. .4 4 PHYSICS. 113 tlGases" are bodies that have a tendency to occupy as large "a space as possible, and exert a pressure or tension on the ves- sels that contain them. "Molecules." The fact that all bodies expand by heat, and that they can be changed from solids to fluids and gases, can be easily explained, if we suppose that all bodies are composed of very small, separate, and movable particles. To these small particles the name "molecules" has been given. A molecule is so extremely small that the most minute particle of dust floating in the air contains millions of molecules. FORCES. Matter is constantly undergoing changes of different kinds. All causes tending to change the condition of rest or motion of a body are called "forces," such as gravitation, sound, light, heat, magnetism, electricity, etc. Force, like matter, is indestructible; both can change form, but the total amount of matter and force in the universe is always the same. By heat we may change ice to water, water to steam, and thus make it invisible, but every molecule of the water is present in the steam, and can be gathered and reduced to water and ice again by cooling. And an amount of heat equal to that which is consumed in bringing about the change of boiling hot water to steam is set free again when the steam is condensed to water. We suppose that the molecules are held together by a certain force called "cohesion." This force is strong enough in solid bodies to keep the molecules together. In the fluids, cohesion is weaker and allows the molecules a freer movement; and in the gases, the molecules being far apart, cohesion entirely disappears, the scattered molecules moving further and further apart until arrested by some other body, on which they then exert a pressure called the tension of the gases. PROPERTIES OF MATTER. "Extension." Matter occupies space; it is measured by its length, breadth, and thickness, called the three dimensions. This property or quality of matter is expressed by the word extension. "Mass and Weight." The amount of matter of a body i^ c^XWd its mass. The weight of a body is the measure o\ vVv^ tsXVc'^.Oa^tv exercised upon it by the earth. The mass ol a bod^ \^ XJcv^ %^tcv^ 114 PHYSICS. in all positions, the weigiit of a body dq;>ends on its from the surface of the earth. "Impenetrability." The fact that two bodies cannot be in die same place at the same time is expressed by the term impene- trability of matter. If an inverted bottle is immersed in water, the water cannot rise into the bottle to fill it on acooont of IIm presence of air in the bottle. "Indestructibility" of matter signifies that matter cannot be destroyed The amount of matter in the universe cannot be de- creased. "Inertia" is the tendency of matter to remain in the same con- dition, that is, if at rest, to remain so, and if in motion, to continue to move with unchanged speed in the same d ir ec ti on. "Elasticity" is the property of matter to resist pressure, polling, bending or twisting, and to resume its original form when the force ceases to act upon it A solid body, like rubber, has elasticity cf volume and form, that is, it regains its original form and volume ^hen the force ceases to act on it; fluids have perfect elasticity of volume but no elasticity of form. "Porosity." As all bodies are composed of separate small par- ticles, or molecules, they only apparently fill the space they seem to occupy. The interstices between the molecules are called "pores," and bodies arc said to have porosity. If a tumbler is entirely filled with water some alcohol can be poured into the water without overflowing the tumbler because the alcohol en- ters into the spaces between the molecules of the water. "Hardness" of matter is the property of resisting any attempt to separate its molecules by splitting it. When one body is able to scratch another it is said to be harder than the other. The hardness of many bodies is increased by heating the body and suddenly cooling it. This process of hardening a hodf is called "tempering." Some bodies can be made softer by slow cooling after heating them to a high temperature. This process is tailed "annealing." "Tenacity" is the quality of matter to resist a force tending to pull its particles apart from each other. "Malleability." Some bodies can be hammered or rolled into sheets, and such bodies arc said to possess maLlleability. Iron and, to a still greater extent, go\d can be v^oiVt^ voXq n«p| %aut sheets. PHYSICS. 115 "Ductility." Some bodies, f. in., glass, iron, platinum, can be drawn out into very fine wires, and such bodies are called "ductile." "Solutions." Solid bodies and gases can be changed to fluid form by means of some liquids. A lump of sugar thrown into water or alcohol will gradually disappear, the molecules of the solid sugar distributing themselves between the molecules of the water or alcohol, and the two bodies forming one liquid are called a solution. When a solid is changed to a liquid in such way, there is generally a fall of temperature. The melting o' ice or the addition of salt to water produces cold. Usually a liquid will dissolve more of a solid body at a high temperature than it will at a lower. The quantity of a gas taken up by a fluid varies with the temperature and the pressure, and the lower the temperature of the fluid and the stronger the pressure, the more gas will the fluid take up. "Crystallization." When a solution in water of sugar, salt, or many other substances, is allowed to dry up slowly, the solid bodies in solution often assume a regular shape, a cube, a pyramid, etc., and such bodies are called crystals Thus salt crystallizes in cubes, alum in pyramids, sugar in prisms. "Absorption." A few solid bodies have the power of taking up or absorbing gases. Thus charcoal can condense in its pores as much as 90 times its own volume of ammonia gas. "Diffusion." Some liquids and all gases when brought* into mutual contact will penetrate each other and produce a uniform mixture. If alcohol, which is lighter than water, is poured on top of water, the heavier water will in the course of time rise and mix evenly with the alcohol. In the same way carbonic acid, which is one-half again as heavy as air, will gradually mix uni- formly with the air. This property of matter is called diffusion. SPECIFIC GRAVITY Denotes the weight of a body as compared with an equal bulk or volume of another body adopted as a standard, which is reckoned as a unit. In cases of solids or liquids the standard body is pure water of 39.2** F. The specific gravity of a sub- stance is, therefore, a number explaining how mauy times iKe weight of an equal hulk oi water is contamed \tv VV^ -vex^X. c^^ "^^ 1 16 PHYSICS. tulsUiice. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 lbs., one- cubic fool of iron weighs 487.5 lbs., dividing 4S7.5 by 63.5 gives s. ^ qaotient of 7.8, indicating that when equal bulks of iron and water kre taken, the iron weight 7.8 limes as much as the water; hence the speciHc gravity of iron is 7.8. For determination of specific gravity, hydrometer*, saccharo- Hieters. picnometers, etc, see "The Breucis' Chemical Labof' llory," ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. Air being a material substance has weight. The surface of the earth is the bottom of an ocean of air, and supports the weight of the entire atmosphere. Every square inch of the earth's tur- face is. therefore, exposed to 3 certain pressure which is equal to the weight of the column of air resting on it, and reaching from the surface of the earth up to where the air ends. The lower strata 01 the air, i. e, those nearest to the ground, ate much denser and heavier than the upper ones, as they tre com- pressed by the weight of the upper strata. The atmospheric pressure is, therefore, less on the lop of a high mountain than it is at sea level, since the column of air over the top of the moiM' tain is both shorter and less dense. At sea level the pressure of the atmosphere is 14-7 **■ P** square inch. This pressure is exerted on all bodies with equal power in aD directions. In a bottle filled with air the pressure is e(,ual on the outside and on the inside but if the air be withdrawn from the botde the outside pressure is no longer balanced by any pressure on the inside, and the walls of the bottle will break unless they are very strong. The surface of an average man's body is about 30 square feet, or 3,88o square inches, and the pressure on his body is a8SD X 14.7 lbs., or 42,366 lbs. But this pressure on the outside is counteracted by an equal pressure from within. If one end of an open tube is dipped into water, and the air sucked out at ihe other end, the water will immediately rise into the tube, and if the air is drawn out completely the water will rise to a height of nearly 34 feet, and no more, because the weight of 3 column o! water of such height w'vW \)a\a.nct 'ftit -wtv^i. ^A l/te air. PHYSICS. "7 The entire atmosphere, therefore, weighs as much as a layer of water surrounding the globe to a depth of 34 feet. If mercury is used instead of water, the column will be only about 30 inches high, because mercury is 13.5 times denser than water. When the air is partly or entirely removed from a vessel there is said to be a partial or complete vacuum in the vessel. WEIGHT OF WATER AT SEA LEVEL OR 30" BAROMETER. op °R. Weight Weight 1 Cu. Ft. 1 BbL 31 Gal. 32° P. 0.° R. 62.417 Lb. 258.656 •».2« " ♦ 3 jjO .1 62.425 " 258.689 50O u go .. 61409 " 258.623 60° •• 12.4" " 62.367 •' 268.448 70° " 16.9° " 62.302 •• 258.180 goo •' 21.3° " 62.218 ♦• 257.831 90° " 25.8° •♦ 62.119 " 257.421 212° •• 80° •' 59.7 '• 247.897 ^GreAtest density. BAROMETER. A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. The mercury-barometer is a glass tube about 36 inches high, the upper end of which is exhausted and closed air-tight, while the lower end is immersed in a vessel of mercury. The atmospheric pressure keeps the tube filled with mercury to a height of about 30 inches, the remaining 6 inches at the top being a complete vactitun. The atmospheric pressure, like the temperature of the air, is constantly changing, and these changes are shown by the rise or fall of the column of mercury in the glass tube. The "aneroid-barometer" is a portable instrument, without any liquid. It consists of a metallic box, exhausted of air, the' walls of which yield under the varying pressure of the air, their movements being transferred to an indicator on a graduated scale. MOISTURE OF THE AIR. The air, when in contact with water, absorbs some of it, and vapor of water is, therefore,^ always present in the atmosphere. The warmer the air is, the more moisture can it hold. Iw ^ tropical climate the air may become almost ssilux^te^^ ^\>^ ^-aX^x during the rainy season. But, on the otVver b^nd, vVv^ ^v't cvcv\i^ ii8 PHVSICS. hot and siill very dry, if it rests over a surface devoid of waHr, for instance, Ihe great desert region of Sahanu If warm and moist air is gradually cooled down it finally reaches a temperature at which it can no longer hold all the moisture, but deposits some of it in liquid form as dew, fog or clouds, as the case may be. The lenipcraiurc at which this precipitation takes place is called the dew point, and indicates the temperature at which the moist- ure present would be sufficient to saturate the air com^etely. The less moisture the air contains, the further must it be cooled down before this precipitation ol *a\eT \.aV^?, ^V^se, i. e^ the loner is the dew point. PHYSICS. 119 ^ ' HYGROMETER. TMre are various methods of finding the amount of moisture in the air, and the instruments used for this purpose are called hygrometers. One is based upon the fact that water will evaporate faster in dry air than in moist. This instrument consists of two ther- mometers, one of which indicates the actual temperature of the air. The bulb of the other thermometer is covered with muslin which is kept wet with water; the evaporation produces cold and the thermometer soon sinks below the actual temperature of the air. When it comes to rest the degree is noted, the differ- ence in temperature between the two thermometers is taken, and the amount of moisture in the air found from tables made up for this purpose. This instrument is known as the "wet-bulb hygrometer." Another common hygrometer is the "hair hygrometer" in which the variations of moisture in the air are indicated by a hair, previously freed from oily matter, and which stretches when moist and contracts when dry, the movements being trans- ferred to an indicator. HEAT. The molecules of all bodies are in continual motion and this motion is what we call "heat." The more rapidly the molecules move, the hotter is the body. If the movement of the molecules should stop entirely the body would have no heat, it would be absolutely cold. Calculations for the gases have led to the con- clusion that such a state would be reached at 460 degrees below the zero point of a Fahrenheit thermometer. When two bodies of different temperatures are brought in con- tact, the temperature of the warmer one falls while that of the colder one rises, that is, the rapidly moving particles of the warmer body cause the particles of the colder body to move more rapidly than before, while the movements of its own particles arc lessened. This process takes place in a similar way as when a fast moving train runs from the rear into one of less speed; the slow train is pushed ahead faster, while the speed of the other is lessened. "Expansion." An immediate result of the increase in speed of the molecules, which becomes sensible \n iVvt \oTTi\ il| ^ fire the temperature will soon rise at the other end of the iNnr. The heat of the fire has traveled from layer to layer of thKs^ hik without any sensible motion of the iron panicles. Heat transmitted in this way is called conducted heat. A stick of wood may be burning and held in the hand within a short distance of the burning part, whereas a bar of any metal under similar circumstances would burn the hand. The wood does not conduct the heat so well as do the metals. Metals are the best conductors of heat, and of the metals silver is the best, then follow copper, gold, tin and iron. The next best conductors are stones, dense woods and charcoal, then liquids in general and, finally, gases which conduct hardly any heat at all. "Circulation of Heat." Although liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat, they may, nevertheless, be quickly heated, if the heat is applied to the bottoms of the vessels containing them. This heating, however, is not by conduction, but by cir- culation. A circulation is set up in the fluid or gas when the portions in contact with the bottom of the vessel get heated, become lighter, and rise to the surface, carrying the heat with them. "Radiation of Heat." There is another and entirely different way by which heat is transmitted through certain media, and travels with the speed of light, being, in fact, of the same nature as light. Such is the transmission of heat from the sun to the earth, and from any hot body through the air. In this case the heat does not to any extent affect the air through which it ^ PHYSICS. 121 i0 travel%' it passes between the molecules of the air. Heat that ivoVes in such manner is said to be radiated. If radiated heat strikes a body too solid to allow it to pass through, the heat is absorbed and raises the temperature of that body. The light and heat from the sun pass through the atmosphere without warming it, but they heat the earth. From the warm earth, the lower strata of air are then heated by conduction and circulation. EXPANSION OF SOLIDS. Nearly all solid bodies expand when heated and contract when cooled. The amount of expansion which different solids undergo depends on the nature of the solid, and the temperature. When heated from 32** F. to 212** F., the expansion in rods of the following substances is : Firwood 0.000408 ( ) Steel not tempered 0.001078 ( ) Copper 0.00171 ( ) ^504/ that is, a bar of iron, 927 inches long at 32** F., will be one inch longer or 928 inches, when heated to 212** F. EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS. The expansion of liquids varies greatly with the nature of the substances. Between 32** F. and 212° F. water expands 0.045 ( — \ of its original volume, alcohol o.iii f — j. Hence 22 barrels of water at 32** F. will fill 23 barrels at 212** F. Water forms an exception to the uniformity of progressive expansion with rising temperatures. When heated from 32° F. to 39.2** F., it contracts instead of expanding, and only after reaching the temperature of 39.2° F. does it begin to expand when heated. The temperature of 39.2** F. marks its greatest density, and from this point on it expands whether It U Vift.^.\.^^ or cooled. 123 PHYSICS. ^ EXPANSIDir OP GASES. All gases expand nearly alike for an eqoa! increase in tempefll^ ture, and the increase in volume is independent of the t e mp e ra - ture and pressure of the gas. The amount of expansion for a rise in temperature from 32*" F. to 212** F. is 0.566 of the origiiial volume. CHANCaS OF STATE. • Many solid bodies when heated are liquified or fused* or they melt. To effect the change from sdid to fluid a certain amount of heat is required. If one pound of water of 32° F. and one pound of water of 174"* F. are mixed, the temperature of the mixture will be 103^ F., or half way betweea 32** F. and 174° F. But if we mix one potmd of ice of 32* F. and one pound of water of 174^ F. we will have two pounds of water of 32° F. That is, all the heat given off by the warm water has been just sufficient to melt the ice without producing any rise in temperature. Heat which is absorbed by melting bodies is called "latent heat," or heat of fluidity. In an exactly similar way heat is absorbed when a fluid is changed into a gas. If we place a thermometer in water that is being heated, the thermometer will constantly rise until it reaches 212* F., at which point it becomes stationary. Any further heat added does not raise the temperMure of the boiling . water but is entirely consumed in transforming the water into steam. This heat which is absorbed by the steam is called the "latent heat of vaporization." If steam is condensed to water, this ab- sorbed heat is set free once more. One pound of steam of 212* F., when condensed by being conducted into cold water, gives out heat enough to raise 5.4 pounds of water from 32** F. to 212'' F. "Distillation." If a fluid is made to boil and the vapors are condensed again, the condensed fluid is said to be distilled. The fluid to be distilled is placed in a vessel, called a retort, generally made of glass or metal, the vapors arising from the boiling fluid pass into a tube, called the worm, which is kept cold by running water, and the condensed vapors flow from the worm into a suitable receiver. The whole apparatus is called a still. If water is treated this way, the condexvstd s^^^^m turns into y PHYSICS. 123 pttC^'Vvater, while the salts and other non-volatile substances re- main behind in the retort. "Sublimation." A few solid bodies, when heated, boil before they melt, and consequently pass directly over from the solid to the gaseous state. Such a change is called sublimation. Solid carbonic acid for instance is such a body and when lying in the open air it passes directly into a gas. BOILING POINT OF WATBR. Height Above Sea Barometrtc Boils, Degrees Boils, Degrees Level. Indication. P. R. 15.K1 Feet. 16.79 Inches. 184«» P. 67 6" R. 10.127 '• 20.39 193" ' 71.6" '• 9 081 ♦• 21.26 195« • 72.4" " 7,932 " 22.17 '• 197» • 73.3" " 6,848 " 23.11 199« ' 74 2" •' 0,804 " 23.59 2000 •* 74 7" •• 6.225 *♦ 24.58 2020 • 75 6" •• 4.169 " 25..W 204" • 76.4" " 8,116 *• 26.61 •• 20ft» • 77 3" •' 2.063 •• 27.73 " 20e» ' 78.2" " 1,M9 ** 28.29 '• 209« ' 78.7" " 1,025 " «8.85 210O ♦ T9.1" " 612 . *• 29.42 211* ' 79.6" *• 0' •* 30. 212» ♦' 80. " •• BOILING POINT OF WATER IN VACUUM. Inches Vacuum. Inches Barometer. Temperature P. Temperature R. 00 30 212" 80 " 11 19 190" 70 " 18 12 170" 61 " 22.5 7.5 150" 52.5" 25 5 186" 45.7" 27.5 2.5 112" 35.5" 28.5 1.5 92" 26.6" 29 I 72" 17.5" 29.5 0.5 52" 8.9" THERMOMETERS. "Measurement of Temperature and Heat." The degree of heat is measured by thermometers. The amount of heat is measured by the increase in temperature it is capable of producing in a certain quantity of water. "Thermometers." The warmer a body is, the larger is its volume, and an increase in volume indicates a corresponding rise in temperature, a contraction of volume indicates a cor- rcspondingr fall in temperature. This pTopexV^ \^ >\<^vl^\ V^t measuring temperatures. 124 PHYSICS. Mercury or alcohol, enclosed in giau Tessels, are the stances commonly used to measure the expansion produced hy heat Such instruments are called thermometers. For description and testing of thermometers, see "The Brew- ers' Chemical Laboratory." HEAT UNITS. "Measurement of Heat, Heat Units.** The amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one pound of water from 32** F. to 33** F. is called a heat unit, a therm, or a calory. To raises for instance, the temperature of 5 pounds of water by 10* F. tikes 5 X 10 or 50 heat units. "DiiTercnt Heat Units." Instead of taking for a unit the heat that can raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit, a heat unit may be calculated upon a cubic foot of water, a barrel of water, or any quantity that may be convenient, and instead of Fahrenheit degrees, Reaumur or Celsius (Centigrade) may be used. "For Calculations in the Brewer>'" it is often convenient to take as a heat unit the quantity of heat that will raise one barrel of water one degree Reaumur. As a barrel of water weighs 258.5 pounds and i' R, = 2.25** F., this heat unit is 258.5 X 2^5 or 581.6 times larger than the ordinary heat unit. To raise ten barrels of water from o' R. to 8o* R., will take 10 X 80 or 800 such heat units, and if 10 barrels of water are cooled from 80* 1\- to o** R.. they give off 800 heat units. As before stated, it requires as much heat to melt one pound of ice as to heat one pound of water from 32 to 174** F. To raise the temperature of one pound of water f-'om 32** F. to 174* F. or by 174 — 32 = 142 degrees takes i X 142 heat units, that is, the "latent heat of melting ice" is 142 heat units. Similarly, it takes as much heat to change one pound of water of 212° F. to one pound of steam of 212** F., as to raise 5.37 pounds of water from 32** F. to 212° P.. or 5.37 X (212 — 32), or S'37 X 180, or 972 heat units. The "latent heat of vaporization," therefore is 966 heat units. SPECIFIC HEAT. Equal weights of different substances require different amounts of heat to raise them to a given temperature. Water regwres more heat than any other body, solid or /fu/d, and is, therefore, used as a unit. TYve ^feviit v\v;vv tx\i\t^^^s y PHYSICS. "5 hoiC'^u*:^ heat is required to raise the temperature of a certain weight of a. body one degree as compared with that required to raise the temperalure of an equal weight of water by one degree, is called the specific heat of the substance. The specific heat of barley malt, for instance, is 0.4, that is it takes only four-tenths of the heat which will raise the temperature of a certain weight of water one degree, to raise the temperature of an equal weight of malt one degree. To heat ten pounds of water from 40' F. to 100° F. takes 10 X 60, or 600, heat units; to heat 10 lbs, of malt from 40' F. to 100' F. takes only 10 X 60 X 0-4. c 240, heat units. LIGHT. Light is a form of energy which produces the effect of vision. Light, as well as sound, is transmitted through bodies in undula- tions or little waves. It is not in the molecules of a body, how- ever, that light produces this wave-like movement in passing through such body, but in a substance which fills the spaces be- tween the molecules as well as the space 'jetween the heavenly bodies. This substance is called ether, and is of excessive fine- ness, filling the whole universe and allowing the molecules yc\^T\V c>K opposite direction is produced. It 130 PHYSEG&. ''\ A "Magneto-Electric Machine'' utiiizet thii principle Cflf-Jlie purpose of inducing electric currents in wire coils by changing ^ the relative positions of the wire coils and the magnets, alter- nately increasing and decreasing the distance. Tlie "Direct-Current Dynamo" is a device for generating an electric current It consists of three principal parts: An armature,'* made of coils of wire; an electro-magnet; and a commutator" for giving the same direction to the alternating currents. The armature is a soft iron ring or cylinder carrying coils of insulated copper wire and arranged to rotate rapidly about the magnet. The soft iron in the coil increases the strength of the electric current SOUND. Sound is that form of motion which affects the auditory nerve. It is produced by a succession of rapid vibrations in any elastic substance, solid, fluid or gaseous. These vibrations can be plainly seen in the strings of a piano or harp. Solid bodies and liquids conduct sound better than gases. Sound cannot be trans- mitted through a vacuum. Air is the principal carrier of sound; the velocity of sound through air is 1.090 feet per second. Sound can be reflected and refracted in very much the same way as light. An "echo" is produced by sound waves reflected back to their source. In the open air sound scatters in all directions, and its intensity diminishes rapidly with the distance. If by some means the vibrations are made to move in one direction or confined within a narrow space, the sound can be heard farther. (Speaking tubes and speaking trumpets.) TELEPHONE. The telephone is an instrument for transmitting sound over a lonjjf distance. The sound vibrations produced when a person speaks into the mouthpiece of the instrument cause a thin iron plate to vibrate, thereby producing electric currents in an electro- magnet. These electric currents are sent by a metallic wire to a distant place, and received in a similar instrument, causing the iron plate to vibrate in exactly the same manner as the first. These vibrations are imparted to the air and thus reproduce the » WORK AND ENERGY. When a force causes motion of a body through space, it is said to e, in Inches. 6 Hxd L 1 1H 2 2'/i 3 3H 4 6 Gallons Disci barged l»er Mi nute. O.OOOU&MOS 0.025 0.0611 0.1150 0.2045 0.3196 0.4602 0.826 0.818 1.278 1.841 0.00006137 0.06 0.1022 0.2301 0.4091 0.6892 0.9004 1.252 1.686 2.566 8.682 0.00000108 0.075 0.1534 0.3460 0.6IS6 0.9588 1.381 1.878 2.464 3.834 6.523 0.0001341 aioo 0.2045 0.4602 0.8182 1.278 1.841 2.604 3.278 6.113 7.388 0.0001886 0125 0.2556 0.5750 1.023 1.598 2.301 3.130 4.090 6.300 9.206 0.00023M 0.15 0.3057 0.6900 1.227 1.917 2.761 3.756 4.906 7.668 11.06 0.0009016 0.175 0.3578 0.8053 1.432 2.237 3.221 4.882 6.728 8.947 12.81 0.C0Q0702 0.2 0.4090 0.9204 1.636 2.567 3.682 6.006 6 646 10.23 14.73 0.C004452 0225 0.4601 1.085 1.841 1 2.876 4.142 5.684 7.863 11 60 16.67 0.0006006 0.25 0.5M2 1.150 2.045 3.196 4.602 6.260 8.160 12.78 18.41 0.0006M0 0.:75 0.5624 1.2(V'> 2.250 3.515 5 06: 6 886 9.000 14.06 20.26 o.oooroeo 0.3 0.6135 1.881 2.454 8.836 5. 52 J 7.612 9.819 16.34 22.00 0.0008067 0.3^5 O-OW** 1.496 2.659 4.1M 5.962 8.138 10.&4 16.62 28 98 0.0000154 0.35 0.7157 1.611 2.864 J 4.474 6.443 8.764 11.46 17.89 2S.77 0.0010286 0.375 0.7669 1.726 3.068 4.794 6.903 9.890 12.27 19.17 27.61 0.0011480 0.4 0.8180 1.841 3.273 I 5.113 7.363 10.02 13.09 20.45 20.46 0.001874 0.425 0.8601 1.966 3.477 5.433 7.823 '10.64 18.91 21.78 81.29 0.001406 0.45 0.9302 2.071 3.682 5.757 8.2ft4 11.27 14.78 28.01 88.18 0.001M5 0.473 0.9713 2.186 3.886 6.077 8.744 111.89 15.55 24.29 84.97 0.001600 0.5 l.OK^ 2.301 4.091 6.392 9.204 12.62 16.87 25.57 86.82 o.ooe 0.55 1.125 2.531 4.500 1 7.031 10.12 13.77 18.00 28.12 40.50 O.O0S88 O.fl 1.227 2.761 4.909 7.670 11.04 15.02 19.64 80.68 44.18 0.000603 0.65 1.329 2.991 5.818 8.30W 11.96 16.28 21.27 38.28 47.86 O.OOS079 0.7 1.431 3.221 5.727 8.948 12.88 17.58 22.91 85.79 51.54 0.008490 0.75 1.533 3.450 6.136 1 0.588 13.81 18.78 24.64 88.34 56.28 0.008926 08 1.636 3.682 6.544 ,10.23 14.73 '20.03 26.18 40.90 58.90 0.004888 O.Kt 1.738 3.612 6.954 10.86 15.65 21.29 27.82 43.46 62.60 0.004876 0.9 l.Wl 4.142 7.363 11.51 16.57 22. .53 29.46 46.02 «J.27 0.006088 1.0 2.045 4.602 8.182 12.78 18.41 ,25.04 82.73 61.13 73.63 0.00648 1.05 2.147 4.832 8.591 13.42 19.33 126.29 84.87 53.69 77.31 0.00706 1.1 2.24i» 5.062 9.000 il4.06 20.25 27.54 86.00 56.24 80.99 0.007091 1.15 2.351 5.292 9.4(»9 ,14.70 21.15 28.80 37.64 58.80 84.67 0.006838 1.2 ' 2.454 5.522 9.818 1I5.34 22.09 30.05 30.28 61.36 88.86 0.009 1.25 2.55(5 5.753 10.23 ,15.96 23.01 131.30 40.91 63.91 92.04 UPWARD OR DOWNWARD FLOW OF PIPES. The formulas given are for horizontal pipes or hose. Where there is a difference in height between iht ^ovciV. ol «wVrs ^V ^^ pipe and the point of discharge, the iotttv\^«L xtrMitv* >icA. ^asci^, 144 MECHANICS. bnt the value of the head will be different The head for a hoHr zontal pipe is the height of the anr&oe of the liquid above the pcnnt of entry into the pipe, which point is on a level with the point of discharge. Where the pipe falls or rises from the point of entry to the point of discharge or nozzle the head on. the fluid is different The head is always equal to the vertical difference between the surface of the fluid and the point of dischaive. Where a pipe falls, after leaving the pCMnt of entry, the head will increase; where it rises, the head will diminish. Thus, where a fluid is run from a tank on one floor to a ves- sel on a floor below, the total head is the difference in altitude between the stirface of the fluid in the upper tank and the point of discharge ii\ the lower, so that the head is largely increased over that of an horizontal pipe or hose. Where, on the other hand, the fluid is discharged at a point higher than the point of entry into the pipe, the head will be diminished as against that of an horizontal pipe. Example i. — What will be the discharge of a 3-inch pipe carrying a fluid from a tank in which it stands 8 feet high, and being emptied into a vessel 8 feet high, standing on a floor 20 feet below the first tank, both tanks standing on the respective floors without feet or other supports' raising them above the level floors. The first tank stands at one end of the floor, the sec- ond at the opposite end of the one below, giving the pipe a length of 210 feet. The fluid in the si'pply tank is kept at a uniform height by a constant inflow of fresh fluid. Solution. — Assuming the water to be delivered at the tc^ of the lower vessel, the head of the fluid will be the height of the upper tank (8 ft.) plus difference in altitude of floors, .^ess height of lower vessel (20 — 8 ft.). 8 + 20 — 8 = 20 ft. Reduce length of pipe in feet to yards: 210:3 = 70- Inserting these values according to above rule for finding the discharge in gallons for a given head, length of pipe and diameter, gives 20:70 = 0.29: nearest number in table under diameter 3 inches 0.286; corresponding number in first column 130. Answer. — Required discharge in gallons per minute = 130. The capacity of the tank to be filled being known, this affords a simple means of computing the time that will be required to W it from the supply tank. I I MECHANICS. 145 RULES FOR LAYING PfPES OR HOSK. The shorter the pipe, the greater the discharge; hence unnec- essary length of pipe is to be avoided where time is of any moment Angles and curves are to be avoided for the same reason, as they materially interfere with the flow of fluid through pipes. Hence the hose, where such is used, should be of just the requi- site length to avoid a waste of time or pressure. In the case of wort or beer this is all the more important since the viscosity of the material augments the friction in the pipe. Sharp angles are to be avoided entirely in pipes and hose, as well as contractions and enlargements- of bore. Where curves or elbows cannot be avoided they should be well rounded and of large radius. In that case they offer so little resistance to the fluid that no account need be taken of them in computing time of discharge. By radius is meant the radius of the arc formed by the axis or central line of the bend. This should not be less than five times the diameter of the pipe. Where the respective values can be ascertained, the following formulae can be used : / == value given in table, next below, for each diameter. h h = height of column of water in feet — ^ p / = pessurc in lbs per square inch. V = velocity in feet per second. / = lertgth- of pipe in feet. Q = number of cubic feet discharged per minute. G = number of gallons discharged per minute. / ar rr "T =n co-efficient of inclination. I To find G; given d, ?i, I G=^X7-5 Vx To find Q/ given d, /t. i t To find ify given /, h, Q ^ ^= ^ V.^, find value for d opposvle t \tv \aXA«^ 146 MECHANICS. To find h; given /, Q^ d "-'-{hr To find // given /. (>, ^ f= r4-. (^) To find v; given C» ^ _ 10 (? rf"ir To find IV given /, d, h V = 41.6 yAi2 d To fin'i x; given (>, c^, / DISCHABGR OF WATKB IN PU*K8. Dlam. Ft. t Tub. No. I 11 Diam. i Tub. ', Diam. ' No. , Id. Ft. In 1 4.71 ' 9 1.25, 8.48 10 1.5 i 13.0S 11 1.75 19.15 t 28.00 1 2.5; 46.67 2 3 ' Tt.h 1 3 3.5 106.14 4 4 151.02 5 4.5 : 194. H4 6 5 263.87 7 6 4in.!V4 8 < 6J2.3e 9 8 854.99 10 !'Ft. In. 1147.6 1 11 1493.5h 2 ' 2366 ! 2 2876.7 2 3I'3.3 2 ; 4115.9 2 48?6 9, 2 I 5638.5. 2 6-93 1: 2 I 7453 ' 2 8449 2 95<4 2 10722 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 t Tub. No. Ft. 119S3! 3 13828- 8 14758, 3 16278- j 8 m89 3 19A9ej 3 21390, 3 28f«2' 3 «K70^i 3 17368" 3 S9M7 31f:34 34228 36725 Diam. In 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 6 5 5 3»329i 4 42040! 5 44863 47794 5083^ 5 539951 6 57265, 60648'- 7 641561, 7 6778i 8 715261 > 8 7h3ft2 9 877301. ft 1012071 10 In. 9 3 6 9 6 6 t Tub. Kg. 1156M 18170S 148791 167189 186786 207754 263781 306437 126481 49f276 I 572508 655369 :4F0C'8 THE MECHANICS OF GASES. Elastic Force of Gases. — Gases are in the highest degree elastic. The volume of a gas depends upon the pressure exerted upon it. If the pressure is increased two, three or four times, the volume decreases at the same rate, that is, the gas that under a certain pressure occupies one cubic foot will, when the pressure in- creases lour times, occupy one-fourth of one cubic foot. As soon as the pressure is released the gas vi\\\ Teswcvt vVv^ oxl^tial ya/ume. MECHANICS. 147 Again, a volume of air, or another gas, which, under ordinary circumstances, fills one cubic foot, can be made to expand to any volume by the release of the pressure upon it. PUMPS, On these principles is based the construction of the "air-pump," which h an instrument for removing a gag from a closed vessel. -pump consists essentially of a metallic cylinder, in which 1 tightly -fining piston. The bottom of the cylinder wvro.- .viih file vessel to be exhausted, m»4 \\4a a, ■s'!\sc c(%«i- iog upwBrd A siinilar valve is fitted Vo \,V\t ?\«.oti. HI't*:^ "^Is 148 MECHANICS. piston 18 raised from the bottom of the cylinder, the air ia the vessel to be exhausted expands and fills the ▼acnom formed un- der the piston. When the piston descends, the valve in the bot- tom of the cylinder doses, and the air in the cylinder escapes through the valve in the piston. In this manner a cylinder full of air is removed at every stroke of the pnmpt. The "condensing pump" is an instrument similar to the air- pump, but which is used for compressing a gas into a closed vesseL The "lift pump*' or "suction pump" raises water with the hdp of atmospheric pressure. It consists of a cylinder, piston, two valves and a suction pipe. When the piston is raised the atnioa- pheric pressure forces the water through the suction pipe into the vacuum formed under the ascending piston. The water can theoretically be lifted only as high as the atmos- pheric pressure is able to lift it, that is, 34 feet. The practical limit by suction is, in fact, 28 feet. The "force pump" is used for lifting water to a higher level than can be done with the suction pump. Atmospheric pressure fills the cylinder, and steam or some other power is used to force the water from the cylinder through the discharge pipes. (See "Power.^) The "siphon" is a bent tube with unequal arms used to trans- fer liquids from one level over an elevation to a lower level. It is set in action by filling it with the liquid, dipping the shoner arm in the liquid, while the longer arm is brought to a lower level. When the ends are opened the flow will continue as long as the end of the longer arm is lower than the level of the liquid in the vesseL Atmospheric pressure keeps the siphon filled, the surplus weight of the column of liquid in the longer arm makes the liquid run out of the tube. THERMODYNAMICS. Thermodynamics treat on the relation between heat and work. Heat can be changed into motion, and motion into heat. The mechanical effect of steam is a well-known illustration of th<; conversion of heat into motion, and the heat produced by fric- tion, by hammering of metals and by condensation of gases shows c/ear/y that motion can be changed into heat. -^ siycn quantity of heat can always be changed VuVo ^ dftfewvV*. (From Afuej;«r-l'oiitllcls ei,y-.\ 150 MECHANICS. amount of work, and a certain amount of work can prodttoe a corresponding quantity of heat (See also "Power.") The ''mechanical equivalent of heat*' is the numerical rdation between work units and heat units. A "heat unit" is the amount of heat that will raise the tempera- ture of one pound of water one Fahrenheit degree. It is equiva- lent to 778 foot-pounds , or can lift 778 pounds one foot. The ''heat equivalent of chemical union" has a relation to the fuel values of substances. When a pound of carbon bums com- pletely to carbonic acid, it yields heat enough to raise S,o6o lbs. of w^ater one centigrade degree, or 1.8 Fahrenheit degrees. The "steam engine" is a device for transforming heat into mechanical energy. The heat of the burning coal is taken up by the water in the boiler. When the boiling temperature is reaciied all additional heat changes the water into steam, giving the steam a tension, or pressure. Tiic temperature at which the water boils depends on the pressure resting on the water. If the pressure is four atmos- pheres, nearly 60 lbs. per sq. in (45 lbs. gauge), the water boils at a temperature of 293** F. The steam issuing from such a boiler has. therefore, a temperature of 293** F., and a pressure of 60 pounds per square inch. This "live steam" enters the cylinder and pushes the piston ahead, causing a "stroke." If the cylinder has a diameter of 8 inches, the area of the piston is 50 square inches, and the total pressure on the piston is 50 X 60. or 3,000 pounds, being 60 pounds per square inch. Toward the end of the stroke the steam in the cylinder may be cut off from the steam in the engine, in which case the pressure of the cut-off steam decreases as the steam expands. At the end of the stroke a valve-rod. moved by an eccentric, shifts a slide-valve into such a position that the expanded or exhaust steam can escape into the open air. while fresh, live steam is admitted from the boiler to. the other face of the piston, pressing it back again. The greater part of the heat-energy produced by the burning of the fuel goes to waste, the steam engine utilizing less than 15 per cent of the heat. (See "Steam Engines.") ELEMENTS OF flACHINERY. LEVER. The lever is a solid body, commonly a bar, which is supposed to be not flexible. It has a fulcrum, or fixed axis, and at least two forces acting upon itself. It is employed to lift weights. The force which resists the motion of the lever is the load L. The force which wants to move the lever is called simply •*thc force," F. For general calculations the weight of the lever itself is neg- lected, and the lever considered a straight, not flexible line, which is called a mathematical lever. When force and load are exerted in the same direction, the lever is a straight lever. When force and load are exerted in directions at an angle with each other, the lever is an angle lever. When the fulcrum is located between the two attacking points of load and force, the lever is a two-armed lever. When the fulcrum is situated to one side of the attacking points of both load and force, the lever is a one-armed lever. All levers arc in equilibrium when load and force are in inverse proportion to their respective lever lengths; or, the products of lever lengths and respective forces must be equal. When the force and load act vertically upon the lever, the actual length of the lever arms is the length to be used in calculation. When, however, the direction is not vertical, it is the projection of the actual lever upon a line representing the lever vertical* to the direction of the forces that must be used for calculation. TWO- ARM LEVER. In Fig. I a f and a I are the actual lever lengths, while a f and a r are the lever lengths to be used for caLlcvil^lvcv^ n^vr. ^cs^^\ ^-f.- IS2 ELEMENTS OP MACHINERY. erted bgr force and UmuL The wajs wliicli the re^eetife Itvcr have made are ff and It and these most he ooosidered wfioitfM work performed is to be ralmlated, The pro d octa of the forces and their projected levers most be eqnal just as in the case of the actual levers. We assume that the Jevcr lengths are drawn in foet, and tiie forces in lines representing pounds. arrfolcnnn; /^ the point where the fofce F attadcs; I = the point where the load L attadcs; and f, f, F, T snbseqoent positions of / and L We have in Fig. i and The power exerted by the force at f is = Fxr^ l^theloadat/ rzLxTa. In the case of a two-armed lever, the force and load have the same direction. . /W-— -^ Two-Ann Lever. One-Arm Lever. The force exerted against the fulcrum is the algebraic stmi of load and force. Algebraic sum means the values with the sign attached, indicating their direction, viz.: + and — . If force and load have the same direction^ the force exerted upon the ful- crum is = F + L. If the force and load have the opposite direction, then the pressure exerted upon the fulcrum is L — F, and is exerted in the direction of the larger of the two forces, in this case the load. ONE-ARM LEVER. In Fig. 2 we have a one-arm lever, and calling the upward motion "-f-" and the downward motion " — *\ we find LXal = FXaf and LXar-PXar ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 153 ' The: §ower. which can bjB exerted by each force at f and / re- spectively, at f = + PXQr and at The pressure exerted upon the fulcrum = L — F and negative. ANGLE LEVER. Fig'. 3 shows an angle lever. Again FXaf=zLXQl and The powers exerted at / and I, are FXar ' and LXar but not in the same direction. The pressure upon the fulcrum in a vertical direction is = L, and in an horizontal direction = F. Angle Lever. Force Diagram. . When the forces do not act either vertically or horizontally, then they must be resolved into their • vertical and horizontal com- ponents, or the so-called force diagram formed, as shown in Fig. 4. Force F acts in an angle, and must, therefore, be resolved. Draw through the point at which the force attacks (f) one hori- zontal and one vertical line, and complete the rectangle by mak- ing force / the diagonal. Then, F* is the horizontal component of F, and represented by the length of line a f, F' is the vertical component of force F and represented by line f c. These values are found graphically as just shown. When line il) represents the number of pounds of the force F, in the same -scale the line a/ represents the number of pounds of F^, and f c the number pf pounds of i^. 154 ELfiMBNTS OF MACHIHBKY. To calcolate F* and F what PwaA^kt umfit ef diJIN|ioii are given, remember that "^ fc=zPXcosw. further that F'ssF' + F* Having found the components it is only necessary to find the proper lever lengths in order to know the power exerted at / aad f horizontally, as well as vertically. We have exerted on point / the power zszfxfr horizontally. on point / the power =zF XT^ vertically. on point / die power r= L* X i^ T horizontally. on point I die power =:L' X ^ vertically. The pressure upon the fiUcmm is verticallyr=F +U and horizontally =iF' + V /7yff Calculating Force on Lever. The power exerted by levers in Figs. 5 and 6 can now be cal- culated according to the directions given when calculating the same for Fig. 4. We only add the pressure upon the fulcrum in Figs. 5 and 6. In Fig. 5 In Fig. 6 pressure = + (L' — F ) vertically. L" — F" horizontally. the pressure = — (L' + F' ) vertically. = L'* — F" horizontally. If more than two forces are exerted, we have always to con- sider the algebraic sum of the same, which must be = o to give egnilibrium. Fig. 7 shows such lever where the power exerted by Me forces on one side on their rcspecllve levers must be ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. I55 (-F-) . ar+ i+F) . ar+ (+F) . af = (+/.-) . ar + i-U) . al'+i-L) . at and the pressure on the fulcrum (- F-) + (+ F') + (+ JJ) + (+ L-) + {- L') + C- L) SNATCH BLOCK. The snatch block (Fig. 8) is used to change the direction of the force, and not to increase the load for a given force. The load and force must be the same. If ^ a and I a represent F and L, which are equal, then the re- sulting pressure (S) exerted upon the pin of the fork holding the pulley, and finally upon the hook to which the fork is attached, is to F as ihc distance connecting the two points where the rope touches the pulley, to (he radius of the pulley, or S : F = bc : r. S is represented ij the itae a s, which also gives the direction of the force 5", which is the amount of pounds o£ pressure exerted against the hook carrying the snatch block. If the ropes arc parallel, that is 10 say, the direction of force and load parallel, then b c = sr SINGLE LOOSE BLOCK. A single loose block (Fig, g) is used to increase the load which a certain force can lift, the lime of lifting being proportionately in- creased. The rope is fastened at one end to a solid hook, and at the other end the force is applied, the pviWc-j \^ l«t Vo tWMt on the rope and carries the load by a lork wWcVv ^woW ody L is lying on an in- clined plane, and a force F Is to be exerted in the direction of the incline lo hold L in place. Make then be -XL ELEMENTS OF UACHINERY. 157 F9rce vertical against plane S = cos wXL, The force is directed in horizontal direction (Fig. 12). Draw the force diagram, resolving L into two components, one vertical to the plane and the other horizontal, mawe si := P, Inclined Plane. Force in direction of plane. Inclined Plane. Force in horizontal direction. and si" = /' / = 5" = the vertical force of the load on the plane. Then S :L = ac : ab or S = — XL, ac be F :L = bc :baoTF = — XL, ha or F = tan w X L. THE WEDGE. In a wedge (Fig. 13) the load is exerted vertically to the taper- ing side of the wedge. F \L'=:icb :ac. Wedge. The wedge is in equilibrium when F = gd and S = fd and F=:sinwy,L S=:COSWy,L. Double Wedge. 158 ELSMEHTS qP liACQINBRY. A double wedge is shown in Fig: 14. L and U are the ti^^ loads exerted vertically to the two tapering sides of the wedge. Draw the force diagram through the ends of L and L\ vie: f and g; then and The resulting force of both = 5* mnst be = F to have an equiK- brium FiL = bd:ab F^^iLXsinw. SINCaJS WSDGB MOVING. When a wedge (Fig. 15) moves from a to a, then e' g is the way the force has made, and ee' the way the load has made. Make ab :bc = L :F then ge' :ee'=zL :F. 1^-&i^^^:-^^^^h s . I Double Wedge Moving. Single Wedge Moving. DOUBLE WEDGE MOVING. When the wedge (Fig. 16) moves from a to a then aa = e' g. The way the force has made = e' ^ and the way the load has made = ce' + ff- Make ab :bd= (L + L') : F. then ge' :(ee-{-fn = {LJfL') : F, Again, the load is guided so that it cannot slip on the plane, and acts vertically. (Fig. 17.) Z?/aiF the force diagram for L, one component vertical to the taper. Force ge will be absorbed by l\ie "wed^^^, Yoxc^i ^c -v'^ ^ absorbed by the guide of the vertical iotce. T\vt loxt^ «,e ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 159 whjrfi was absorbed by the wedge, by drawing the power diagram, gives the components he and fe. fe = L and is resisted by the sliding plane with the force = S; therefore S = L he is resisted with equal force by force F; fe = gh. F : Lzzzhe i zh=^bc : ac F = L X tan.w. If the wedge moves a little, under the same conditions as above, then the way of the load is in proportion to the way of the force, as the force to the load. £}^ /^"i; Single Wedge Moving. 5 Block and Fall. THE SCREW. The mathematical definition of a screw is the single wedge isliding along the surface of a cylinder. The line produced, therefore, on the surface of the cylinder, forms the same angle with the side of the cylinder everywhere. The actual cutting of the thread can be best followed by the action of the lathe. The cutting tool has the shape of the thread, the motion of the tool rest is in conformity with the pitch of the screw, and the direction in which the tool rest moves, deter- mines the hand of the screw. If the tool is formed square, a square thread is obtained ; if formed with a point, the sharp thread is obtained. When the tool resl movt?* Itc^tcv \\s^\.\.^\^^ the right hand thread is produced, and Vvct \tts^. Looking at the screw itself, tVie side v^\\\c:\v xv^t.'s. e^'^.V'e^^^^'^^ l60 ELBlCENTit (MP MACHINEKY. ^ the band of the thread, tf it rites to the right it is a 1i%l|t ^ hand thread; if to the left, it is a left hand thread* while in a not "^ the directions are reversed. The thread on the screw is called the male, and the thread in the 'not the female thread. There are three standard kinds of tiiread, the sqoare, the sharpy and the ronnded comer one. When, after one thread has been cut, forming one continnoos line, a second or third line is cut between the lines formed by the first cot, the screw is a double or triple one. Mechanically, we can consider the screw. as a wedge, having for the back the pitch of the screw and for the base the drcunn ference of the screw, and therefore^ we apply the laws governing the wedge receiving the force parallel to the sliding plane (verti- cally to the axis of the screw exerted at the circumference) and the load vertically to the sliding plane (parallel to the axis of the screw). If we can P the pitch of the screw, u the circumference of the screw, and d the diameter of the. screw, F and L the forces, we have to put in the formula the back of the wedge be =z p the base of the wedge a& = « therefore, F : L = ^ : n. In order to avoid much explanation we will hereafter call the way the force makes, the force way, and the way the load makes, the load way. Load way: force way = F :L. If the screw is turned by a pin inserted into the head of the screw vertically to the axis and going through the same, we have the case of the wheel and drum. Calling R the distance from the axis to the point where the force attacks, the force required there = F to lift the load is FXR-FXr, when r is the radius of the screw. And r F = F— . R We had I ELEUENTS OF HACHIHUtY. rolution, the force waj is = jR v, It the screw made one and the load way is ^= p. BLOCK AND FALL. Neglecting the stiffness o£ the rope, we can easily study the action of the block and fall. We know that each single Mock must be in equilibrium, and that the tension in the same rope must be the same a £^ "1 r\ ^ Combination ol !ilngle Bloc COUMON BLOCK AND FALL. In Fig. i8, A is the block and B the fall, and one condnnons rope goes over ail pulleys. The number of pulleys in the block s= the number of pulleys in the fall = «; then Since we have « pulleys il is evident that the load bangs on 9n ropes, which have all the same tension, as explained before; therefore, the tension in one The arrangement of the pulleys might be as \t\ ^'1%. V), -mVvOiv is preferable when hng pieces are to be \\Uc4, as \ii«^ twi "a-^Ai be balanced. The upper pulleys are pVvtAed m a. \«aai twSw* \., •V;^ IM BLEicBiiTS or uAcnmax. on poats or walla, while the lower pnllqrs are pivoti beam provided with boola to receive the load. COMBlHATiaM OF SOKLX BLOCKS. In I^g. 20 the ends of the mpa of each single block uc at- cured lo a fixed beam at one eiul, and to the book of the noEt single pidley, at the other end. The rope from the last loose block must be passed over a snatch block. Fig. 31 shows a serie* of snatch blocks connected t o g c i li er. The ropes are fastened with one end to the load and vrith the other end lo the hook of the next snatch block, and the last to where Ihe force is exerted. Each pulley has a separate rope. If we have n loose pulleys attached to ropes only we find I F = — L. This block and fall is called the "potential." The load acts first on the loose pulley A, and since each p*rt of the rope has an equal tension, the tension in each = % L. The loose pulley B has to carry only as much as rope I =^''A L. therefore, each rope e and d has lo carry only ■= hi L. The pulley C then carries only as much as rope d = ^ L, and, therefore, the ropes c and / only one-half of this each ^= % L, and the force against the hook, carrj-ing the snatch block, must be = -' X H i. = M t. The i-alues 2. 4. 8, are e\-idertly potentials of ?, whence the name of the block and fall. Wc can Wetrforc tiri\e \V,t ff/r is the aumbcT of the loose pnlleja ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 163 9 Negative forces are F and L, and their sum = — L. 8 Positive forces are the tensions in the ropes. The force exerted upon the hook of the snatch block was = % L', 9 and the sum of all these positive forces is again = — L. 8 In Fig. 21 each rope carries one-quarter of the load, and its tension is therefore = M L. The force against the hook is = F -}- L, and if we call n the number of loose pulleys, then J F=: L. Fig. 22 shows another arrangement where each pulley has two hooks, with the exception of the last, the snatch block. The ten- sion in each rope must be the same; hence, the tensions a = & r= c = d = R Then the tensions e, f, g, must be each z= 3 P, because the tension e must be equal tensions 6 + ^ + ^^ = 3^' The tensions h, i, k must each be = p F, because h = e + f + g = 3X3F = 9F. The load is carried by h, i, k, therefore h + i + kz=sX9F = 2rF, then J F = ^L, 27 or since 27 is the third power of j, J F^-U n zzi 2\xi this case. Against the hook of the fast pulley D is exerted a force = a •\- h •— 2F, and upon pulley ^' = d + r = 2 F, pulley f z= g + f = 6 F. pulley c' = i -^ k = 18 F. The wlwie beam has to carry i^ (^ + ^ + 6 + 18) = 28 F =1- -V ^^ 164 ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. Fig. 23 shows the reverse arrangement Again we hare being the tensions in the same rope; and for the same reasons g = A=;=f= pF, The load is carried by the ropes b, c, t, f, k, i, m, which give F{i + i + S + S + 9 + 9 + ^ + ^)=^9oP: therefore, P^^L^ L So ja + l — / (we have n pullejrs with double hooks). The fixed hook has to stand a pressure equal to the tension of the ropes k,l,mz=k + l + m^3X^XP = 8TP = L + P. DIFFERENTIAL DRUM. The differential drum (Fig. 24) works just like a single drum of the radius = ; if we call R = crank radius, r = large 2 drum radius, r' = small drum radius. Each of the ropes a and b has a tension == % L; the tension in b is exerted in the same direction as F, while the tension in a is in the opposite direction. Hence, we have: or F = — . and if two cranks are used F = 7^ The differential drum has the advantage that a larger load can he lifted with it than with a single drum. The radius of the crank being a fixed length, given by the most convenient length for the man operating the crank, the drum can have only a certain minimum radius in order to be strong enough to carry the load. This radius, compared with r, the radius of the smaller one of the differential drum is > ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 165 Jf the crank is 13' long and the anuller drum of the differential ,4hxm equals the radius of the single drum, and the larger dmm of the differential is 4*, then we have, in the case of the single drum, a leverage of 1:12, while the differential drum has a leverage of I ;34, which would not have been possible with the single drum. r f — K In one case the load way is — , and in the other case = ; or. inserting the figures = ■, respectively, we have — , or just twice as much. *4 DIFFERENTIAL BLOCK AND FALL. The block has two chain wheels on the same shaft, both being keyed to it The chain is endless, and placed, as shown in Fig. 85. so that two complete loops are formed. In one of the loops a loose pulley is suspended, and the other loop is used for applying the force. The loose pulley carries the load. Since one part of the chain has no tension, the upper chain pulleys must be pr&- rided with sprockets or recesses to prevent the slipping of the r = radius of large chain pulley; r = radius of small chain pulley. Then ^ r + « L r' = >A L r. Since the chain pulkys have eVthet sptockeX* ox ttt«««%. l66 ELEMENTS OP MACHINERY. V. nttmber of them can be ttaed instead of the radhn. If we call thfm n and n, respectively, we have * V, F = w If, therefore, the one chain pnlley has 22, and the other 20 sprockets or recesses, we have F = = — L. 44 »» When the force F is not exerted, the friction on the pivot of the block will generally be sufficient to hold the load in place. In other words, the chain need not be held, if the load remains sus- pended from the tackle, which is a great convenience in handling machinery. GEARS. If two cylindrical wheels are pressed against each others' sur- faces, they can transmit power to each other, but in most cases this friction would not be su£5cient for Ihe power required, and the wheels would slip. Hence, rough surfaces must be given to them or projections, called teeth, and recesses to engage them, in order to prevent slipping. The form of these so-called teeth must be carefully designed so that there will be no sliding fric- tion, but only rolling friction. The teeth are given different forms, but all such forms conform to the above-mentioned conditions. The diameter of a gear, which only is to be considered when selecting them, is the diameter of a circle going through about the middle of all the teeth, called the pitch line, while its diameter is called the pitch diameter. The distance from the center of one tooth to the center of the next tooth measured on the pitch line, is called pitch of the gear. If the outer diameter of the gear is given — which must be done as the gear body must be first turned to it in the lathe — and the number of teeth is given, the pitch diameter is obtained by sub- tracting from the outside diameter. 0.6 of the pitch; then divide the circumference of this circle by the number of the teeth, and the result must be the pitch. The figure 0.6 is twice the height of the tooth above the pitch line, while 0.4 is the distance to the foot of the tooth from the pitch line. Hence, Vo\;v\ W\^\\\. cvl 00th = 0.7 of pitch. The diaineters of two circles (wbedi) are in direct proportion to their wrcumferences, and the same proportion must prevai] be- twewAhe numbers of the respective teeth of each wheel which we will call = n, antl the pitch ^ p. Fig. 26 represents three pairs of gears, of which two pairs act upon each other, while the load is attached on the periphery of (he pinion to the left, and the force exerted on the periphery of the large gear at the right hand. The load, m well ai the force, might be represented again as gears, or might be weights attached by means of rapes. As these gears represent simply lerers when considered at standstill, we must use the laws there given. If we have equili- brium, we must have it in any part of the system ; therefore, also, at (he points where the forces X and Y are located, and we have Fxff =XXr. XXR- =yxr'. YXR" = I-Xf^. By multiplying the three equations we get another equation which will express the relation of force and load. FxXxYXRXR'XR'^LXXxyXrXr'X'^. since X and Y appear on both sides we can cancel them, and have FXRXRXIi' = l'XrXr-X>^. The force way is again in proportion to the load way as the load to the force. To find the number of revolutions the gear will make which carries L on its circumference, when the revolutions of the wheel receiving the force are given, calling the number of teeth of each wheel Z, Z' Z", a, s', z' , and the number of revolutions of gear A = N, and of gear C or C on the same shaft = », we have N :n = Z'X^ :fX»- GEARED JACK. In the geared jack (Fig. 27) we have cnmk radius = R; num- b* of teeth of pinion r= z; number of teeth of gear wheel ■= Z' ; pitch radius of pinion for rack ^ T. Then PXRXZ- = LXrX*, and FXRXZ- L = , rX» the load wbkh can be lifted by the exenion ol F Qtv *&it ttM**- ELSUSNTS OP ICACHINBRy! s. TWO INCLINED PLANES. Upon two indtned planes A8 and BC of the s (Hg. a8) rest two wdg^ts F and L, whicb are c cord mmiing over a pulley at B. If the ropes a and b are paialld 10 the respective inclined planes, we have equilibrium when F :L = BC :AB. ■^^•i The tension i the cord a most be = L - BD and in cord h must be ^ i^ . BC h roust be equal, being parts of the tame rop^ L P = . or F:L = BC: AB. AB BC WORM AND WORM WHEEL. The load L (Fig. 39) bangs on a rope wound around dnun with radius r, which is kejred to the same shaft with a gear of the radius R. A crank with the radius R' b secured to the sa; shaft with the wono, the pitch of the latter is = h. Both shaft! are pivoted vertically to each other by the same frame FXiRR' - =Lkr. In order to have eqniUbrium in the whole system, we must have it at a also. We assume that the forces X are exerted there. Then FyCiR- ==Xk. XR = Lr. -' ELEMENTS OF MACHIKERY. 169 Mnltiply the two equations. FXgRR'^ =LXhr; X being on both sides, is canceled. FiRR-^ =Lhr. SCREW.JACK WITH WORM AND WORM WHEEL. In order lo increase the power of nn ordinanr acrew jack > worm wheel is pivoted in the jack frame (Fig. 30) and receives the female thread corresponding to the male thread on the screw. This worm wheel is actuated by a worm and crank, and is prevented from turning hy a square at the lower end. Radius of crank = R' ; radius of worm gear = R; pitch of worm = A'; pitch of screw = A. Then F4RR' ir* = Lhh'. Considering again the equilibrium at the pcnnt of contact of worm and worm wheel, and calling the force there "X" we have XiR'T =Lh, FiR't =Xh'. Multiplying both equations and XF4 RR' T' = LXkW, X is canceled, and we have F4RR' "'^Lhh: DIFFERENTIAL SCREW. In order to increase the power of a screw filter press, we can use a screw having a coarser and a finer thread, the coarser in the upper press plate, and the finer in Ihe lower press -plate (Fig. 31). It is evident that since both screws move the plates in thft «v?^«- direction, both threads being oi tVit sa,m« Ya»4, •Ccvt ■>a.'4ii« ^%tw. plaie cannot compress as last aa 'tt deaccwA^ livwifc ft«.\"i-«« V'" i:?o BLBUBHTS OT HACHIHBBy. plate recedes slowly from it and at the ame Hat raducef tbe load war, and conseqnently increaiei tbe load, which force A can handle. We call h the pitch of coaner acrew; h' the pitch ^ of finer screw ; R the radiiu of crank. Then I- FK = i.(A — *■). The load in thii case ia a force directed aiainat die two preai plates, but in the onosite directioa to the force. To have Qqnili- brium for press plate C C for press plate D D Tbe force F" works in the same direction as the force at tbe crank, while the force F is opposed to both. Therefor^ F = P->rF: iR - PRINCIPLES OF VIRTUAL VELOCITY. If in a machine more ihan one force is applied, the force ways and the load ways must be considered separately. We allow only the smallest possible movement, and call it the "virtual velocity" of the force, and the product of the force and this virtual velocity, the "virtual moment." The product of force multiplied with iis proper lever is called the "moment" of the force load way r- load forte nity V or. force way X force = load way X load. If the force is not exerted in the direction the point Irai-rU. /Ae force way is the projection of the point way upon the force ^/revf/oa. ELEUENTS OF UACHINERY. I71 If ^ < L we have saTiiig of power, ItF > i, we have loss of power. Uy> V we have loss of time because the force makes a longer way. If F < V we have gain of time becanse the force makes a shorter way. Saving of time or force = a mechanical gain. Loss of time and force ^ a mechanical loss, id in every machine the loss must equal the gain, because Mo machine can save force and time at the same time. The virtual velocities are considered "positive" when they are in the direction of the force, and "negative" if in the direction of the load. We return to Fig. 23 to prove that where we lifted a load by one-eightieth part of the force applied, we required eighty times the time to do so, as if we had lifted the load directly. If the load is raised i" each of the ropes I and m are shortened i". Conse- quently k is shortened a', and the pulley C sinks 2'. coming 3" closer to the load, since the latter was raised i". This makes the ropes /i and i, 3" shorter, and therefore, g, 6" longer, and the pulley B has sunk 6" from pulley C, or a total distance of 8* from the beam, and the load is now 8 + i ^= 9' closer to the pulley U, rope k being shortened i'. The pulley B in sinking has short- ened ropes e and f by 9" each ; therefore, rope d must be shortened 18", and the pulley A sinks 18 -\- B ^^ 26'. and comes closer to the load by ^6 + I = 17'. This movement of the pulley A shortened each rope b and c by 37", and a therefore by S4'- Since, however, pulley A has sunk 26', the force F attached to rope a must have moved 5-; -j- j6 = 80'. LAWS OF VIRTUAL VELOCITY. When more than one force is exerted upon a twdy, we have equilibrium if the sums ( £ ) of all products of force and virtual velocities are ^^ o; or if the algebraic sum of the virtual moments " is — O. When two forces are exerted at different points of a. body, and act in different directions, we c%n c^i-aSi^Aw \'k». • both will tarn the body around a conimow c.e,vA«. T^wa ^t^vs* need not to be a part of the body, but can be owxivit o^ *• 172 We have a body JT and two forcet P and ^ exerted at ttMBointi ^ and fi of the body in the directiona AM and NB (Fig. 33KJt,, we now consider the movement a very small one, we can assume that this movemeDt was vertical to the radios dnwn from a com- mon center. We, therefore, 6aA this common center by drawing two vertical lines to AM and ATS. Where they meet is point O, the common center aronnd which all points of the body mast turn. If point A has moved to a oa line AM, then the body K bu turned an angle w, and all points with it. Force P attadca in A, and tbe projection of the force way upon the force line P is Au, which gives the corrected virtual vdocity of point A ^ v. Fy3i TW'~ In order to get the virtual moment, we must first find the correct lever, \is drawing QL vertical to AP or, in this case, to its contioiiation, so OL is the correct lever for P = p. Therefore, — -I- Aa ~ oa' and since Aa ■=. OA.w, and Au = v. Pv = Pp.w. If we have more forces P it is as stated before: 3 (Pv)= z(Pfi.w) = »: =(Prt. To have equilibrium, therefore, I (Pfi)=o, and consequently 1 lPv)=o. For example, we apply this law to (he differential screw (Fig. 31). Since the motion is uniform, we can take a whole turn in- stead of a small motion only. The force way ■= i - R; the vir- - taa] moment of F ii = F t R -. The press plate CC sinks the lieigbt A, and against the load L. Hence, rtie '(\rt«,i\ NtVwivj oV \, '"uat be — A, and the virtual moment = — Lh. tVt ^itw ifiaXft . ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 173 DD sin](> h', but the load acta in the same direction u the force. Hence, h' = the virtual velocity of L', and Lh' the virtual moment -T>*£'. The equation of the equilibrium is FiR ^ = L(.h — h% or the same result as we had before. SAFETY VALVR A safety valve (Fig. 33) has a two-inch opening, against which 100 pounds' pressure is exerted from the boiler. A single arm lever is provided 25" long oi'er all, the valve stem presses against the lever 2* from the fulcrum, and the weight is to be attached 24' from the fulcrum. The valve weighs two pounds, and the lever is made of % by iM flat iron. Since, in reality, no lever is a mathematical lever, we must take the weight of the lever I'nlo consideration. The weight of it is = 0.2s X 1-5 X 25 X 0.27 = 2.53 lbs. The influence of the weight of the lever can be considered as a force which is negative and attacks the mathematical lever at the center of gravity of the lever, which, in this case, is one-half of its length =; 13". The weight of the valve, although it has but little influence, should also be taken in account. The valve acts negatively, and it 2" from the fulcrum, and the pressure against the valve from below is 3.14 X 100 — 314 lbs. It acts also on a lever of 2" in a positive sense. Having determined all levers and forces, including their direc- * tions, we can now form the algebraic sum of all virtual moments, calling the weight we want to find = J. Moment of steam pressure = 314 X 2 = 628 ft. lbs. positive. Moment of weight of valve = 2 X 2 = 4 ft. lbs. negative. Moment of weight of lever ~ 2.53 X 12 = 30.3 ft- 'bs. negative. Moment of weiglit necessary = r X 24 ft. lbs. negative. Adding all moments (+ 628) + {- 4) + (- 30) + {- 24:r) = o. 628 — 34 = 24*, X — 24.7 lbs., which is the weight that must be suspended «. -i.^ \\<:t^ *\<. V^- crarn lo prevent the valve from lifting btXo'" iw^ ■*>*- v**-'**'^^- ELEMENTS OF HACHIlreBT. RAISING BARSEL WITH ROPE AND ! Two men pull on one rope each, the end of each is I to the top of the tkids. The barrel is raifed by roltiiv (9 tm inclined plane (Fig. 34). The force = £ P; the weisht of At barrel = L; ab a the depth of the cellar, and ac the length of Ai sldds. We have the case of a body resting on a force exerted in the direction of the plane, and the load nrtlal to iL The fomiiila for this was : font luight of plmt load ttngth of flau ', and Of = 13', and Z. = 300 lbs., then L ab 4X300 P = = = 50 Ibt. £ ac M X ^ FRICTION. When a body lies over another and each has an absolutely per- fect surface, the least exertion of a force would cause one to slide over the other. But there is no possibility of obtaining per- j feet surfaces. All surfaces which we can produce are rough when examined under the microscope, and exhibit quite a lot of pro- jections and recesses which prevent the Fliding of one body over the other, sine: the one body must be slightly raised before its projections can pass the projections of the other. The case is il- luFtr.ited best by two small pieces of glass ground in the most rerhct «av against each other. If their surface was entirely wilh- out rireAses and they were rubbed toftcrtiei, a\\ V\vt »w ■^liM.VA be expelled and a perfect contact created. "BiA twAVv^ft \\Ve.' 4 ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 1 75 V tW^s occurs. When, however, a little fine tallow fs rubbed over both, in other words, the little recesses filled with tallow and the plates then pressed tightly together, all the air will be ex- pelled, and it is extremely difficult to separate the plates by lifting without breaking them, when once placed together. We consider first two conditions of motion: Friction of a body starting to move, and friction of a body when in motion; second, sliding and rolling friction and another kind of sliding friction, viz. : The pivot friction. SLIDING FRICTION. The resistance offered by one body sliding over the other is called the "frictional resistance." The surface of the contact is called "frictional surface." The ratio of the force creating the friction, to the friction created, is the "friction cocfllicient." 1. Frictional resistance increases with the force. 2. Frictional resistance is independent of the frictional surface. 3. Frictional resistance is reduced per square inch of frictional surface if the latter is increased while the pres- sure remains the same. 4. Frictional resistance depends on the condition and nature of the frictional surfaces. Smooth and hard surfaces have less frictional resistance than rough and soft surfaces, and making the surfaces smooth by using lubricants as in the case of the two glass plates men- tioned, will reduce the frictional resistance. 5. Frictional resistance when starting to move is greater than when in motion. 6. Frictional resistance while the body is in motion is independent of the velocity of the moving body. 7. Pivot frictional resistance is less than sliding fric- tional resistance. ACTION OF FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE. 1. Frictional resistance is exerted in the plane of the frictional surfaces, and in opposite direction to the mov- ing force. 2. Frictional resistance between Vno \icA\^"&, ^t«. tcv^h- ing faster fhan the other, Vie\vs \Yve ^\on?w ^tv^^ "^^^ '^'^' tards the motion of the iastei ont. i^ #fVt4 ttm. 0nmti.'^ Mmwi -.'«1ih» .iLJSQ.JR.... O.ilTO.iir f tfMrtniin»««liML.o.4H tt.iiru.ow ( MiMifln«i««iiMfc.»f' w ^l^liif Vi) ^' the, fri.-.rionaI ccf 4 V »hA f/,r^if iiikzf^m U>r P, the horizontal component being AD »/,/! rhA •/Tfi^*! r/ifinfir^nwit AC. AlJ ■■-- P cos w, AC ■-= P sin w. '( U i^fiKHf*- a(^aifi*f the plane is, therefore. AC :- Q — P sinw. (iUf AitrttUiU t»1 AC \% r4»i>otitc to that of Q), and the frictional »r«i«»iin/^ i« f#-(irr*#^nfrd by the proportion of the force or weight fAri\rA iM»'*ii thf: U»/ly v*:riically to the frictional surface which l« frriiiifril if> rivrr//»riie th*T friction. Therefore, tnflioni$t rftiiiame : m ( Q — P sin w), ')hfi iniff tifff-Mtury to move the body m iVie dutcvKoxv ol \\v^ , ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 177 plane prtst be equal to it AD = Peotw = miQ — Ptiiiw). ''•It the angle w ^ o, or the force exerted in the directioo of the P plane, we have AD = m Q, and m = — . Q In order to determine the coefficient m it is only necessary to place a body of a certain material of which we want to know the coefficient of friction when sliding over another body of other or same material, in such a position that their frictlona! surface is horizontal, attach a. cord to the body to be moved (if a cut>e, to the center of the height and width) leading the cord over a pulley. The weight is suspended from the other end of the cord, being gradually added to until the body starts sliding. This weight is P = P, the load = Q, and w = — . Q Every body has a frictional angle {e). If placed in this angle it will not slip, while a little larger angle will allow it to do so. Soil or sand, if used for an embankment, will of itielf form this angle e when thrown on top and allowed to settie on its own account. FSICnONAL ANGLE OF A BSAlt. CH represents the weight of the beam, also the direction in which this weight, = force P, is exerted. Gravity acts vertically to the surface of the earth since it is directed to the center of the same (Fig. 36). Draw the force diagram CBHA, then CB the component against B, and CA the component against A. Place S in the center of HC. Then the frictional angle of the force against the wall is DBC, and against the floor GAC, the angle formed by the direction of the force and a vertical to the sliding plane. These angles must not be larger than the respective fricticnal angles t and «' and correspond to the coefficients m and m'. If we now draw the force diagram for CB and AC, constructing the vertical and horizontal components for each, we have AG acting vertically in point A to the sliding surface, and force DB acting in point B vertically to the sliding surface, and since the coef- ficients express the ratio between force and friction, we have CD AP m' = , and in = , 179 ELEHBinS OF M ACHINBKY. *-. it 1= leivtli of b We had i CD = m' DB = m'AF = m'—cotw, a xnd BE-=DF = \mmm. Therefore, f 1 CF = DF + CD = i fM to + «' — «w w = — (v Ml w + "•' C9S «)) Frietignul Am>« of ■ Bmh. Frictios on locliiied PIuh. ; i ^f = m Cf; therefore, — co* w = — w (i *irt w + m' foj w). or divide equation bj Ct t — )r - which gives for the known cocflicients w and t»', the frictional angles w and w of the beain whkh is the maxinium at which it can be set without sliding. pwcnox ON INCLINED n.ANE. A load q rests on an inclined plane, which has an angle against the horizontal = ic (Fig. 37). A force P is exened to pre*-eni the body from sliding: the force P' is required to keep the body at rest ivhile force F may be so large as to pull the body up. P' is the force which in this ease must be exened m ovv«>''« 4"^'^<\'i^ w force P to counteract this pull. ' ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. Force' parallel to the plane (Fig. 38). 179 P = Q (sin XL -{-m cos w) = Q sin (w + c) cos e P* = Q (sin w — mcosw) =:Q sin (w — e). sin (w — e) P'* = Q (m cos w — sin w) =zQ , cos e Q the weight of the body; therefore, the force to be considered in calculating the friction is its vertical component to the plane = Q cos w, and the force tending to slide the weight in the direc- tion of the plane is the other component of Q in this direction = Q sin w. Wc have P z= m Q cos w -\- Q sin w =1 friction + sliding force of Q. Introducing the angle e, we know that when equilibrium is to v9 For sharp cormrtd thread we have to use another coefficienl III' in the above fomiula. and this coefficient is {ouid by miiltiply- ing in «iih the quolient formed by the one long side of the triangle fonning the V thread to its height (which is the bearing surface of the flat thread) t= rim. It is evident that a flat thread baa a smaller frictional surface than the V-sbaped. >£ the side is longer than the height of the triangle (Fig. 42). .-^ ■ found faclcr ri, we replace, in the above famiula, I. and then the formula is correct for the V-shaped If Q — load (Fig. 43) transferred to pitch line of the drr jear. anJ /' ihe force exerted at the pitch line of the driv liar Ji and 11' ilie ri'spcciivc numbtr ot itfth, «i- li.-ivc P = Q-\-n. °(z -). The friction between two gears is proportional t" tl of the wcTking way of each tooth and the number of t "'- Q ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 183 If thejlinion is working inside of the spur wheel, n" is nega- tive^, hence ^n n ^ If there are more than two gears working in each other and their respective numbers of teeth are n, n", and m', m*, and Its', na", and ^ is = the force which counteracts Q without fric- tion (see equilibrium of gears), then, including the friction, we have / 1 I I I ^ ^ n' n" til' «r ^ FRICTION OF BEVEL GEAR. In addition to the letters used before we make the angle formed by the two axes of the two gears = w in Fig. 44. P=:Q + m ^ V- +-— + 2C0SW .'^ n n n n Friction bettveen worm and worm wheel, — Q is the load trans- ferred to the pitch line of the worm wheel; r = radius of pitch line of worm ; R = radius of crank ; P = force necessary lo turn the worm; P' = force necessary to apply to the crank to allow the worm wheel to move back; h = pitch of worm, then r (JiA- 2mr ^) P = Q , R {2r TT—m h) r ih-\- 2mr "") P' = Q . R{2r TT+m/i) These formulas are correct >\hen the friction of the teeth is neg- lected, but we can do so, because the motion of the teeth is very small in comparison with the motion of the threads of the worm. If we want to take account of it, we must multiply the amounts of P and P' with the factor ( J H j . ROPE FRICTION. If a rope passes over a cylinder ^\\\c\\ caxvTvcA. Vvwxv V^n%. «^ 184 ELEMENTS OF HACHINEKV. the rope rests apon a part of tbe cylinder = to the arc of the angle ix', expressed in parts of r. If Q ia the load, then P = <""' (* = basu of hyterboik logarithm = /./rfrf). If the rope rests on a beam shaped as shown, ''=o('+'"™7)- If the rope paues over more comers (Fig. 46}, we have to add tbe factor (i + smnn — ): w' being the new angle; and so on for each comer the rope makes. Therefore, for h corners, all having the same angle. = 2(, :)• and if Ihc force is to be equal to the friction Q JOUBNAL F Journals of wrought or cast iron in iron bearings iubricatet with grease have m = 0,034 if the greasing is done continually. m :^ 0.07 to 0.0(1 if greased at intervals. For wooden journals and bearings m is about double thi Horisontal Journals.— A shaft has two bearings, and securet to the shaft is a rope wheel to which P is attached by means o * nv^; the dianKter of the pulley is = iR; a dram which b; means of a rope litts load Q is also ptovi4e4 on \^ *vi^i.-, \ ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. l8' diameter is ^r. Q = the load + the weight of the shaft with attkchments ; r = radius of the journal; 5* = vertical force against the journal. PR=:Qr + mSr\ S = journal pressure, depends upon the forces, the weight of the shaft and attachments, and the direction of the forces. I*) Pf Q ^nd G (weight of shaft and attachments) are di- rected vertically. S=:P + Q + G. Qr + tn(Q + G)r' P = . R — mr* 2.) Q and G are vertical, and P vertical and upwards: S^Q + G-^P. Qr + m{Q + G)r' P = . R + mr' 3.) Q and G have the same direction, but P is directed ver- tically to both : 5=V(0 + G)- + P-. If (Q + G) >P then, approximately, 8=10.96 (0 + G) +o.^P,and Qr + o.96m{Q + G)r' P = , if and R — 0.40 tn r P = S=:Q + G, R If P acts on a crank, 5* is variable, and as a mean value S = Q + G, may be taken. ' Journal Friction of Rope Pulley. — If we neglect the weight of it, which is small, and call r the radius of the pulley, and P and Q the forces, we have: I.) P and Q are parallel: r + mr' approximately, r — mr l86 ELEMENTS OF UACBINESY. f = (, + __). S = P + Q. 3.) P and Q Ycrtiol to etch other: or aroroximately _ as P and Q can not differ nmch in unonnL Therefore, loumai Friclioit of Block mid FaU.—V/e have m comnion block and fall with n pulleya ; the ndios of each is = r, then coefSdcnt of friction .V = ; + - -— , founfl before. QM'ii/ — I) 4(?(. + i^). n (he equation QM^ (M- M" — I that P must lie always smaller than (A/ — i) no maltcr liow many pulleys are used- This means that too large a nuniber of pulleys is not advisable. \i wc lake r" ; r = l : 6 and hi =^ 0.15. btcaujc ihcsc pulleys will seldom be lubricated, vre have il = T different numbers of n i+in~= 1.05. p ~ y^Q 0.18 Q f -^ %£? 0.2Q Q P = ^^Q 0.155 Q P - \ Q ELEMENTS OF UACHINERY. 187 Bvtiotn Friclion of Uprighi Shaft— Viziua of bearing face ^ f'; P = iatct on crank of radius R. The loss of power = static moment = %mQ r (friction loss). If the face of the shaft is not flat, but rounded, the friction is increased, and if it is a half globe it is 1= K in " Q r'. ROLLING FRICTION. 1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the vertical force against the bearing. 2. The frictional resistance is inversely proportional to the radius of the rolling cylinder, V =■ coefficient of rolling friction. For rollers of lignum vilae, rolling on oak planks, v = 0,046; for rollers of elm wood, rolling on oak planks, v = 0,08 ; for cast-iron on rails, v = 0.0$, n y47 WF) This rolling friction (Fig. 47) must be considered as a stumb- ling of the roller. The roughness of the rolling surface causes the roller 10 stop and 10 climb the projection, and since the point of contact stands still, the roller will turn around this fulcrum, and the moment of this motion =^ v Q (v to be taken in the Q same unit as r) ; P = n — . Double Rolling Friclion. — A load is moved by means of two free rnllers (Fig, 48) supporting the load either d'fcctly or by means of an intervening board. The force is exerted at, and in the direction of, the board, and the respective friction coefficients Then v + v- The rolling frictiona\ resistance is used w BLBKBNTS OP ICACBIHERY. Friction Wh€€U.—tm crlindcn are forced agaiiut eadi'^dwr t^ the force ^ K. Tbc force P which can be tmumitted frdn one to the other i* = -P. These fricticHi whecli ghonld not be used except where a ■mall force only is to be transmitted, but smooth action is required, ai the friction in the journals is consideraUe. Comkai FricHon iVIieeU.—la order to reduce the jotimal fric- tion, and still to transfer considerable power from one whed to the other, the face of the one wheel is v-shaped, and the other has a recess to suit (Fig. 49). K = pressure with which the axes are pressed together ; tp = Mtoi the angle of the wedg^ or z tore to be transmitted. P =:- If an^Je «> is made small, the sine will decrease, and therefore, P increase in proportion. FRICTION OF BELTS ON PULLEYS. The difference of the tensions of the upper and lower bdt ^ S" — S' (Fig. 50) must be not more than the friction of the belt on the small pulley. Its frictional surface is there = arc Friction ol BeJis and Patlcfs. w (expressed in part of r) ; /C = the tension between the es. and 5" + y = K. s-~s- = K~- Thc journal fricli gears, bul much le; Open belts give li "4- I 1 in case of belts is a Hllle greater than with than with friction wheels. belt friction ihan crossed ones. If r and r' the respective radii of the two pulleys, and d =^ distar.ce ecn the centers of their shafts, then for open l«lts: w r"— r- coi — = , -^ ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 189 and M crossed belts cos — = 2 d If the belt pulleys are not in the same plane (Fig. 51), then find point L, the crossing point in the plane of the centers of both pulleys, center lines representing planes. AB represents, in the elevation, the intersecting line of these two planes. Now select two points B and E of AB, but so that the belts are supported, and draw tangents from them : AGy IE and AF, HE. These repre- sent the belt lines in the elevation. m = 0.30 for hemp rope on wood pulleys, and for new belts. m =r 0.4T for ordinary greasy belts on wood pulleys. tn = 0.38 for moist belts on turned cast-iron pulleys. fn = o.i2 for greased belts on turned cast-iron pulleys. FRICTION ROLLER BEARIN& If the journal A rests, instead of on a solid bearing, on the peripheries of two rollers, as shown in Fig. 52, both of which have a radius = R and a journal radius of r, and are placed at the distance d from center to center, then S = journal pressure mSr' r at A and moment of friction = . R If d is small as compared with R -f r', then the pressure upon the journals of each roller = % 5", or the friction = % m 5", and the force necessary to overcome this at the peripheries of mSr the rollers = . Therefore, both rollers offer a resistance 2R mS r mSr of , and the moment of friction = r, R R This moment of friction for a solid bearing is =r m 5" r', and it is evident that the additional factor in the equation for the roller r bearing = , makes the friction much less. 2R WAGONS. The load Q is to be moved upon the level ground. R = ^t^Avm^ of the wheels; r = radius of the axles, atvd m ^tv^*u SJcv^ ^<^t^- cients of the journal, and rolling iriction. TVvccv ELBHENTS OF MACHINUtY. The This If we talue of Q must, of conrae, include the weight of tbc formula shows that. Other conditions bdng equal, tha be exerted will be smaller when the axles are uaUer wheels are larger. combine the two frictions m and o into one £tctot V its valves as fellows: ver>- good macadam, dry and smooth Jt ^^ A hard macadam with light ruts Jt ^ Jt bad macadam with 3.4" ruts ^ to ^ good granite pavement Jg ^ il» medium granite pavement and moist dirt ^'t t» ^ solid natural ground ,'7 to Jt solid natural ground with %" gravel ,'„ to iV smooth plank road >, to ,'( Railroad tracks .' ,|n '" tin Tlic smaller values wheels, and the larger 1 going down an i firalile speed, a piece of wood is forced again wheel, llie force exerted — Q. The wheel will slide along the ground. Therefore, the 101a — Ill') Q: m = friction coefficient between 1; — force exerted against the rim of the wheel larger than the force which is exerted on the //jc haIc iriciion ive have the value = 111 Q. ■line with w iide- Ihc ; rim of the but friction = (m >rb and rim ; K III K mus t he ■un. Negiec IlDK and the fric tion ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 191 TMe Band Brake.— A lever pivoted at C (Fig. 53) and attacked hy force P at A, receives the two ends of an iron band at D and B. The band circles a pulley which is to be prevented from turn- ing, w = arc of wheel touched by the band, expressed in parts of r; the lever arms are a = CB and b = AC, Then the frictional b (^^^ — /) moment is = P . a ROPE STIFFNESS. The stiffness of a rope is the resistance caused by the friction between the strands against each other, when the rope is bent. This friction is approximately proportional to the tension Q, the square of the diameter = d of the rope, and inversely propor- tional to the diameter of the radius around which it is bent, r = this radius, and 5" = rope stiffness. QcT S = x . X = coefficient of rope stiffness. If we express d and r in inches, then x = %. ROPE STIFFNESS IN THE CASE OF BLOCK AND FALL. A common block and fall has n pulleys of r = radius and r' =z journal radius, d = diameter of rope. m=(i + 2mr + ). 5r P = "0 m" (m — /) If we assume that d r= i^ and r =: S^ the following table will give the efficiency of blocks and falls with different numbers of pulleys superseding the table given before which did not allow for the rope stiffness: n = 2 P = 0.615 Q P>%Q. n = 4 P = o.35 Q P>^^Q. n = 6 P = 0.26 Q P>V4.Q. n — 8 P = 0.22 Q P > % Q. POWER. ELEMENTARY STANDARDS AKD MEASURES POR STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS. EvaforaUve eMciency of m boiler is the qnotient fonned Iqr dividing that part of the total beat of one pound of fuel, whkh u used to beat and to evaporate one poond of water, by the total beat of the ftiel itself. The asual measure for Btnler Capacity is H.-P., read "borse- power," which is, strictly speaking, inaccurate, becattse H.-P. is a measure of power only. When the capacity of a boiler is spoken of. this H.-P. roust be called Boiler HoTse-fov-'er, and such a H.-P. is the capacity of a boiler to heat 30 pounds of water from too* to 913* F., and to evaporate jo pounds of water of lOo" F. per hour to steam at 70 pounds pressure per square inch, or 34.5 pounds of water evaporated from and at 213° F. Work consists of the sustained exertion of pressure through space. The unit of work is one £oot-pound, or the pressure of one pound sustained through a space of one foot. Horse-power (H.-P.) is the measure of rale at which work i> performed. 1.980.000 fool-poiinds per hour = one H.-P. 33,000 foot-pounds per minute = one H.-P. 550 foot-pounds per second = one H.>P. Duly Work is the quotient obtained by dividing the number of foot-pounds per hour by the amount of coal used per hour per horse-power. If, for instance, 2.5 pounds of coal are used per hour per horse-power, the duty worfc is 792.000 foot-pounds. UEASL-KES OF fuessvre and weight. One pound per square inch = 2,3og feet of water at 62° ^= 3.0416 inches of mercury at 63*. One atmosphere ^= J4.7 poonds per sc\uue incVi t= ^^T tttt ofwmteratda' = 30 inches of meiTOn tt*o!'. 193 '' FOWBR. 193 One toot of water at 62° = D.433 pounds per square inch = 6a.355 pounds per square foot = 0.883 inches of mer- One inch of mercury at 62° = 0.49 pounds per square inch ^ 70.56 pounds per square foot ^ 14 inches of water at 6^. WATER. One cubic foot of pure water: At 32° (freezing point) weighs 62.418 pounds. At 39.1° (maximum density) weighs 62.425 pounds. At 62° (standard temperature) weighs 62.355 pounds. At 212° (bailing point of water) = 59.640 pounds. Average weight of one cubic foot of water — 62.33 pounds. One gallon of water at 62° = 8.313 pounds. One gallon of water at 62" contains 231 cubic inches. One cubic foot of water contains 7.5 gallons. One standard barrel contains 31I4 gallons. One beer barrel contains 31 gallons. One standard barrel of water weighs 263.5 pounds. One beer barrel of water weighs 258,5 pounds. The specific heat of ice is 0,5; of gaseous steam, 0.62, taking water as the unit. A Heai-unit, or thermal unit, is the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree. One thermal unit (th. u.) = 778 foot-pounds (772 according to Joule). STEAM. "Saturated" steam is steam which is, or has been, in contact with water and has not been healed or compressed. Expansion or cooling will cause condensation, and then the steam is certainly saturated. For every temperature of saturated steam there ia only one pressure possible, and for each pressure only one tem- perature. "Superheated" Steam. — The superheating of saturated steam occurs when the same is compressed without abstraction of heat, or is healed directly. In order to understand its naluit, ^\t%vti.te. and temperature must be given. Tbe total beat of craponttion coosicta of: Sensible beat necessanr to rabe the ton- peralnre of one ponnd of water fiDm 33* to 313* = iSa,g th.n. Latent heat to cv^xirate one poond of water at 3ia= =893.935 th.u. Heat of discharge required to orercODie the pressttre of the atmoipbere Tcuatins the escape of the vapor = 73.865 th. tL 1 146.7 th.n. Specific heat of saturated steam = oljos. Sftttirated steam heated fracn aia" to 330' acts, when fnitber heated or compressed, like a permanent gaa. Steam leaving a vessel and entering another vessel at lower pressure will flow out quidcer in proportion to the difference be- tween the absolute pressure. Tbe limit is reached at 58 per cent when the steam, even if discharged into a vacuum, will neither in- crease nor decrease its velocity. TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OP STEAK, ETC. 75 pounds' PKESStJRE A VESSEL AT VARVING PRESSUBE5. A BOILER AT Acliul Ve- Dl»ch«ri[o sss. EiMD.Ion ^1 Noiile. UenKily.Krt : prr Second. Sitam. Fr«1 [ 0.01308 73.21 0.9SB2 II33.B 0.01022 o.eeiB IT8.B0 IMt.U nets 47:00 1138.4 1M.9 9823 0,02374 42.12 00934 1 140.0 0.02021 212.00 esse 20:78 o:(s siaoa o:caa2e 28.14 5.S 247. » leeo bm's o.ofioa rooAi 10.3 m.M IIU.l 91B.0 18:13 w m.zT 938.9 O^tlTSflO 13.30 »;> IISIO ^.i 9320 o.aeeo8 11. 7B 1:0137 Ht.l w I1B3.4 10. J7 1.0182 ID .3 m:ai llffi.S 1-0903 3t.3 280. W o:ii88 S:il8 1.0«2B MS ate.m "™-J 3M.3 0.I2BB 7.098 1.0215 n.a MS.W 909^3 0.1400 7.O07 HI.] wee 8.383 M.3 272 :« 902 1 o^iiws tO.3 iini.7 370.9 1 0300 6:420 n.3 SLS^M 802. G u'isai 8.120 75.8 3ao:o 4.B«e tot s» 29(.0 8U.7 i:0382 «fi.S 884 0/2i71 4 403 w.» Wl.3 02378 *.20» i:038A w.s no 1181.0 0«48l 4020 1001 arw.gc iiafi.o 3C«'7 8^.3 O.23S0 1.01UO (141.(16 874.0 03096 3:711 m'.a iisaio iib.a 130 3M.r2 iisr.8 809!4 02901 3.W.W **1 3:212 10183 i»:i 03321 3.011 1«3 ISO 1I0J.1- 33^:4 2.833 i:oi8B IK.3 ' 368.a» 833.8 sTji.cn 1l»7 8303 0^3043 2:^33 i«;s HOT. I 817.0 0.1IU 2.408 1».3 aw nM.4 ^:8 0.4389 IflMA £ffi 391.79 3«.1 83113 0.1878 2:08! 1 .(J67e anis ») 400. w 12W.2 820,5 5,193 IBM aaa.3 STS 40li.W 883 :s 1.891 W.3 300 «1 M 399 :a o.tm 1:437 33fi:3 WO.fl 8008 i.aai SMS 1S8.40 \ \,^ ounil. oiindiofDlr Ot.vKen h [uunij,. MirOEfn.... 36.*' iwuntlv COMBt-STIOM t OMMBi". Cubic Peel. S|«cmc Hett It Conilsnt 1I,8W 13141 lft.1% R-WS a.zn The proportion of elements is ; One cubic foot of oxygen to 3.76 cubic feet of nitr(^^n, or 21 per cent by volume of oxygen to 79 per cent by volume of nitrogen. Every pound of oxygen consumed in combustion requires a supply of 4-35 pounds or 57.16 cubic feet of air. Every cubic foot of oxygen consumed in combustion requires a supply of 4.76 cubic feet of air. QUANTinES OF AIR REQUIRED FOR THE COUBUSTION OF ONE POUND. One Poiiim or Air •tfl!°. Producl». ir TBc ibic feel bicfeet ibicfeel C»rbonconi[>ieie'ljf bii C»rbOQ iDcoDiiilelBlj b Sulphur ned. umed,.. 4.8B pounds Carbonic mW. Ide. Sulpburouaacid. To find the quantity of air at 62' and at 30* atmospheric pres- sure, that is chemically consumed in the complete combustion of one pound of fuel of given composition, call the weight per cents of each r oxygen 0, sulphur 5", nitrogen N, hydrogen H, carbon C. Then the amount expressed in cubic feet of air is: CC + j« — 0.4 0) 1.5^ cu. fl. of air, or C-^$H — o.40 1.52 = pounds of air. 13.14 The total weight of the gaseous products of the complete com- bustion of one pound of fuel : lbs. gas — 0.126 C + o.ss8 H, or in cubic feet cu. ft. gas-= 1.52 C-V 5-52 H. The vo/umcB tor other temperatiwcs AiMv (tf . A V = ■»*.-«^ iqS fo St (So*, V Uk lolnnie U the d fired temperature, are UMir th»fi- FLOW OP STEAll THKOUGB PIPES. ii Dlftmelerot PIpp In s. Lengtb of Each ».Di™ ,™ li .!..hh| ■ .|.j.j. ,.|, 1- ■■ A-clgblorSItomPerMlD tel DdLoaio Prcnnra, __ _jiiit s'hm i>» »i lac.s. nil II S.9S.tl«3 7e.MllU.WIW.l3MB U8.&. 8' iTWB.n M.ieiN.bne.a|»i.s ais.tt s .^ , , Ki.ii^ia.u 9i.HisoetM.«4it.i aKuvn-uiBi Iv KoMJiii.i 11.03! I8|5^ IT »T.aali«t.ii»i.a|Ha.ft Tio.fli;iiro.T»s.»iw& ne.Tiiiw.siTi ' ID fi-nk.iaaaa.MK.sii^Bi nc n itbsmxhwi.ti tbi.t.i— -■— « K.M».Ol!lI,>ai.»;.t: '?'■'?■'■■ -1 i-r '■?-■ r^'S r «-s.iiv to i.se'fi.au.ais.w 3-' ■■•■.-.- ;■ i- ..■;■! i -..li ■■■>"; e v — s.i9j,«ais6n 1^.^ ^, ' ■.■;-■«!■ 3«'<.n|l7 0iUa : I- -Mil FREE ADI IN CASEOUS PRODUCTS. The weight of the free air which enters the furnace and puses unconsumed, is equal lo the volume of the air used cheRricallT, divided by i3i4- HEAI OF COMBVSTIOH. The total amount of heat obtained by the combustion of one pound of the elenienlar>' combustibles, by the addition of oxygen. Carbon or charcoal 14.500 th. u. Hydrogen 62.000 th. 11. Sulphur 4.oooth.u. Neglecting the amount of htal required by the sulphur, which is small, we have this heal of combustion = 14S (C -!- 4-^ W) th. o. Carbon in different forms develops different amounts of heat in combustion. Wood or charcoal . .\a.SM*m- Graphile from gas retorts i4jj&^fti-'i- POWEB_ 1(>9 Natural graphite i4/>35 th. a. Diamonds 13.986 ih-u. "Approximate Evaporating Power" of one pound of combus- tible: For water at 6a' = 0.13 (C + +** H) lbs, of water. For water at 213" = 0.15 (C + 4.38 H} lbs. of water. lEHPEBATUaE OP COUBUSnOH. The temperature obtained in a boiler furnace is for hydrogen 3,500', and for carbon s.ooo"- CONDITION FOR COUFLETE COUBUSTION. Certain conditions are necessary in order to bring about the complete combustion of fuel. The important ones are: 1. Sufficient air; 2. Thorough mixture of fuel and air; 3. Bringing together air and combustible gases at the highest possible temperature. UETHODS OF FTRINC BY HAND. In order to burn the fuel as completely as possible and thus ob- tain the greatest possible amount of heat from it, attention must be given lo feeding the fuel and keeping it in a proper state in the furnace. This is done, in firing by hand, mainly by observing the following points; 1. Spreading the coal evenly over the whole surface; 2. Alternating by filling one-half of the furnace at a time; 3. Coking the fuel by banking it in front, and the next time spreading it and again banking fresh fuel in In slowly burning furnaces with long flues, moistening the fuel before throwing it in, and moistening the ash pit, prodnces bet- ter results from the fuel. The heat radiating upon the ashes produces steam. Steam lessens the "glow fire" or flameless "in- candescence" of the fuel, and increases the quantity of the flame by forming carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases in its de- composition into its elements, and the reduction by the oxygen of the carbonic acid already formed in the furnace. The newly made gases are afterward burned in the flues. The presence of moisture even in coke gives rise to a. ftainc \n ■**. %»t^ «B.fe. ^*- duees the intensity of the heat in t\\t a^ov) fat. \V ix^iXi^ ^ tn'buting combustion over a largcT apact. Moist tHtmninotis coal bttnied in fnrnsccs with long Sues k most effective Under steam boilers coke or coal majr be used to eqoal advantage, but if great heat is required,- coke is much more efficient In a glass furnace the tests have shown that ei^t or nine ponnds of coke was equivalent to twelve pounds of coal. Coke, flameless, is most effective where intensity of heat is needed, or where short flues and rapid draft are to be dealt with. FUELS. The fuels used for the production of steam are Coal, Coke, Wood, Peat, Refuse Tan Bark, Straw and Bagasse or Refuse Sugar Cane. Asphalt, Creosote, Oil and Coal Gas are also used as fuels. COAU Coal can be classified as follows: 1. Aniliracite. or blind coal, consisting almost entirely of free carbon. 2. Dry Bituminous Coal, having from 70 10 80 per cent of 3. Bituminous Caking Coal, having from 50 to 60 per cent of carbon. 4. Long Flaming or Cannel Coal, having from 70 to 85 per cent of carbon. 5. Lignite, or Brown Coal, having from 56 to 76 per c?nt of carbon. KOt IhuToial H>l(:hl Fixed >.l| = . .Mldlolblaa and Srff>' t'limberland (w«l. V«.. . ForciiiD and Woietn A renggf oi POWER. 20I or COAL MADE BY THE UNITED STATES NAVY — (Continued). AnthncUe. Pa Cuke. 2 samples from Midlothian and NeflT's Cumberland coal, Va.. Free burning bitumin- ous, Md. and Pa Bituminous cakini^. Va. Foreign and Western bituminous Averages of the 3 classes of American coal k Speciflc Gravity. Weight and Bulk. Coke Pro- duced from Coal. Percent. One Cubic Foot Solid Pounds. One Cubic Foot Hea|>ed Pounds. .Bulk of ITon Heaped CuWc Foot. 03.78 53.06 32.13 52.84 49.28 49.31 42.36 09.70 42.42 45.71 45.51 94 82 1.358 I.S42 1.318 1.400 81.93 83.90 82.39 87.54 83.08 09.01 06.27 51.72 43.49 82.50 Ashes and Clinkers Left by Combus- tion. Per Cent. 8.00 14.91 11.27 8.48 7.98 9.42 Anthracite Coal. — The specific gravity varies from 1.3S to 1.92. This coal retains its form when exposed to a temperature of ignition, but when heated too rapidly will fall to pieces. The flame is generally short, and of a bluish yellow color. The coal is ignited with difficulty, and yields an intense local or concen- trated heat, and combustion becomes extinct while yet a consid- erable quantity of the fuel remains on the grate. Dry Bituminous Coal — This is a freely burning coal, and lighter than anthracite, its specific gfravity varying from 1.28 to 1.44. It contains a relatively small proportion of volatilizable matter, about 15 per cent, and quickly arrives at the temperature of ignition. It swells considerably in coking, thus facilitating the access of air and the rapid and complete combustion of the fixed carbon. In some cases where combustion is slow, the masses of coke scarcely cohere, and the original forms of the pieces of the coal are in some measure preserved. Bituminous Caking Coal. — It has the same range of specific gravity as the dry bituminous coal. It contains the maximum proportion of volatilizable matter, averaging about 30 per cent of the whole weight. It develops much of the hydrocarbon gases, and burns with a long flame. It swells consvdti^ViVj "Scxv^ ^n^'5» B coherent coke, which preserves notVun^ o\ \.\v^ o\\^Tva\ Vyt^^ of the coal. Its specific heat is 0.20. TOTAi. GAUous noDucn juni suuun tawmon roam or flHi. CuboDlewld !:SIIMS".:5 ,!:SSZasS:!} ■SSSKffio"; 1:55 K.4I euUs feat or lOJf «.5T 100-OS i HB-n 100.M This shows that if combutioa is conqdete, mnd the exccu ot air mixed with the burnt gisn ia cqnal to the TOlmiM ot BIT chemically consumed, an ordinary conditioD, there i> 13 per cmt of carbonic acid, by volnme, in the gaaei p»"'«g off. Total Heat of Combuslion.—The total heat of combtutton of one pound of coal of average composition, having 80 per cent of carbon and 5 per cent of hydrogen, is i45[8o + {4.28 X S)] = 14.703 th. a. And as per formula previously given, the evaporating power w31 be 13.17 lbs. of water from 62', and 15.22 lbs. from water at ai2* per pound of coal. coke: Coke is the solid residuum of coal from which the voIatiliEable portions have been removed by heat, a process which is illus- trated in the action of ordinary furnaces, in which the gasified de- * ments of coal are first burned off, and afterward the fixed or residuary coke. The quantity of coke obtained from an average coal is 76.4 per cent. The quality of the coke obviously depends, in a great measure, on the proportions of the constitutent hydrogen and oxygen of the coal from whLch it is made, which regulate the degree of the fusibility of the coal when exposed to the heat. Coke of good quality weighs from 40 to 50 pounds per cuImc fool solid, and about 30 pounds per cubic fool heaped. Tfie average volume of one ton is 75 cubic feet ; the volumes vary from ro to 80 cubic feet. The average composition of coke is : Carbon 93-44 per cent. Sulphur -. 1.22 per cent. Ash 5-34 per cent. POWQL GOAL TABLE, OolUnavllte. . Halnix BluS.. MOUDtOllre.. KountOllT*... dleo Okiboa Cberokee QlanOubon Hocking Vklley.. MurphjabDro Wllkabii'rra! !!',..' Blf KaMj Oaraa. Scnmon GueIoum ■oanl Pleuant, Scran- Fatty Fool. S< PocBDontu . . . Cootlnentbl,^ ATondale EDreks, i.'lcarfli'li Creek Turtle Crock. M gibeln. , Slope, U, K. Cooperslown 304 FOWEB. Coke is capaUe of ■baorbing from 15 ti> ao per cent sC bt weight of water. It has been found to absorb as much as 8 per cent of water on its way from the onrens to its destination, in tincovered wagons. Directly exposed to rain, it may absorb 50 per cent of its weight of water. Most of the water is afterward quickly evaporated, leaving from 5 to 10 per cent in (he coke. Brown lignite is sometimes of wooden texture, Fometimes earthy. Black lignite is either of woody texture, or it is homo- geneous, with a. resinous fracture. The coke produced from various lignites is either pnlvemlent like that of anthracite, or it retains the form of the original fibers. Lignite is less dense tban The composition of lignite is : Carbon 69 per cent. Hydrogen 5 per cent. Oxygen and nitrogen 10 per cent. Ash 6 per cent. Lignite yields about 47 per cenl of cokp. WOOD. Wood as a combustible can be divided in Iwo classes: 1. The hard, compact, and comparatively heai-y woods, as oak. beech, elm, ash. 2. The light colored, sofl. and comparatively light woods, as pine, birch and poplar. Green wood when cut down contains aboiil 45 per cmt of its weight in moisture. Wood which has been kept for years in a dry place retains from 15 to 20 per cent of water. Ordinary fire wood is composed of : Carbon 37.S percent. Hydrogen 4.5 percent. Oxygen 3075 per cent. Nitrogen 0.7s P«r cent. Ash 1,5 per cent. Hydromelric water 25 per cent. 100.00 A cord of pine wood measures 4,"<4xa feet, and ha? a voliiire of '-a? caA/e feel. Its weight in ordinary condilVow a\cTa^es 1.700 pounds, or 31 pounds per cubic foot. POWER. 205 If the wood contains 25 per cent of water, the weight o£ the di- rect products is 75 per cent of 8.4S. which is the weight of the di- rect products of perfectly dry wood, i. e., it is 6.34 pounds, and the available heat is 7951 thermal units per pound. In order to obtain the maximum heating power from wood it is the practice in some factories, as glass and porcelain works, where intensity of heat is required, to dry the wood fuel thor- ooghty before using it, even using stoves for the purpose. Peal, Tan or Straw are not used for fuel commercially in this country, and therefore no data are given for same. LIQUID FUELS. PelToUum is a hydrocarbon liquid which is found in abundance in the United Slates and in Europe. All the different kinds show practically identical composition. Average specific gravity 0.870. Composition ; Carbon 84.7 per cent. Hydrogen 13.1 per cent. Oxygen 2.3 per cent. 1 00.0 The total heating and evaporating- powers of one pound of petroleum having the average composition, are : Total heating power = 145 j 84.7 -\- {4.28 X i3.i) 1 = 20,400 Ih. u. Evaporative power from 6z° = 18.29 pounds. from 212° — 21,13 pounds. TEMPERATURE OF FIRE IN A BOILER FURNACE. With a stationary boiler being under-fired with coal, having a large graic of 26 square feet area, the temperatures were found to OTerlheceiucrof IhoftrestclltreronnlmeH S-.-oo" seio° SW Over the bridge \130' IJ30» IJffi^- BOILERS. 1. Horisoiilal cyiindrical boilers, outside firing, masoned in so as to espose two-lhirds of the shell surface below to the combustion gases. Boiler should be suspended, and not sup- ported, and be inclined somewhat toward the ceat . 3. yerikal cylindrical boilers, which arc wst*i -wVe-ti ?,^a.tii Vi^ horizontal boilers cannot be had. T\ve \aci\\w "» «atxQ-it.&B.'^ 1^ a cylinder built of mnoMoj, and the fine sun pau Onmf^ the annular quce betwcm dw two. The hcatiag toAee it not . well utiliied, u the npor passea moitly along thcM ■nifaco and prevents a clou contact of the water with ume, and Ae iron is not protected from the action of the fire ao wdl ai in an horiiontal boiler. 3. Double horUonlal boOm, one erected above the other, aad both connected by water legi of about 13 inches to 16 inchei diameter, to facilitate the motioa of the water, the upper one longer, and to receive the ftinutcc. 4. Thrtt kotitonlai boUert, one above and two below, cOB- nected by water legs, the upper one longer and provided wUh the furnace. 5. Four korisotttol boilers, two above and two below, ibo connected by water legs. All Ihese constructions aim at a good water circulation. 6. Flue boilers, masoned in so that the gases pass first under the lower part of the shell, and then through the lubes located numerously in the shell, and oul in front through the smoke- stack. Or, the gases pass from under ihe shell to two fines located on either side of the shell, to the front, and return through the tubes to the back of the boiler to the smoke-stadc This is done to give the gases a longer way to travel and to utilize their heat better. The lubes are expanded in the two heads, and are in some cases located in two bundles, to facilitate cleaning of the boiler. 7. Locomotive boilers. A cylindrical boiler is provided with a square or round fire-box in front and a smoke-box in the rear. The tubes are expanded in the two heads, forming the inside of the fire-box and the smoke-box. This construction in necL-fsary to avoid the brickwork. These boilers are mostly worked with forced draft, by injection ot the exhaust forcing the air into the ash pit. 8. H'aUr lubi- boilers. These consist of a battery of tubes connected together, each of which forms really a boiler by it- self. The steam from all of ihem is collected in a ftcam drum. These boilers raise steam quickly and can be driven much over their capacity, but in that case deliver very moist steam. It /> Afst to use them well within iheii capac'Av -ji^ctv ■itMi.n^ ^ry steam. 207 Tbe-^onncctions of the single tubes are made in many dif- ferent ways, each system being claimed to be the best by the respective builders. a. "Belleville Boiler." Tbe tubes are connected and olaced so that the first vertical row inclines to the rear, the second to the front, and the third again to the rear, and so on. Calling the tubes in first row i, 2, 3, 4, and the second row 5, 6, 7, 8, reading from the bottom up, the tabes are connected I with 5, 2 with 6, 3 with 7, and 4 with 8, the connections being made in the rear. Then 2 wiih 5, 3 with 6, and 4 with 7, all connected in front. 6. "Schmidt Boiler." The tubes are connected like a vertical continual pipe coil. The inlets below and the outlets above are again connected by headers, so that the steam, generated below must rise through all the Upper tubes before it can reach the collecting drum. c. "Root Boiler." The tubes are placed on an incline and so connected that the steam can escape from each tube directly and that each lube has its direct water supply. 9. Vertical Hue boilers. The shell is cylindrical, and a cylin- drical fire-box is built in the bottom, allowing a water apace between shell and fire-box. The tubes are expanded in the top plate of the fire-box and into an extra head riveted into the boiler below its upper head, giving sufficient room for the flue gases between the two heads to reach the chimney, which is located in the center on lop. Such boilers are mostly used where there is no room to place horizontal boilers. It is evident that the space between the two shells will easily fill with scales, and afterward the inner shell, likewise, the fire- box will burn out, and although cleaning holes are provided to remove the scales from this place, it is not easy to do so. Moreover, since the level of the water rises and falls, leaving more or less of each tube exposed to the fire without protection from the water, the tubes will give out sooner, especially in the places where the water plays up and down continually. Another disadvantage is the forming of scale at the water level on the tubes. When the water recedes Ihe scale is exposed lo the direct action of the fire gases, and it will ivj awi '^■5'mJ*.. When Ihe water rises again it enlCTs Vht cta.tV.% a-tv^i -«^*v*.'i out the scale which has been charted \ty -Cex. atfuoiv ' use. the tubniar boiler is best. It is the cheap- i e&t, and requires the least space of the two. On the other hand. | the wDler'Iube boiler is a quick steamer, and where steam 11 required to be raised in the shortest possible time, it is prrf- erabte. If not overcrowded, it will also be more economical than the tubular boiler. GR.\TES. For natural draft and coti/, give one square toot of gntc surface for every 15 pounds oi coal lo be burned — length ol grate 1. 5 of its width. Grate to be inclined from one inch to 1.5 inciics loward the rear per foot of length. If there ia only a lit:hl draft, the srale surface should be increased, so as to provide one square fool for n pounds oi coal burned. The width of each bar should bv ni.i The coa] is taken from a boat in the Thamet bj a conTqrer and delivered to the hoppers of the boilera. An automatic stoker and automatic moving grate ban are emplojrcd, and tbe machines start automaticaUy as soon as the water in the Innk is reduced to a certain point All the help employed lor the whole plant in one twelve-hour watch, besides the men in the boat, is one elevator man, one engineer and one bojr for assliU ing the engineer and cleaning up. RELATION OF GRATE SURFACE, HEATING SURFACE FUEL AND WATER. It is well known that, in a given boiler with a pven famacs^ the greater the quantity of fuel consumed per hour, the greater also the amount of water evaporated per hi'Ur. But tbe quan- tity of water evaporated increases at a less rale than the fad consnnied. that is to say. the quantity of water evaporated per pound of fuel is diminished. This diminution of efficiency is obviously due to the greater portion of waited heat escaping by the chimney, as indicated by the higher tempei^lure of the gases, which remains unused for evaporation. The total quantity of water evaporated per square foot of grate surface is expressed by a constant quantity A plus a con- stant multiple B c oi the fuel c consumed per square foot of grate: ■w = A + Be. By experiments it has been found that the amount of the fuel increases with the square of the grate surface, and we can make A = ar*. wherein both a and B are constant for each kind of h heating surface boiler, r = — = ; c — pounds of fuel consnnied g gnU xnrface per square foot of grate surface ; u- = amount of water "vaporated. IVater evaporated at tit": Stationary boilers ro = o,o;^; r" -^- 956 e. Marine boilers tu = o.oi6 t*-Vio-*5e. Portable engine hoilen tot= 0.008 1* -\- 8A e. '\^^ POWER. 21 1 ■ ' Locomotive boilers {burn- ing coal) 10 = 0.009 »*+ P-? c- Locomotive boilers (burr- ing: coke) w =; o.OifS f* -f- 7.94 c. The limiting values of c are : Stationary boilers e = o.oo75St*. Marine boilers c = o.ooT f*. Portable engine boilers c = 0.oo2 1*. Locomotive boilers (coal) c = OM>3»5r*. Locomotive boilers (coke) e^O.0044 r*. On an average, the allowance should be twelve square feet of heating surfaces-figuring only tube surface— per horse-power per hour, for tubular boilers, and 10 to 12 square feet per horse-power per hour for water tube boilers. SETTING OF BOILERS. Where mason work comes in direct connection with the boiler, no mortar should be used, but only fire clay. All con- nections close 10 the boiler and below the water line should be made with firebrick. The firebricks should be moistened when laid, and have very thin joints, and every third course should be bound to the rest of the brickwork. The thickness ol the walls should not be less than one and one-half brick, better two bricks, and the outer wall should have an air space of two inches. Both walls should be bound together by a binding course at every third layer. If parts of a boiler pass through brickwork, as, for instance, the dome, the brickwork should be kept away fron) it at least one The flues must be so built thai a long and close c of the flue gases wiib the bailer is had, and must be easily accessible for cleaning. It is best to place obstructions in the flues or to curve them to bring the gases in close connection with the boiler. These obstructions should be placed at dis- tances of five to eight feet apart. The velocity of gases with natural draft should be about ten to fifteen feet. It Is not necessary to have the cross-section equal all through. As a general rule, if three consecul'wc ftuta ^tt ^^.^t4. Vtv ■». boiler using from 150 lo 250 pounds oi coa.\ ^« ^\c.^^t, *^'i- ^■*'*'' Sue should have an area equal to 0.2s ol VW i^aX*. sw^^"^"^- ■*■■' the first one i.s to 1.75 ol tbU, and the Uat bnt one 1.35 t%xs of the lut one. ^ ' - In placea where obstrnctioiis are put on pnrpoie, as those in the flues and the bridge they can be made with an area of 0.135 to O-i of the gnle surface. Where the direction of the flue g»aci is changed, larger areas must be provided, as this change of direction will otherwise retard the flow of the gueft. SMOKE-STACKS. The smallest opening of the chimney should be one-fourth of the gr^te surface, and its height about 35 times this smallest opening, but nci-er under 50 (eeL Chimneys which are built without means for ascending on the outside must have an opening at the top of not less than 24 inches. The lower diameter of a brick chimney should be ao3 of the height of the chimney larger than that of the top opening. Roimd chimneys are best because they ofl'er le^s resistance to the wind, do not retard the revolving action of the gases, and having the smallest circumference for a given diameter. suflFer the least from loss of heat. . The bottom of the opening of the chimney should be at least 24 inches to 30 inches from the bot- tom of the bridging and if more than one bridging enters the chimney they should be so arranged as to give the gases from all of them the same direction, as otherwise a considerable loss of velocity would occur. Brick chimneys arc hcst. but also the most CNpenslve. They last long and need no painting, nor much repairs, except pointing Up once in a long while. They retain llie lieat much belter than iron smoke-stacks. Iron smoke-stacks arc either made self-sustaining or are held by guy ropej. In the first case, the statk is provided with 3 strong cast-iron base, bolted down upon a foundation heavy enough to prevent the strongest wind overturning the stack. The slack is also made ol heavier iron. The necessity fit keeping in paint, and the danger of rusting on the inside if not continu- ally in use, arc two disagreeable conditions connected with the use of iron chimneys. SMOKE PREVENTION. // srioke issues from a chimney it is a shtc iVjw -.yvav toia- iitstioa is imperfect. The means to present stnoV-e v^ Vo V>:» it )nd to admit air either at ordinary temperature or heated. This can be done in quite a number of ways: 1. The air enters into the bridge from the sides, rises in it to the top, and is discharged at the top downward into the lire. 2. Air admilled through a Hue, located behind the ash pit and controlled by a butterfly valve. This air mixes with the smoke right behind the bridge and consumes it. It is claimed that this process will save 37 per cent of the fuel when using soft coal. But the objection is that if the fireman admits too mitch air, the efficiency will not be increased but decreased. 3. Mr. W. I.osh provides two separate furnaces and (ires them alternately, allowing the gases of the just fired furnace to pass into the ash pit of the other, which has yet an incandescent fire, thus consuming the smoke. 4. Air tubes perforated with holes are placed behind and near the bridge, discharging air taken from the outside into the smoky gases, and furnishing the oxygen needed to trans- form them into carbonic acid gas. 5. Mr. Williams admits air through a fine located behind the ash pit. discharging i( into the ash pit through perforated fire- clay plates, and admits addilional air through a perforated fire door. He makes the air inlet at (he fire door 0.5 to 1. 5 square inches per square toot of grate surface. 6. Mr. March biiilds two furnaces, the grates of which can be moved up and down, carrying a deep bed of fuel at the Start, and keeping the fuel always at tlie same level. The fur- naces arc filled alternately. The air is sent by a blower into tubes located in the bottom of the boiler and connected by outlets with the combustion chamber, the air striking the fire vertically. 7. Mr. Clark places six three-inch air tubes just over the fire door, and introduces the air by six steam jets of »', of an inch each, directing air and steam toward the opening twtween bridge and boiler. 8. Another method of Mr. Clark is to place cast-iron plates over the fire door, forming a narrow air inlet, and to place in them steam jets to introduce the air, directing the current again as before. He had the be^t action with this arraneement over a deep fire. 9. Dr. Kufnhl built a step grate UVte a ft.\^t ol ^'w^.x* V« *N.t use of small coal, lignite, and s\acV. ThV^ wTaTv^trnttAX^ iv'ewj' 214 POWER. a lot of grates placed so that the fuel from the first grate ouuiol fall in the ash pit, but falls on the next grate, getting bAtit all the lime and nearer the point of incandescence. All these steps are a liiile inclined, except the lowest one, which is a little larger and level for the removal of the clinkers. la Hau-'lcy Down Draft Furnace. This furnace is provided with two grates, located one above the other; the lower one is an ordinary grate, and is not fired, but receives its supply from the grate above, which allows the colied coal to fait through. The upper grate is formed by a series of pipes, connected rear and front, and the front header receives the water from the boiler, while the rear header returns it. causing a rapid cir- culation of ibe water in the boiler. The coal is fed to the upper grate, and the g.iscs produced in the upper furnace forced to pass through (he coal on Ihe upper grate, since a wall erected right where otherwise the bridge would be, stops the progress of ihe gases and leads them ihroufih \h-: coal down- ward, where Ihey meet ihe coked fuel, and thus ihe smoke coming from the upper furnace i= burned. The gases then flow as usual into the flues, toward the chinmey. The upper grates are inclined toward the front, about three inches per toot of length, and the lower grates inclined toward the rear about two inches per fool. It is claimed that M^ apparatus previuls smoke entirely and increases tho economy m.iteriaily. It certainly ha? two good features, viz.. perfect combuMion and rapid circulaiii.n of w^ter. The makers claim the following for their furnace: It will con- sume 30 to JO pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate surface, and not smoke : evaporate 1 5 to 35 per cent more water ihnn ^ny 'jlher tiiriiace per pomu! oi o.i.il; increase ca- pacity of boiler 20 to jo per cent; insure safety of boiler by prcveutini? batrgins or burning of shell. The claims are certainly high, and should be =ubs;anliatcd by a ipiarantee from the maker. FEED-W.\TER HE.^TERS. The liiHl-ksl hcaUr is one in which a pipe eoil of equal diam- eter as the c.\haust pipe is 'iibmcrged in a l.qnk fillcil with water, (he ?ieam emcrirg the coil at the lop a:iJ tho comleiisfd water discharging 3t the boltom through the f.heU. t\\>.- sleim through " lee placed inside the tank to the lop. 11 \\\t toW Va^ uSk- POWER. 315 cicnj 4leating surface, it is a useful device, but it will require *tC enormous healing surface, owing to the slow motion of the water over it, and it cannot be expected to bring the feed water near 213°. The kealert ordinarily used are either horizontal or vertical cylindrical vessels, filled with brass lubes, and are constructed like steam condensers. In case an old tubular boiler is on hand, it can be used to advantage as a feed-water heater. The water is fed in the shell, and the exhaust into the tubes. There aie sonic vertical heaters built with only one lube plate, the pipes having return bends, and the inlet, and outlet of each pipe being secured to the same lube head. This is done to pre- vent leakage at the lube heads caused by expansion and con- traction, the bent ()ipes taking care of the expansion. The Bauer heater is an exhaust heater, oil extractor, and puri- fier, at the same time. It consists of two cylinders, a larger one below and a smaller on lop, forming the oil separator. The exhaust steam enters the upper vessel on top and strikes a lot of obstructions, placed there for the retention of the oil earned along with the steam. At the bottom of this upper cylinder the feed-water is introduced and flows over the edge of a tube inserted as a connection between the upper and lower vessels in a thin sheet, meeting the steam on this passage and taking up heat from it. The water then drops on corrugated bafHe plates, so arranged that the water runs over on the outside of one baffle plate and over at the center of the next baffle plate. Having been healed lo ihe boiling point by this time, it lib- erates lime and other substances held in solution, and leaves them on the plates. The water and exhaust steam now pass through filtering material and collect in a spacious receiving compartment at the bottom of the large cylinder, where they are separated. The feed-water supply is regulated by a float, Eo- cated in the receiving compartment, keeping the water-level there at even height by means of rods and levers acting on a balanced valve located in the feed-water inlet pipe. The steam coming in direct contact with the water, there will, of course, be a closer exchange of heat than it both were sep- arated by sheets of iron, and the water will be purified just as in a live-steam heater, to the extent, of coarse, that ItiU can be done williotit raising the temperaViitft o\ ^\w. -^^i-tx »^ fi/gh as in the live-steam heater. Some atib»tanw» «ai ■wswa.'w 2l6 POWER. \ I ■ohMiDa mt 2ia', while ttcy will preci^tate it « liiniiiliMii ol The Holmes condtuttr (Sec CondeiHen) can be med m a * beater, where it is advisable to ctMidente the steam, eitber far the purpose o( nsinff the diMDled water or becaoie Ac escape of the exhaust innit be prerented, and wbere plentj of water ia on band. uva-siKAii HKAtnS. If it is necessary to heat the water almost to the teraperatiuc of live steam in order to get rid oE substances carried in solution in the water at temperatures lower than that of the live steam but higher than 213°, the only beater to use is a live-steam beater. When a compound condentinc engine is on hand and the exhaust is not available for feed water heating, it pays to use a live-sleam healer. Not that there is any gain in economy- since it is immaterial where the work of heating the feed-water is done, coal having to be used anyway, either to produce the live steam to heat the water with, or to heat ihc water directly in the boiler. The live-steam heater is generally a horiiontal. cylindrical vessel, wherein the live slcam comes into direct contact wHlh the water. .\ large number of pans are provided inside, over which the water is run from one to the other. The pans re- taining the Fubflances dropped out of solution at this high temperature, must be cleaned from time to time. This heater will furnish good feed-waler and at evaporating temperature; it will increase the capacity — not the efficiency — of ihe boiler, and prolong the life of Ihe boiler by subjecting it to less sirain. keeping the temperatures prevailing in the different parts o( the boiler more equal. To show how much saving can be obtained by the use of a feed-water heater, we will assume that we have one too hone- power boiler, evaporating 30 pounds of water per hour, tiiat the coal furnishes 6,000 ih. u. per pound, and that the feed-water is 72° before entering the heater and 210° when leavinp it. \Vc then have 24 X 100 X 30 pou'-ls of steam to produce per day and. therefore, need just this amount of feed-water, which we can heat by Ihe exhaust, without any expense whalso- ever, from 72' to ato" = 138°. We Have therefore furnished ^ X 100 X 30 X 1j8th.11. to the waUi w^iich ■«« woiA wA furnMi in the boiler, by using a feed-water heater; or, if we divide ^tflis suTTi by 6,ocx>, we have the amount of coal saved per day = 1,656 pounds of coal = 0.838 tons. ECONOMIZERS. The flue gases often carry large amounts of heat out through the smoke-slack, allowing it to go to waste, especially when bcHlcrs arc forced, or high sieam pressure is used. To save this heat, water pipes can be laid in the bridging, and the extra heat used to heat the water circulated through these pipes, often to a higher temperature than an exhaust heater can do. It might even pay to use the exhaust first tor healing the fecd-walcr, and then to send the feed-water through the economizer. The table below shows the results obtained from a carefully conducted test made by Mr. M. W. Grosse at the works of Messrs. Dollfus, Mieg i Co. of Mulhouse in Alsace (page 218). The apparatus with which the Grosse test was made c of four ranges of vertical pipes 6^ feet high, 3% inches in diameter outside, 9 pipes in each range, connected at top and bottom by horizontal pipes. The water enters all the tubes from below and leaves them above. This system of piping Is enveloped in a brick casing, into which the gaseous products of combustion are introduced from above, leaving it from below. The pipes are cleared of soot externally by automatic scrapers. The capacity for water is 24 cubic feet, and the total externa! heating furfacs is 290 square feel. The apparatus is placed in conneclion with a boiler having 355 square feet of heating sur- face. This apparatus had been at work for seven weeks continuously without being cleaned, and had accumulated a one-half-inch coat- ing of soot and ash, when its performance in the same condition was observed for one week. During the second week it was cleaned twice every dsy; bul during the third week, after having been cleaned on Monday morning, it was worked continuously without any further cleaning. The coal used was a smoke-mak- ing one, and the consumption of it was practically made o Tim.. ProdDctt " '"■K-a- He«ler. Realer. Diirw- Ik, j Hotter. fS. Dlffw- CDOB. TbiTd week. WedDMdaj.... Bid's"' • ■■ T».0' MIS' IM ; ,g: l£t.«° B0.0° ai= «S.l' ! m- SI and i«coiid irce ■ per lb. of coa The table shows ihai ihere is a great advantage in cleaning the pipes daily, the elevation of temperature having been in- creased by it from 86° to 15,1°. In the third week, without clean- ing, the elevation of temperature relapsed in three days to the level of the first week; even on the first day it was quickly re- duced by as much as half of the extent of the relapse. By cleaning the pipes daily, an increased elevation of temperature was ob- tained, while a gain of 6 per ceril was effected in the evaporative efKciency. BOILER \V.\TER AND ITS TREATMENT. There is no part in the operation of a steam plant which is of greater importance and which should receive more careful atten- tion than the proper use of scale-preventing compounds. The forming of fcale and other common boiler evils will here be treated from a thcorelicai as well as a practical standpoint, giving the causes, efiteets and methods of treatment. WATFJl IS GESEH.VL. Chemically pure water does not exist in nature, the nearest approach to it being rain water or melted st^ never pare, for in (ailing it dissolves or i isViM Ao-jm V\\\v v POWER. 219 tbe gMCS, dust, germs, etc., which are always present to a grea.ter OT'Iess extent in the air. Rain, after reaching the earth, soaks down into it and in percolating through the various strata dis- solves certain salts or minerals, the quantity and kind of which varies with tho nature of the strata, with which the water comes In contact. It reappears in the form of springs or artesian wells and in that stage contains considerable mineral matter in solu- tion, being usually what is termed a hard water. These springs are generally the source of rivers and feeders of lakes whose water, coming in contact with the air, loses part of its dissolved minerals, and being increased in volume by the rain falling directly, and that running off the surrounding land, be- comes very much diluted and moderately soft. It may also con- tain organic matter from decomposing vegetable substances and sewage and other impurities from cities and factories situated along the river course. (For more detailed treatment of waters in regard to this requirement in brewing see Giapter on "Brewing Materials")- WATER FOR BOILERS. The greater part of the substances in solution to be considered in water for boiler purposes are sulphates and carbonates of lime and magnesia, and carbonate, chloride and sulphate of soda; al- though chloride of magnesia, carbonate of iron, alumina, silica, potassium salts, and organic matter and gases are often present, but only in small quantities. Boiler waters may be considered from two points of view and described accordingly as hard, or scale- forming, and soft waters. Hard vjahTi are those that contain considerable amounts of earthy sails in solution, such as carbonate and sulphate of lime and carbonate of magnesia. Hardness of water is designated as either temporary, or permanent. By temporary hardness is meant hardness caused by such earthy salts as will disappear from solution, or, in other words be precipitated by boiling or aeration. These are the carbonates of lime, magnesia, and iron, which are almost insoluble in ^u.^?. water, but quite soluble in the presence ol w-t^mtiw, ^ti4,%^^ V^**"^- 0/J7i;ifi'xa-'^^"' tcr, this carbonic acid is rcadilj driren off, and the lolaUe G carbonates are precipitated as insoluble carbonates. Fenaanrnl hardness of a water is caused bj the earthy salts remaining permanently in solution, and will not be precipitated by boiling at 213* F. or by aeration. These are sulpbate of lime or gypsum, sulphate of magnesia, and very small quantities of the carbonates of lime and magnesia. Soft Waters are those that contain very little or no solids i> solution. The best water tor use b a boiler is undoubtedly rain water or condensed steam containing practically no solids in solution, next, river or lake water with an average of from 5 Co 10 grains of solids per gallon, and lastly, spring or artesian well water which is generally quite hard. When a hard water must be used, it is best treated for the re- moval of lis solids before entering tlie boiler, as even moderately soft water becomes troublesome in the boiler on .iccount of the aggregation of the solids due to drawing off the sii-am and add- ing new water. For example, taking a soft water with only five grains per gallon and caleulating as an average 3"^ gallons of wa- ter evaporated per hour per horse power, then an engine of loo-horpcpower running ten hours per day would consume ,1.500 gallons. From this would then be deposited over two pounds of scale per day or nearly 70 pounds per nionth. or over onc-lhlrd of a ton in the course of a year. With hard water these figures would be multiplied manj* timej, Wat'.T for boilers should not be judged by its appearance. A good drinking water may be a poor boiler water, a clear, sparkling water may be very hard and form dense scale, while a dirty ri\er water often is soft and excellent for boiler use. EFFECT OF W.\TER5 ON' lUHt.rHS. The evils in a Iwiler caused by different waters arc of three kinds: Incrustation or boiler scale, corrosion of the metallic /M/W. aatf foaming, frothing, or priming. / POWEE. a2i . '' SCAU. Scale is by far the most common, the prevention and removal of which after once formed, is the purpose of nearly all tlie boiler compounds now in use. It is a hard, almost metallic coating or crust of lime and magnesia salts that forms on the walls and around the flues in the boiler. It operates most detrimentally by its non -conductivity of heat, as it acts as an insulator between the heated metal and the water to be heated, similar to a sheet of asbestos placed in the same position. This causes part of the heat to pass through the fines and up the chimney unused, in- volving a waste of fuel. This loss of heat and fuel varies with the composition of (he scale, some kinds being more heat-resist- ing than others. The high limits are placed at is per cent loss of fuel for every t-l6 inch thickness of scale, but the average is somewhat lower on account of the varying composition of the scale from different waters, a fair average for every 1-16 inch thickness if scale is about 8 per cent, making the loss of fuel for a thickness of % inch about 80 to 85 per cent. Where ihe scale is of considerable thickness it is of such resist- ing power as to allow the iron to become red-hot while keeping up the aniounl of heat necessary to maintain the required pres- sures. In this red-hot condition the plates and tubes are likely, owing to the high pressures to which they are subjected, to be bent out of shape or collapse entirely. There is further danger of the scale suddenly cracking or breaking away bodily from the iron, thereby allowing the water (o come in contact with red-hot metal, often causing an explosion. Scale increases any un- equal expansion of the whole structure which has a weakening effect, causing leaky seams and cracks in the plates near the rivet Soft scale or mud slops up feed pipes, water and steam gauge tubes, promotes the leaking of cocks and valves and may be carried over with the steam into the engine. SCALE-FORMING SUBSTANCES. The principal scale-forming solids in water are sulphate of lime and magnesia, and the carbonates of lime, magnesia and iron. SulplKxU- of Lime or Gypsum is by iat U\e •jiot^I. i.w'i'cwi ■iK -s. hoikr, as it forms a dense non-conduclwg scaVo. qI sivcvoW. vaO-^w- hardness. Its removal is the first and ^tinc^^aX toT>a\&.W'4.'i:'vQ-& v the treatment of a bcnier »xter. When contmined alone'lijji not generelly predpitated bjr boiliiig at aia* F^ but partly In die'^ presence of much hicarbonate of lime or magneiia- CarbonaU of Limt ig almost intolnble in water (abont two grains per gallon at fio* F.) and entirely so at 397* F., the tem- perature at so pounds' pressure. When held in solution aa hi- carboDate it begins to be slowly precipitated at 175* F., the bidk falling between that temperature and xi3* F. It does not settle easily during working hours on account of the continual cJtco- lation of the water in the boiler, and the scale it forms is com- paratively soft, except when allowed to lie on very hot sir- faces not exposed to the drculatioD or when mixed with sul- phate of lime, clay or grease. CarbonaU of magnesia acts almost exactly the same as car- bonate of lime. It is worthy of notice that ithile a gallon of water will hold dissolved (in the absence of carbonic acid) either two grains of carbonate of lime or two grains of carbonate of magnesia, it will not under ordinary conditions dissolve two grains of each. Sulphate of magnesia is usually contained only in small quan- :ities in waters. It is not liable by itself to cause any scale, is not corrosive, and does not cause foaming, but it hinders the removal of lime sails and forms a moderately hard scale in the presence of carbonate of foda. Oxide of magnesia is frequently, or even generally, present in the scale, altliough none is contained in the water. This is due to the carbonic acid of the carbonate of magnesia being driven off at high temperatitres such as the plalcs and tubes are sub- Carbonate of iron acts like carbonate o( lime or magnesia, ex- cept that it begins to be precipitated at a lower temperature, as when standing in an open vessel in contact with the air. los- ing its carbonic acid and taking up oxygen. Silica and alumina are contained in almost every water, usu- ally combined with each other. The>- are of litlle importance, the total amount being seldom more than one-quarter of a grain p*:r gallon. C/ay i.i Irequentiy present in suspension ; it has a tendency to mix aitti and increase the bulk ot l\\t ha^d stiXe. eP/y oHii grease that might find ihcir was inlo ^.^^^ \«\'^«^ a« , -^ POWER. 333 to .bt' avoided, as they mix with the otherwise porous, hard scale, and make it impervious to moisture, therebj increasing its non-conduclivity or insulating properties. If of animal origin (adulterations in lubricating oil) the; form oleates of lime and magnesia (insoluble soap), a sticky, non-conducting substance, having a great affinity for hoi metal. CORKOSION. Besides scale-forming solids there are contained in *ater other solids and gases that have a corrosive action on the metal of the boiler. This corrosion is very often a greater annoyance than scale, as it causes the metal to be eaten away, bringing on leaks, which generally result in loss of tima by stoppages, and expensive repairs. The corroding solids are generally present in moderate quantities only, but become troublesome by their concentration, as they do not find an outlet until the whole boiler is emptied. They are readily decomposed by the high pressure and heat, liberating free acids which will either attack the iron directly or set up a galvanic action when brass or copper (cocks, valves, etc.) come in contact with the iron. In this event ihe iron (which means the -boiler itself) is the metal attacked or corroded, being gradually eaten away. The sub- stances usually causing corrosion are: Magnesium chloride, which is split up at a high heat and pres- sure, liberating hydrochloric acid which not only corrodes the boiler but, being a gas, may pass over with the steam into Ihe en- gine. Ammonium or sodium chloride (common salt) when pres- ent will, to a great extent, prevent this decomposition, forming with the magnesium chloride a stable double chloride. Gases, such as carbonic acid, air, oxygen, and sulphuretted hydrogen are corrosive when in a moist state. It is a fact that distilled water out of which all the air has been boiled will not corrode or rust iron readily, neither will dry air or carbonic acid gas, but when together, as they are in boiler water, they will soon attack the metal. These gases will either form bubbles, and cause what is called pitting, or, if present in larger quantities (which is snmettmes the case with air that is forced in hv de- fective feed pumps) and being heavier ftvati ?,\.ta.TO, -w'^ ^w■ro. ■*. straiun, belneen the water and the sUam, ca.M^m% •^.ci^-^o^v's^ ■> Acid Waitrt. — Some wtten an of an add natare e __, disiolved organic acids from bavins percolated thnogfa beda vl \ peat or decayins vrgetaUe matter. Water from riven ia Iiib- ber rcgioni where large lafta of trees and bark are Boated ofta contain tannic acid, and waters of the iron regioM aometimes oo^ tain sulphuric add. IQAHIMC Foaming, pHmiag or frolliing in boilers has no deleterious ef- fect on the boiler itself, but causes either non-volatile particles or the water itself to be directljr carried over with the steam into the valves, pipes and engine. Muddy deposits of soft scak are causes of foaming, as the steam on this account rises through the water more irregularly and in large bursts or bnmpi carrying up with it a spray of this mud, and forcing it into die [upes. This is to be especially avoided in breweries using live steam in the mash tubs, since nonvolatile matter as «ell as volatile matter thus carried may cause serious disturbances in mashing, etc. Foaming is also caused by rarbonal,- of soda or other alkalis tliat are sometimes contained in water, but are more often present in consequence of the addition of excessive amounts of water purifiers or boiler compounds, of which they are constituent parts. BOItER SCALE PREVENTATIVES. By a boiler compound or water purifier is understood such a substance as. when added to a boiler water, will lessen or entirely overcome the ill effects described in the forceoiiig paragraphs Fropriclary Comfotiads. — There arc immmerable compounds of secret composition in the market. Pari of them give good results with some waters when properly used, others are indiffer- ent or inert to any water, while the greater majority of com- pounds arc positively injurious when promiscuously used. Some compounds, while they reduce scale-forming, increase corrosion, Others become dangerous when u^ed to excess, causing more scale than would be precipitated if no compound were used at all, but a]i compounds by their addition increase the density o/ the ualcr and consequently its boiling poinl. POWER. 225 Ta Be Specially Compounded.— A. boiler compouncak prodncen), change it into caifaanate of lime (aoft acale). and cause its prec^tation in that form. It also affects the precipitation of the carhonates of lime and magDcaia in the boiler, canaing these carbonatea to be deposited in a more flal^ condition, with less tendeacr to pack or harden. Carbonate ot soda decompoaes the corrosive chloride of magnesium, forming carbonate of magnesia which is predpitaled, and sodinni chloride. It neutralizes any free acids that may be contained ia the water which would otherwise coTrode or pit the iron. Carbonate of soda has no effect in preventing or diminishing the amount of scale, but in some instances increases it, as it precipitates carbonate of magnesia from sulphate of magnesia, which would otherwise remain in solution and do lillle harm to the boiler. It forms a soap with grease, which is more harmful than the grease itself. When added in excess, it causes foam- ing, especially in tubular boilers, and when used in considerable excess it attacks the packing and gaskets, having a lendcncj to dissolve asbestos and ruMter. Carbonate of soda should be used only in tvaters rich in sulphate of lime, but not in those containing principally the carbonates of lime and magnesia. To apply carbonate of soda it should be dissolved in water sepa- rately and added to the water to be treated in such quantity ka lo produce a faint red color on the addition of a solution of phenol-phthalein. (See "Chemical Laboratory.") Caustic Soda Procets. — This does not immediately pre- cipitate sulphate of lime, but does so in a secondary manner. It should be used, if at all, in waters containing mostly bicarbonales of lime and magnesia, besides sulphate of lime in a quantity approximately equivalent to the carbonates. Here it combines with the carbonic acid of the bicarbonates precipitating tAem as carbonates, and is itself changed into carbonate of soda, which further acts on the sulphate a\ Wme as mwAvmed ^Aai-c. Caustic sodA should be used co\d m ft^t m\V\™* \»iScfc, 9 POWER. 227 as a itrong solution suddenly put in ifae boiler will not act to its fulT capacity or perform its work properly. Lime. — The lime, or Clark's, process is applied to, and effect- ive in, waters containing much, or mostly, bicarbon&te of lime and magnesia, and little or no sulphate of lime. Here the lime, in solution as lime water, unites with the carbonic acid of the bicarbonates and precipitates them, as well as itself, as insoluble carbonates. This precipitate with lime is double the quantity what it would be if caustic soda were used; but, in the absence of sulphate of time, has the advantage of not leaving any car- bonate of soda in solution. The drawbacks of the latter were alluded to above. Lime is detrimental in the presence of sul- phate of magnesia, as it precipitates hydraCed oxide of magnesia and leaves sulphate of lime, which is more harmful, in its place. Lime and Soda Combined, — This is used when water contains both sulphate of lime and bicarbonate of lime and magnesia in such proportion that the amount of carbonate of soda necessary does not have its full softening effect The treatment in this process is accomplished by the addition of the amount of soda necessary to precipitate the sulphate of lime, and the amount of lime necessary to react on the carbonates. The combined method gives results where either alone would do so only im- perfectly. Water should be treated by this process only while cold and in tanks. Besides the above, there are other substances acted upon ; but these are generally present in too small quantities to be con- sidered- They are carbonate of iron, which is affected similarly to the carbonates of lime and magnesia and chloride o( calcium, which acts like chloride of magnesium. Barium sails are used to some extent. Caustic baryta acts like lime, and has no advantage over it. Chloride of barium precipitates insoluble sulphate of barium from sulphate of lime, leaving chloride of calcium in solution. This might answer where the water contains exclusively sulphate of lime, but it also forms a precipitate with sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, unnecessarily increasing the precipitate and leaving the harmful chloride of magnesia in solution. The price of barium salts is, however, loo high in tom^ai'\w)T\ -«\'iN •i'Cot-t substances of equal or greater efiec^vveTves% Vo '(wJitc. ■ftwA^ ^^ general. Sodium Kuoride is pracdallx the skme ia its action a^)^|(- bonate of soda, but is much more costly. It precipitates lime and magnesia salts in a light, flocculent, non-adhesive conststescr, and when pure has the advantage over soda of not leaving the nater so strongly alkaline. As a good many commercial sam- pies react strongly acid there should be some care exercised in its use. Tri-sodittm phosphate, otT. S. P., »A it ia sometimes designated by engineers, — The value of this chemical consists in its abili^ to convert the soluble lime and magnesia salts in the water into, and precipitating them as, insoluble phosphates of lime and magnesia. These phosphates are of a very flocculent nature, having a specific gravity little above that of water, and on that account do not settle easily, but are continuously in suspension, and settle when the boiler is at rest as a soft mud that does not harden. Tri-sodium phosphate, on account of its alkaline nature, neutralizes any acids present which would otherwise cause cor- rosion, and an excess is not so likely to cause foaming or priming, as would one of carbonate of soda. Bhrhromate of Soda. — The use of this chemical is patented in Germany, and has ."ecently been introduced here. It pre- cipitates scale-foiming lime and magnesia sails as insoluble, non-scaling chromates. It is claimed that an excels of the chemical, even free chromic acid, has no corrosive action on the iron or packing. Tannin or tannic add is used to some extent. It forms non- scaling tannales of lime and magnesia, but attacks the iron, and is not to be recon) mended. Tannatc of soda, like tannic acid, forms tannates of lime and magnesia, but is much safer to use. Sugar is also sometimes used, precipilaiing the sacc ham it's of lime and magnesia. MECH.^NICAL COMPOUNDS. A good many chemically inert substances are used as water purifiers, but they accomplish their object only partly, if at all. 5ottjdi«(,— This is supposed to furnish a nucleus or center /or the crystallization of the hardening aalw pTcveniing their uniting together. J POWER. 229 ifticilagiiioiu sttbslancts, tlarck, polaloet, etc., have the op- posite effect to that of sawdust, that is, to envelop or surround the minute crystals of scale, and thus-prevent them from harden- ing. Such substances, however, cause foaming and priming. TO PttEVENt COKROStOK. For the prevention of corrosion an iron-zinc couple is fre- quently used and seems to give good results. This is obtained by atlachir^ zinc plates or rods to the iron bracings of the boiler, whereby a galvanic action is set up. The corroding sub- stance attacks the ^inc, which can be easily and cheaply re- placed, leaving the iron of the boiler practically intact. In the proper selection of boiler compounds or water purifiers the following considerations should be observed: Never use any of the so-called universal compounds, alleged to be good for any scale or any water. There are numberless small concerns or individuals going into this sort of "business" every year who claim to have the best compound ever produced and who reck- lessly condemn thai of every other competitor. All they ask for is a trial of their compound, which means neither more nor less than experimenting with your boiler at your expense and risk. The greater part, in fact nearly all, of the secret compounds now sold are nothing but a mixture in varying proportions of some of the chemicals described above, usually sold at from three to twenty-five times their actual cost, the basis of most of them be- ing soda, colored or blended in every imaginable manner. Deal only with reliable concerns of financial standing, such as will actually make an analysis of your water, and furnish you a duplicate of the analysis, and who will prepare a com- pound to suit your particular water. TRANSniSSION OF POWER. In order to explain what U necesnrj to detemunc wfacn shift- ing has to be erected for the trsasmistioa of power, we will take the most coiiimoc case. Ad engine of twenty-five horse-power is to be connected to a shafting supplying, by means of three pulleys B, C and D, power to different machines (Fig. 54). The machine connected to B requires five horse-power, the machine connected to C requires eight horse-power, and the machine connected to D requires twelve horse-power. Diameter of pulley B =: (T; diameter of pulley C = /*"; diameter of pulley D = «>"; revolutions of en- gine := 7i; revolutions of shaft = 100. The diameter of the pul- ley A' on the engine is = U and = 31'. The diameter of pulley A, width of all belts, and the diameter of shaft are to be deter- mined ; also the bearings to be placed at the proper places. F PULLEV ON ENGINE. Calling the respective number of horsepower to be trans- mitted ^^ ft, k'. k'. . . . and the radii of the corresponding pnl- lejs = r. T. r- we have iS nV. = 5 + S -\- u = h + h- + h-. The diameter D of pulley A, which is to be driven by pulley A', calling the revolutions of the engine = .V, and of the shaft — n. we have DN 32X75 The width of the belt required for pulley A we find, as ex- pfained before, by ascertaining the trictiona\ suiiact t>\ x.\it wmt '^ rtc 6e/f. Referring to Figs. 54 and 55 we 6n4 ^\»* iw^^-t v TSANSUISSION OP POWER. 231 b« ^ J'. We must, of course, exaniiiie the snmller pulley, as thi* has the smalter frictional surface. If we do not want to find this surface by drawing the plan, we can proceed as follows: The total circumference of pulley A is ^= d " = the arc of 360°, and to find the number of d^rees for c' d', draw two ver- tical lines through the center of the shaft of each pulley A and A' to the line connecting both centers. We know that angles ate = f d = o' / c' =.0' f d' =w, and drawing a line throt^h «* = fv as the sides 240 = 0.0333, and as per table of natural trigonometrical functions w ^= 2', or, in this case, a very small one which we could have neg- lected and taken simply one-half of the periphery of pulley A. However, the angle wanted Is ^ iSo — 4 and the arc 37 = d T = 37", and expressed in parts of the radius = 360 12 The formula for the friction was P = Q e^^, and to gel P we have to insert the values wi and ui, and V\\tTV V\« \:^t 'A *vi»s. 'A bells and tensions will give the reqmitd vi\4vVv ol>iA\- "^ ■= '*-^' for old greaty beltu. TXANSJI^SSION OP POWEK. taxa m ma» -■ . tin. lis «|IL StD. Sin. r d J*" We wHl cair ^ = width of belt ; J = thickness of belt ; 5 = ten- sion b the belt per square Inch; p = teoNoa of the belt per inch. We can allow S = 77 v'"^and d = 0.147 VT, and fr = oj/ V~^ if i* is exerted at the rim of the poll^, and if the horse-power is /fljjooo ft = oj/V . 33000 and R = radius of pulley ir inches. In a shorter form = 7i\~ \ H I '5 = 7S\ = 10,6: ItK IS X 100 In order (o have sufficient friction of the bell the value in the formula P = Q e'™ for the factor c"* must be at least = /. Then Q = P. But in this case we have e'" = 1.44S. or nearly 50 per cent more friction than necessary. WIDTH OF OTHEK BELTS. For the width of the other belts we proceed as follows: First, the conside ration of the belt friction of which we can dispose in short order. Since the factor f™* must be at least ^= / to prevent slipping, and we know that £''* := i.ii, or sufficient, then we need only examine the exponent niu', and if this is less than 0.1 we must either take a larger pulley or. if the arc can be sufikiently increased by crossing, the belt should be crossed, or tension 5 decreased by making the belt wider. The width of the belts for pulleys B. C. D are b'. b", b'". y = Z8\~ = 10 ; TRANSMISSION OF POWEB. The moment at the periphery of pulley A = 12 = ZSJS^, ii^"- 100 QT P R = I5T56, in which P = 1313, and R = ly. To faciliUte matters we can simply use the tensions in the table per one inch width, multiplying them by the width of belt selected to get P. If we make b' = 10", b' = **, b'" = 10", we have these moments: for pulley B 10 X loo X 3= 3ooo lb.', for pulley C**X 80 X 9 = S?6olb.', for pulley D wX loox 'o= zoooo lb.'. It is not advisaUe to allow the angle of twist of a shaft 10 be more than 1° per 16' of length, and the table for lateral and torsional strength is figured on this basis. This table givea the diameter of different shafts for the given moment = P R, and for the quotient formed by dividing the number of horse-power through the number of the revolutions. TORSIONAL STREKCTH. Every shaft is subjected to two kinds of tensions, viz., the "lateral" tension or strength, and the "torsional" tension or strength. As a rule, the torsional strength required is much greater than the lateral, and therefore it is best to look for this first. But it may be that the bearings are so far apart that the bending of the shaft by the force acting on the rim of a pulley, or the force acting at the teeth of a gear, requires a heavier shaft than is nec- essary for the torsional tension. This case will be considered later. Of course, we must select the greatest force P acting on any of the pulleys, if the shaft is to have the same diameter all through. The greatest force, as we will see by comparing Oak. tour forces, is the force P acting at d*t V\m oV v^'^^'S A., *«&■ = ijis lbs. It we iind in the table umdei tixt \icni ^^ ^.wi^^s^ strength the value of P R = 15756 Ci»tar«t "*'i'»* = ibTl'^ - '™' 334 TBANSMTSSION OP POWER. the diameter of the shaft needed is 3.4'. This diameter we covM reduce a little for pulley D, since there the moment is only 10,000^ «id Uu< cor/e^ond* to 3 belt of 3.1, but it arould bftrdly paj la ' do to. SKAFT VUl HxiDS ra s im HOUR IS un goonBR h». -i,». rorLstenlStraoKth. FMTonlOMiatnBgUt. M H PR n PB a o.ou Mt O.OM MM e.on o-g* •MS 0.1Ci TJI 0.Mo .74 S.U &iaa30 W 4. ocMoa siJio) SOI 712*00 1 !ss verta S.H 4X33S0 T.M IIOHOD 7wa» 11 -n i4»eD0 Si.74 looaoo ]S.«8 iBn»n S8.SI « w sismoo W.II lEMMD SSMOOO 44.41 M4T0IW w;™ LATEBAL STSEHGTB. If we now look in the cottunn for the latenU strength we find much smaller shaft diameters, which, however, cannot be used in our case, as the torsional strength requires a shaft of greater diameter. If we should find, however, that the lateral strength requires & greater diameter, in such case we must consider a combination moment formed from the two, the lateral and the torsional, which we will call ■= W, ; and the torsional moment = M\, and the lateral moment = M\. Then we have ifjf, > M, . then M. = 0.975 H, + o-»S M >. matf 'YJr. > i<, , then if , = 0^5 Hi -V- oA U << TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 235 II we have a shaft (Fiff. 56) of tbe length T from- cra- ter bearing to center bearing, and a pull^ is placed between the two bearings at the distances a and 6 from the respective centers of bearings, then we have first the pressure exerted against the bearing ^ A; P- = Q , if Q is the load on the shaft and equal to the force acting on the rim of the pulley ; and at point B, P" = Q-f—. + ft Then the lateral moment of the point where the pulley is placed must be equal to the lateral moment of each bearing, and to have equilibrium they must be both alike. ba ab Jfj = =0— , a+b o+b if the. load is in the middle of T, then cf a a = b and Af, = = fl — . r BEABINGS. If we make T = izo" we can figure Ihe Af,. II Q is in (he center of the shaft, we have P = 1000 lbs. ; R = 10". Then Mr = PR= 10000; M =Q-~=: 1000 X JO = joooo; a = 60. s Therefore, M, = C.975 M\ + 0.3S Mt = 0.975 X 30000 + 0.15 X loooo, Mr = 29250 + 2500 = 31750, that is, far above the figure which we used when selecting Ihe diameter of is?70. This shows that we must put the bearings closer together if we want to place a pulley with such moment in the middle of the shaft. To find the proper bearing distance for a shaft of 3.4* diameter and the above pulley placed in the center ' SjiS TttANSMlSSION OF POWER. If -we must make the distance between the bearings great and want the pulley in ihf middle, wc must increase the diamelv ^ of the shaft so thst Ihe rwutting mwiient is equal or less than Ihe monjeat given in the table for the diameter of sbatt selected. If we want to know how far we can scl pulley D away from the bearing without bringing undue laieral strain upon the shaft of the selected diameier, we have the moment of Ihe force P"' acting on the rini of pulley D = looo lbs., and the lever of P"' = a'. Since we have no outer bearing we have only t consider this distance of ihe ccnier of the pulley from the cetitef of bearing — o'. The moment, therefore, =^ P'" X «' = the tor- sional moment — loooo; and since wc know P'" ^ JOOO, we find a = lo". that is, Ihe pnller can be placed only zo" from tte center of Lbe beariag. =A If it is desired, however, to set the pulley farther awmy, nude- ing the distance b ^ lio', we can find the distance a at which the next bearing must be placed to prevent undue strain of the shdt. -'/. = 'J77<' = °-97J -V, -i- o-V -'A - "-975 X ' f o.!j X / isrro = 0.975 X 'ooo 1- tsoo; JM + a 13170 {ISO + a) = 975 Xmx a; 13170 X'io= (975 Xiio— 13170) a = 1591400 : 103730 = '5-*". If the distances are given in proportions of the whole distance, which is commonly the case, we must find the correct shaft diameter for Ihe combination moment existing in the place wher« (Ac palhy h placed. If w« make the d\st&T\<:« I = lyf , «(A TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 237 M, = o.qjs X 'ooo h o ^J X 'oooo = 4rjoo If JO + 200 and find in the table for the nearest value d = 4.f ^ diameter of shaft required. STRESSES. "Strength" of a material is its resistance to a permanent deformation. "Elasticity" of a material is the amount of Stress it can sus- tain and still regain its original form after the removal of the A body can be subjected to four principal stresses : The "crushing" stress, the "tensile" Stress, the "transverse" stress, and the "torsional" stress. r^ I. The "Elasticity Modul" (E) is the number of pounds re- quired to double the length of a prism of one square inch area, assuming thai the elongation per pound of weight is the same after the body has been lorn asunder as before this took place. It is proportional to the weight as far as it can be observed. z. The "Strength Modul" (AT) is Ihe number of pounds which must be exerted to elongate the prism to the limit of its elasticity, that is to say, so that it will regain its original length after the load has been removed. 3. The "Load Modul" (7") is the number of pounds of weight required to tear the prism apart. 4. The "Safety Modul" iJC) is the number of pounds which, experience has (aught, can be safely exerted upon the prism with- out deforming il if subjected to it ever so often, as is" the case practically. It is expressed in pans of the load modul, and Uw. T sj-mhol expressing it is = m, thereiorc, K" =■ — . 2^ rftAHSMlSSIOH OF FOWBK. We luYe two Idiidi of moduli for each of the above. girea the nooibcr of poauds for the pulling ■treat, and the ad the ntunber of poomb for the crtiiUiiit atreaa. 1 1 ^«3Jlillii \ : r 1 liSliiilii :S i 1 1 iiii||i|iiN ! iiiilililii; 1 r- 5 1 s litiiiiim: j|«si|lii:i;: S- !g|i|i3S| iU 'Igllllli: I If H-e call P the lead OT force in pounds-, Lthe knph in inct o/the body; I the eiongsHon of the body sufieyeA-. E itvc tN^^'Oi ^odaj; fr — cross section in square incbt*-, ■«« VaN«. ^"^^ * TRANSlflSSION OF POWER. 339 P 1, PMing sirtu: P = F K, and F = ~\ and for practical K purposes P = F K' ;K' = —:m = 6 usually. 2, Crushing stress: P = P K (crushing) and, practically, P = F K' (crushing). 3, Transverse stress: To consider wtiat will happen to a beam, when it is fastened at one end in the wall, and the load applied at the other end, we must consider the beam as a mathematical line, takii^ the neutral axis of the beam, in other words, the line of center of gravity for all cross sections existing. In the case of a regular wooden beam these cross sections are all alike, and the center of gravity of the cross sections lies in the center of it, and is found by drawing the two diagonals of the section, their point of intersection being the center of gravity for this special section. In order to make the formula independent of the cross section of the beam we use a factor W which is obtained by dividing the bending modul e W by the distance of the farthest fiber in the cross sec lion from the center of gravity of the section, and called the section modul. Below are given some of the values W and € W mostly used: shaft area e (V tv Fig. ST.. rectang- ular bh bh* 12 bh* 6 Fig.sS.. square A' A' 0.1 18 h* Fig.59-- cylinder 0.7SJ d' oo4Qd* o.ogSin Fig bo. . lube jSj (D' - d') : For htani fixed at both ends (Fig. 64) : if = 6, SWK- = {p + — Q)1: 3 UQ-o. 8lVK- = Pl; ilP = o, i2WK- = Ql. For beam fixed at one end and supported at the other (Fig. 63) : abia-^ib) Ql W K- = P f- — ^. iF 8 a a = b. 8fVK'=(—P+Q)l; i{Q=o. — WK- = Pl, 3 i{p=zo. 8WK' = Q\. TRANSMISSION OF POWEB. 241 Explanation of ccmditiotis : a=b, means load or force in the middle of the beam. , Q ^0, means weight of beam n^lected. P = 0, means the 1of4 evenly distributed. 4. Shearing stress is a transverse stress acting in the plane of (he force, tending to shear of the body at the attacking point of P. It is proporlional to the cross section, and its modul is 0.8 of E, or 0.8 of K' for practical purposes. STREMGTp OP ROPES AND CBAIHS. fftf^*-.— Diameter of jfope = d. Then tP " K P=- ; K (pull) = 7000 »*. fyygj m = s = cocfficit Wire So/>f.— Diameter of rope = rf. t^oo; ~ = K' = 1400 lbs. of safety. K' = — r= 17800 lbs.; m - tnm Cham, — Kameter of raoBd iraa tned := d. f ' K f' P = : — = P K'.K = s90O0»s.. i m t hut on mcconnt of the bending and wddiiig necessaiy, make K = 40000, and for ordinarr links (Fig. 65), K' = /aa>c»a»., for links witli stays (Fig. 66), JT = »5<» It*. sTKurcm or the hoox. In Fig. 67 we call i =^ diameter of bottom of thread Bccttring hook to fixed point; if = diameter of romid iron, of which tbe hook is supposed to be made, measured on center line AC df dw hook = AB; CB the radius of tbe ho<* = «. If we make a = — d, and d" =: 1.8$ d, and since we know that the iron of the part d requires iP ~ k iP^ 55000 d* - P = X — = X = Xpooo, STRESGTll OF BIVEtS. Stms in the plane of the sheet.— la Fig. 68, if D = thicknesa = diameter of rivet ; / = distance c of sheet; e = distance center to center of twt then strength of joint I strength of sheet 4 D adjoining riveta; This shows that the strength of the joint diameter of the rivets increases, as then the vali d But if d is increased then e must also be increased, and this means ihat the rivets must be placed farther apart, and therefore, t^e tightness of the joint impaired, the joint \oses to <\i£tv\.TO*» •»■/»/ tt gains ia strength. TRANSMISSION OF POWEB. 243 For joints which arc required to be tight and strong at the D same time take — =: 2. 4 The resistance against tearing out the iron between the rivets = {e — d) D K: The refiistanee against shearing out the rivet holes at the end of the sheet = if D K'. The resistance of the rivets against shearing off = JC. And '^p p^ StcEDjjIh of Rivets. D t f ^ If — = ^, then — = s'4i for which 5 is taJten, and — = — d d d 3 = 1.S7, for which the working formula j ■= 3i\% used. D I The strength of the joint of which — = ^. and — — J, is equal to % of the strength of the sheet before riveting. Sireis vertical to Ihe plane of Iht sheet. — Under such stress the heads of the rivets may be shorn off (Fig. 68a). If X = AC and X' = BD, then these represent the shearing lines, ajwi. -«t ■t haw jr= ~ il the heads are to have One same, ^^t^^^'* vitb respect to pulling apart.- 244 TSANSMISSION OP POWER. The diameter of the oookal head is osisally = — d, and Hit diameter of the round head =V«f, and its height = % if . SlUNGTB or BOLTS. The diameter to be calcwiatcd is the diameter at the bottom of the thread = d. The area =: F is the one which we hare to tert pe core in tiie center. e Rope Ti If it is desired to make the rope still stronger for the same diame- ter, then the rope core is replaced by a seventh wire rope. The tension in the taut rope is called T, and the tension in tbe slack rope (. Then the minimum P requires ( T T-\-l T I P~ ' P~ ' P ~ ' I ~ r' The loss by slipping of the rope is about 0.02 per cent of the power expended. If d' ^ diameter of journal of pulley, make d- 1 — ^ — , and lake for/' the value o.i, and for / the value 0.24. R 16 Thedi S KiSooo lbs. per square inch. of the pulley must not be smaller than the equa- 140000QO y = velocity of rope per minute in l«(*. tfawAi «*■ ^* '^*''^' than = 100'. 34^ TKANSmSSlOH OF POWKK. The smallest pOMiUe dlUMIer of t rope, vhkh cms be uw^ u obtained when 5' -|- f it cmutant, making — =: i, which eone- ' ■ponds 1 = Jt#DO lbs., and to « = itXoo lbs., or — = 833, The tag of tht wirt ropf. — If the wire rope by its own w ei g h! is expected to furnish stiffident tennon to prevent slippinc, we mast find the distance between the two pulleys so that the weight of the rope will be equal to the force transmitted (Fig- 69). We call t the distance from center to center of pnUeirs ta inches; A' the sag of the taat rope; k" the sag of the slack roft; h" the sag of the rope when at rest; S" the tension of tant rape; S" the tension of the slack rope ; 5* the tension of the rope wben at rest. Then we have A' ( ; h' = 0.67 X *" + o.rf A'. I 155 S- I rSSS" We can now find the length of the rope, knowing Ihe sag, which is the same for the slack and taut rope when at rest If we assume that the rope forms an arc of a circle, which is for practical purposes sufficiently accurate, and we call the line con-- necling both ends of the arc, for our purpose = 1. the distance between centers of pulleis. and take h' for the height of the arc. then r = radius of arc = \h' + (~) . Calling ihe angle formed by the two radii connecting the two ends of the arc «ith the center — 2 -a.\ we have tan «• = ■. and we I find t(' in the table of trigonometrical functions. Since ^ r ~ is the circumference of the whole circle formed by radios r. and represents = j6o°, we must take for the length oit the rope the value r : inch diameter will weigh about 0.2 lbs. If we take i •= SlOO lbs., we have — = S33, tnfl if we vtaat to transmit the force oi 5sa \^- ^^ *« ^'^"^ '^^ ** TRANSMISSION OP POWBB. SSO 247 pulley, we have — = ■^^— = o.o6s square inch. We then find In .^ S 8400 table of "thickness of wire" at six wires per rope for the nearest value to 0.065; . th< ;o remain the sanie per square inch, ihci -, instead of Vi S", therefore the thickness ( single wire d* = df m. The wire is under no extra strain, but took a larger diameter for each s MSDwiihouinwchlne..... Uan working on leTCr Hao warklnicoKi'nnli-- . Man Korklngon rope Teni Wap workloft on rope horli Hone witlraiil machlnv .. RoniC norktni; on mrj*l . . SleCT Klihoiil machine Steer working on iinepcl . . . Mole u'liboiii RiBCblne Miilvnorkln^on iroeiiel.., JL« Hlllioul roublnp TRANSMISSION OF POWER. LECTRICAL POWER IN THE BREWERY AND M> HOUSE. TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL POWER. In late years the old style of transmission of power by mei f belts or ropes is gradually being replaced by electrical trai lission by means of a dynamo, \%1res and motors. Most of t lilures experienced in the use of electrical transmission ha' een found to be due to improper construction of dynamos an lotors when these machines were in their infancy, or, rather, i le experimental stage. At the present time, however, these part ave been perfected to such a degree that break-downs, etc., car e usually ascribed to improper or careless manipulation, rathet lan to faulty construction. The chief advantages derived from the use of electrical trans- lission lie in doing away ^ith the troublesome belts and coun- Tshafts, which require unceasing care, and are a source of con- derable loss of power by friction; also in the greater safety om fire and consequent reduction in insurance rates. This ;s of power has been stated as averaging about 40 per cent of ' power delivered by the engine, running even as high as 50 cent, while the manufacturers of dynamos and niotors claim laximum loss of power of only 20 per cent, or a difference of n 10 to 30 per cent in favor of electric transmission and t. further advantage is that power can be transmitted to almost distance, so that a machine, no matter how far it is situated the power engine, can be instantly brought into use, while belt transmission the whole line of shafts, countershafts and leading to it must either be run idle until this machine is or, if not running, must be started up to run this machine which takes some time and signaling to the engineer. also docs away with the former method of arranging chines to suit the best way of placing the line shafts and the ditTercnt machines to be placed in the most economical s, thereby saving space and giving economy of arrange- ost of the building can also be somewhat chea.^^v^>■' risisliiiiii: may be expressed as follows: 1. The re- si?^t;ni..-c ■•i a conducting wire is proporlional to its length. 2. The rcsisi.ince of a conductiiig wire of gi'cn diameter nnJ length de- pends upon the specific rc■^i$litnce 01 the in.ileriai froni ivbii-h it tenslh rrsisfaiice ^ X sf'fi'i'." reiii.'Jitfi-, an-a of cross section TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 253 -^ rUMDAUENTAI. UNITS OF ELECTRICAL UBASUKE. ^ Fundamental or absolute units used for defining various electri- cal quantities are tiie centimeter for measuring length, the grant for measuring mass, and the second for measuring time. All other electrical units are derived from these fundamental units. Briefly, this system is designated as the C. G. 5. (initials of centi- meter, gram and second) system and their quantities are rep- resented by the letters E. M. F. In practice, honever, larger units are used: Quantltr to be Measured. Name of Pne- Hcal Unit. Sjobol Num- ber of ""BiC" "xa!" oS.°°"" Qoanllty. Voli. Aoipece. Farad. I 10' 10' 10' 10' 10- Units. becio = 100 deca= LO SSL;, An ampere is a current that will pass with E. M. F. (aM>re- viation of eleclro-motive force) of one volt through a circuit whose resistance is equal to one ohm, or a current that will deposit, in a suitable apparatus for electrolysis, 1.118 milligrams of silver out of a solution of nitrate of silver, or decompose O.o()32i milli- grams of water in a second. A volt is the E. M. F. of the end points of a one-ohm resistance through which a current of one ampere flows. A coulomb is the amount of electricity that flows ii past a point in a conductor carrying a current of In order to gel an idea about what a farad mean sary to explain what an electric condenser is. It is consisting of alternative layers of conducting sheets and insulat- ing materials. The conductors arc very close together, and the adjacent ones arc charged with opposite kinds of electricity, one with positive, the other with negative. Their nearness to each other allows them to hold a larger quantity of electricity than they could if each were alone by itself. The purpose of such an apparatus is 10 collect and retain electricity. They may be aptly compared to a reservoir for collecting and ktc^^'^^ -^i-iVft or gas. The ijuanfity of gas a receptac\t vna-j totAi«\ (it'^^^^ in the first instance on the pressure ot tVt gas, awi v n one second e ampere. n apparatus t\ \N\t *«.«.■&* 254 TRANSMISSIOK OF POWER. on the size of the vessel. In the same manner the quantity of electricity in a condenser depends on its size and the pressure of the electricity. The farad is, therefore, a condenser with a ca- pacity to hold one coulomb of electricity at a pressure of one volt Such a condenser would, however, be inconveniently large for a unit of measure and a micro-farad is used instead in practice. The rate at which an electric current does work is called the power absorbed in the circuit. The product of the current and £. M. F. is the measure of that power and is called a watt A watt is consequently the unit of electric power, the power absorbed by a circuit whose resistance is such that an £. M. F. of one volt causes a current of one ampere to flow around it A watt is then a voltampcre (V. A.), it is equal to yi« of a H. P. One thousand \%atts are called a kilowatt. One watt is eqtial to lo^ergs per second. A watt-hour is the work done in one hour by a power of one watt. Work or energy produced or expended is measured by the joule or volt-coulomb, and is equal to >*atts X time = lo' funda- mental units. KINDS OF ELECTRICITY. There are four methods of generating electricity : 1. By friction, as in the frictional machine; 2. By chemical action, as in a primary battery; 3. By heat, as in the thermo-pile; 4. By magnetic induction, as in the dynamo. Electricity generated by the first and third methods has found practically no commercial application. The second, or chemical electricity is not used to generate light or power commercially, but finds application in furnishing electricity for telegraph work, telephones, electric bells and elec- tro-plating. Electricity of this kind is generated b>' the chemical action of an acid or a chemical solution upon plates of carbon or metal, such as zinc, copper, silver or platinum. The main reason these batteries cannot be used to furnish electric light and power is because they gradually get weaker and weaker in their action, and finally become inert. The current generated has a very low pressure, so that many batteries, or ceils, would be reqvuTtd to ^uvjply even a fcH- electric lamps, and to keep these ceWs \u %ov%<\ v>\0^t\ ^^x^viA ^ TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 255 requiir^ constant care and attention in the renewal or addition ol file chemicals, metallic plates, etc., since in the generation of ttie current the metallic plates are dissolved or eaten away by the action of the liquid until the latter becomes entirely ex- hausted. The fourth method, or electricity by magnetic induction, is the kind now almost universally used for power» traction and light- ing purposes. In its application the power is usually furnished by a steam engine — sometimes by water power — from which the power is transmitted to a dynamo or generator, in which the power is changed into an electric current. This current is then conducted to where wanted, either to an electric lamp for lighting purposes, or to a motor, in which the electricity is again converted into poi%er, to be used where it is wanted. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. The principle of a dynamo can be understood after some idea is obtained of electro-magnetism and induction. A magnet has two poles, one positive and the other negative; the similar poles repel, while the opposite ones attract each other. This power of attraction or repulsion is directly propor- tional to the square of the distance between the poles. The space where the magnetic force is acting is called the Held of force, in which the lines of force are contained. It may be added to this brief statement that the fiux of force is the total number of force lines passing through a surface. Magnets are of two kinds, the so-called natural and the artificial, or electro-magnets. Electro-magnets can be made a great deal more powerful than the natural ones and are there- fore preferred in practice. The total number of lines, which this force causes to flow through a space is called the Hux, and the fhix per unit area of space Is called the induction, and is denoted by B. The amount of the induction depends upon what material fills the space considered, or its pemieability. Permeability is denoted by the letter <*, and signifies the ratio of the induction to the magnetizing force producing it. The per- meability of a vacuum is taken as a unit. The reluctivity of a body or its specific magnetic resistance is the inverse ot vt«. permeability. Mechanical work expended in conlmuousXy rcvoNVci^ ^ h*v^^ v^ -^ 256 TBAimassioif or vown. v.^ magnetic fuMi can be c on wtr te a into deetiic cnersf . A^^^llgl^ ^ necessary is to cause a closed eoil oi insulated wire to rolii^ in front of a magnet If tiiis is done a current is produced in um ^ coil, which flows around it, first in one direction and then m tiie opposite direction. In order to generate a current moving always in the same direction, it must be provided with a ring split in two halves, rotating with the-coil. Rubbing against the ring are two plates of metal or brushes, one on each side, to these are attached two wires leading to the circuit in which tlie current is r e qui red. At the instant when the current in the coil is at the point of reversing, each brush is passing from a position, touching one- half of the ring to a position touching the other half, which its fellow has just left The current this way becomes practically continuous. This rotation oofl is called the armaiurt. An arma- ture is therefore that part of dynamo in which the current is in- duced. It is usually, although not necessarily, a moving part and is composed of insulated wire that cuts the lines of the magnetic force produced by the fields. This cutting induces a current in the coils. A dynamo-electric machine therefore is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electric energy by means of an electro-magnet and induction. Use is no^' made to a great extent of currents which were not rectified and are called alternating currents, while the machines themselves are called alternators. An essential part of the modem dynamos is the so-called Held magnet, consisting of an iron core solidly connected to an iron frame and having a number of insulated copper wires wound around it Another essential part is the commutator, consisting of a num- ber of copper bars or segments, usually affixed radially around the shaft of the machine, each segment being thoroughly insulated by sheets of mica. Its function consists in changing the direction of the current. Brushes collect the current from the commuta- tor. The brushes are made of copper wire, copper or carbon plates, placed in contact with the commutator. There are at present about a dozen t>T)es of dynamos, differing from each other in the construction of their various parts. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC QUANTITIES. C^a/z'anoMeter. This consists oi a ma^e\.\c nctdVt ^Ms^endcd so «* to move freely inside of a coil. TV\e ivced\e V2»^t& >\v ^ va«^- -/ TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 257 don or^ turns according to the strength of the current moving thieu^h the coil. J ^ElectrO'dynamometer, The construction of this instrument is based on the principle of the mutual action of two currents on each other. The currents to be measured are sent through two coils, one of which is fixed, and the other movable and suspended by a torsion head. When a current passes through, the force with which the coils attract each other is measured by the degree of torsion produced, and this is proportional to the square of the cur- rent. In the commercial application of electricity, however, a needle moving over a scale from which volts or amperes can be read off directly, is used. These instruments are called volt- meters or ammeters, and play about the same part in electric ma- chines as pressure gauges in steam use. Wattmeter. This is used when the power is to be measured directly. t Resistance is measured by an apparatus consisting of a battery of cells, a galvanometer and a number of coils whose resistance is known. The standard make of resistances usually consist of wire, made of an alloy of platinum and silver or German silver, and covered with silk and wound on bobbins, the whole being sat- urated with paraffin to insure insulation. The two ends of the coils are each connected to a brass block, and this block made so that it can be electrically connected to its neighbor by the inser- tion of a brass plug between them. STANDARDS OF ELECTRO- MOTIVE FORCE AND RESISTANCE. The differences in potentials, or electric levels, are measured by a voltmeter. These voltmeters, however, have to be calibrated by means of a standard of E. M. F. For this purpose primary cells whose E. M. F. is accurately determined, are used. Such is, for instance, the Latimer-Clark's cell adopted by the Chicago congress of electricians. It consists of two glass tubes connected with each other. In one of the tubes is contained an amalgam of pure mercury and zinc, and in the other, pure mercury having a layer of sulphate of mercury at the top. The cell is filled with a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, into which a crystal or two of zinc sulphate is placed to prevent supcrsaturation. The tubes are hermetically sealed with pataffviv '^^lyl, ^xv^ "Ocvr: '^Ov^'^ formed by pieces of p/atinum wires iused VWtovl^ \>cv^ \^o\^<^vc^' ^ 17 258 TRANSMISSION OF POWER. V each tube, in order to nuke a contact ikith the merciif>; The E. M. F. of such a cell is about 1.35 volts at 15' C. ^ ^ Measurement of Electric Energy and Power, A wattmeter cdllf'^^ tains two coils. One of them is a short, thick wire, and the other a thin, long wire. The current to be measured is sent through the thick, short wire, while the thin, long wire is connected to the two points, between which it is desired to measure the power developed. The deflection of the needle of the instrument is pio- portional to the product of the currents of the two circuits. As^ however, the long wire has a great resistance, the current flowing through it is proportional to the difference of potential betnecn its ends. The deflection, therefore, indicates the product of the current and electro-motive force, since electric energy is power multiplied by time. It can be measured by a wattmeter in which the jieedle carries a style. The current can be traced on a cylinder moved by clockwork, the area of the current traced measuring the total energy expended or absorbed. A modern form of meter indicates the amount of current con- sumed, upon a dial by means of revolving indicators, and has an external appearance very similar to a gas meter. The current, in passing through the meter, acts upon an armature coil system, causing it to rotate. The shaft of this armature communicates by means of a system of wheels with the indicators so that the lat- ter in revolving over a series of dials indicate the current con- sumed by the motor. Accumulators are a necessary part of every well arranged elec- tric plant. Their purpose is to collect or accumulate electric energy and store it up for use when required. They may be likened to reservoirs of water into which water is pumped and from which it may be afterward drawn at a constant rate. The nature of an accumulator is similar to that of an electric battery. A battery may consist of one or many cells in which plates and liquids producing electricity by chemical action, are contained. There are two elements, or plates, of different substances, and a liquid contained in every voltaic battery. A primary battery is one in which the elements are placed and used until worn oiu. A secondary or storage battery is a battery in \\hich the ele- ments are placed in the cell and first "formed" by the pass.ige o/a current through them. The cell is then said to be "charged," and can then be used to supply cleclnc\l>f. ^ TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 259 cpQmuIator is on the whole nothing but a storage battery, trt plates are partially surrounded by a fluid incapable of chemically on either of them, until the passage of an current, after which they acquire the property of furnish- independent electric current. CHARGING AND DISCHARGING ACCUMULATORS. liquid for filling the cell must be distilled water to Tvhich ilphuric acid is added till the specific gravity of the mix- 1.190 when cold. The specific gravity should be 1.20 to len the cells are fully charged. The acid solution should into the cells to a height of not less than half an inch he tops of the plates, and this level should be kept con- ther by the addition of pure water or weak acid, so as to n this specific gravity. The current should not exceed ie for which the cell is constructed. The charge is not e until violent ebullition of the gases evolved has pro- for some time. The battery should always be kept as larged as possible. If the battery has been out of regular some tiriic it must be surcharged for about 23 hours sub- to the time it is apparently fully charged, lormal rate of discharge should not be exceeded or should »e continued after the specific gravity of the liquid has :d to below 1. 17, or the terminal voltage of a cell to be- volts as the full rate of discharge, irging* should be done immediately after each discharge. THE ELECTRIC PLANT. r electric plant consists of two parts — the motor part, ing mechanical energy, and the electric part, furnishing energy transformed from the mechanical energy. The tmmon source of energy in an electric plant is the steam The chief requirement for such an engine is the highest uniformity and regularity of operation. The best for rpose arc compound engines. I a brewery or malt house electric power and light are d continually day and night throughout the entire year, ; engines arc not running at times, especially in small es, the value of an accumulator from iVv^ ^coyvoxxxv:. '^'^iv^ seems obvious. An accumulutoT s.\\ou\^ \i^ Ocvcb^^vv <^V 260 TSANSICISSION OF POWER. V such a size as will sniiply about one-third of all the l^er re- quired by the. plant ABC LIGHT. ^ \^ As arc lights arc sometimes used in breweries and malt houses a few words should be said about them. The principle of th^r construction is somewhat different in the three principal types of arc lights. In the scries arc lamps, the regulator consists of a bobbin of vhire, having an iron core, the whole of the current passing through the lamp and the coil of wire. The iron core being more or less thoroughly magnetized, regulates the distance at which the carbons are held apart. The carbons themselves are electrically connected to two terminals on the top or bottom of the lamp. The carbons are kept touching when the lamp is out of use by their weight or a spring, and when a current passes through them, they are drawn apart and the arc is established. In the shunt regulating lamps the regulating coil is placed as a shunt across the terminals of the lamp, and is made of a num- ber of turns of fine wire so that only a small portion of the cur- rent of the lamp passes through it. This regulator cannot act when the potential difference is constant. The differential regulator forms a combination of both sys- tems, being supplied with both shunt and series regulating coils, which determine by their mutual action the distance of the two carbons. The electric arc requires 40 to 50 volts to keep it going. The E. M. F. generated by the dynamo supplying the current must be sufficient to overcome the resistance of each separate lamp, as well as that of the conductors joining them. The dy- namo must, therefore, generate currents at a high pressure. In order to avoid this useless resistance, causing a loss of energy, machines have been designed to produce a constant potential in- dependently of the resistance of the circuit. INCANDESCENT LIGHT. The incandescent lamp consists of a glass globe, from which the air has been exhausted, and containing a carbon filament with p/atwum tips, which pass hermetically sealed tlirough the end of the bulb. The platinum tips are u^^viaWv v^^s.y^ 1. y TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 261 short bra^ tube, cemented to the glass with plaster of Paris. Passipfrthrough the plaster the platinum wires arc soldered to brags contacts imbedded in it. The purpose is to prevent the platinum wires, when they emerge from the glass, from breaking off and making the lamp useless. On opposite sides of the brass tubes are two small brass pins, which fit into slots in the lamp- holder, and thus form an easy method of detaching and remov- ing the lamps. There are also two small spring blocks inside the lampholder, connected with the source of the current, which press against the contact blocks in the plaster of Paris, thus completing the electrical connection. The equipment of a lamp is completed by a switch and cut- out. The switch is to turn the light off or on, or to break or restore the current to the filament. The cut-out is a device for in- suring grreater safety from the overheating of the wires leading to the lamps. It consists essentially of a thin piece of wire, made of a fusible alloy, placed in the lamp circuit. This fusible wire is made of such thickness, that if the current in the circuit be- comes too dangerously strong this fusible wire or fiase becomes hot and melts and interrupts the current. Every lamp and coil system of lamps ought to have separate fuses. N STEAM ENQINBS. There are two tdnds of fteun engiiKs, the "portable" and At "stalionary" ones. PORTABLE ENGINES. The portable engines arc generally connected to a boOer, oom- Qlete, so as to be ready for immediate use, furnishing a con- venient means of power at any place and whenever wanted. Small sizes are mounted on a platfonn with axles and wheels, and upon the platform is erected a vertical boiler with an hori- lontal or vertical engine, steam connections and feed pump rom- plete. For use on farms for threshing, plowing, etc., a com- bination of an horizontal boiler, provided with axles and wheels, is used, the horizontal engine mounted on the back of the boiler, and the wheels moved by a chain connecting the wheels with a pulley on the shaft. "Sent I -port able" engines are made by putting an horizontal or vertical boiler upon skids, and, in the case of the horizontal boiler, mounting the horizontal engine either on the back of the boiler or on the skids, or, in the case of a vertical boiler, a vertical engine on the same skids with the boiler. The outfit is then either loaded on a low truck or moved b>- rollers to the desired STATION.ARY ENGINES. Stationary' engines are built vertically and horizontally, and for high and slow speed. A\] ''Corliss" and "automatic cut-ofT' engines are of necessity slow speed engines, as there is a limit to the rapid succession of eul-offs regulated by the governor, and such engines are gen- crally not mn lastcr Ihan 50 to 120 revolutions, according to the j^ STEAM ENGINES. 263 y>» SLIDE VALVE ENGINES. A ^Hde valve" engine can be constructed for a speed as high . «s'400 to 500 revolutions, and such engines are especially adapted for running dynamos, as the belt can connect directly and no coun- tershaft is necessary, requiring less space, and even if the econ- omy is not very great, the reduced first cost and the saving of the countershaft and belting is a great offset for this. It is, of course, easy to understand that an engine running 400 revolutions, furnishing the same power as another engine running only 100 revolutions, can be almost one-quarter as light, and consequently will cost much less. High speed engines generally have slide valves either flat or cylindrical, and have so-called fly-wheel governors, as the regu- lar ball or spring governor would not be sensitive enough. High speed engines are mostly enclosed, the shaft, journals and crank running in oil, as very good and continuous lubrication must be furnished to prevent heating. A few of these engines are the Ideal, Westinghouse, Huse, etc. Where there is no high speed required, as for drilling wells or hoisting, it is by far best to use slow speed engines, as in this case no countershaft would be needed. There are a good many cheap and reliable upright engines in the market up to about 25 horsepower. When the power re- quired is above 25 horsepower, it is economical to use a Corliss engine. The slide valves are made either to close and to open a single port at one end of the cylinder, or two or more. This is done in order to get a quicker and larger steam opening with the same throw of the eccentric. Borsig of Berlin, Germany, used to build engines of this type. A slide valve with an expansion slide on top and regulated by hand, gives very good economy for regular loads, and nearly as good a cut-off as the Corliss engine, the only difference being the large clearance in the main valve and the cylinder ports. Meyer Cut-off. — For each valve there must be one eccentric set at a different angle, the main valve acting like an ordinary slide valve, while the two expansion slides can be adjusted by hand from the outside by operating a hand-wheel fixed to a screw passing through two nuts in the expansion sA\dfc?», tcvqnTyw^ "Cw^ slides apart or bringing them together, TVv\s cmVq.^ v^ c*^^^ the "Merer cot-o£F." In tfait cue the cut-off csn be*|i^|idtled oalj by baud. Bat if phced in a B^antc Utam cbett oat> the main steani chest, the expansion ilide can be operated bf tl governor, as it is independent of the motions of tbe main Talvc In somt cases it is objectioaaUe to baTe so nnidi frictioa br tbe valve on tbe seat, so tbe tsItc is constnictcd balanced, br placing the flat valve be t we cu tbe scat and steam chest cover, without any play, or l^ nsing a cylindrica] valve. Bnt the tron- hle with either aTTangement is that earefnl adjostnient is needed from time to time. The Rider Cut-o/f is similar to tbe Meyer cnt-off. It has i main slide valve, and tbe bade of it is formed like > cylinder with the center in the line of tbe slide-valve rod. In this c^in- drical recess is placed the cylindrical expansion slide, which can be turned by its shaft around tbe axis, allowing more or leu tleam-opening as it passes the oblique ports of the main valve. This expansion slide is turned by a connection from the governor. CORLISS ENGINE. Corliss Cut-off. — The cut-off used most is the "Corliss cut-off," having cylindrical valves, the segments of which are pressed against the seals by the steam pressure, and act like regu- lar slide valves as long as they are held by the valve stem. As soon as the governor disconnects the connection between valve and valve stem, the valve drops very quickly, actuated by a lever and vacuum dash-pot closing the steam inlet. When the wrist plate or the eccentric, which are connected together, reaches the end of its stroke, the connection is made again, and the valve laps until the time of steam admisHon when it opens the port and finally the valve is tripped again by the governor. This arrange- ment enables the use of long, narrow ports, with little depth, and consequently little clearance, the ports being only the thickness of the material forming the cylinder at the highest part of the bore and close to the ends and vertical to the center line of the cylin- der. The live steam valves arc on lop, and the exhaust valves on the bottom, to drain off all condensed ivater. .\ny engine over 25 horsepower should be a Corliss engine, and all engines under 25 horsepower, good slide-valve engines, provided, if poss'ibie, with automatic cut-off governor. TAe most economical wav, however, is \0 V'isKic cmt \a.i^ ^ STEAM ENGINES. 263 and omP^maller Corliss engine, compound condensing, one for use ig the daytime, and the other at night, or for elevator •fril other occasional uses. Since nowadays every brewery has a refrigerating machine, there is generally enough water for condensing the steam on hand, if the water, after leaving the ammonia condensers, is not used for condensing the steam for the engine belonging to the refrigerating machine itself. If sufficient water is not at hand for both the refrigerating ma- chine and steam engine condenser a water cocking tower (which see) should be provided. All engines, boilers and pumps should be placed closely together, thereby saving time of the engineers, fuel and piping. The Corliss engine has only one drawback, namely, that its valves are not absolutely tight, and this is because the cut-off being automatic and controlled by the governor, it is evident that the cut-off must vary continually, which means that the inlet valve does not travel over the same place in the valve chamber all the time. As long as the work and the revolu- tions are nearly constant, the variation will be only slight, but when these conditions are changed, as for instance, during beer cooling, where more revolutions and more power are generally required, the latter, owing to the higher suction and greater con- densing pressure, the travel of the valve is materially changed, and it will travel farther, passing the point of the seat at which it formerly stopped. It is clear that after the valve has traveled for some time over the same stretch, it has worn this place somewhat, and if it then travels beyond the place worn down, it cannot be tight on the seat, but will allow steam to leak into the cylinder after the cut- off has taken place, which, of course, involves a loss. The slide valve, on the other hand, always travels over the same path, and since its edge travels both ways over the edge of the seat, the seat cannot wear a shoulder, and will, even if not quite tight in the beginning, soon become absolutely tight. The desire to combine this advantage of having a reliable valve, and yet using the steam expansively, led to the construction of the "automatic governor," of which the only practical type is the "Trempor governor." This governor takes the place of the ordinary throttling governor, and gives \\xs\. ^s ^\i\0«. -^ oo^-^^ as the Corliss, showing as periecl s^eed T^^>3\'a.\AO\N. -a.'^k "Csx^ 366 STB&M BHSNES. \, Corliu gawentor mnd valre, besides beins cheiper. The a^ di»- advuiUse is that the deanaoe in the cyliiMtcr U i i ■!>! in- creased because the steam is cut off bdore it enters the Bteb»^ chest, adding the contents of the latter to the cjHiader clearance. When designing an cng^e tor this governor this clearance can be greatly reduced, making the ecODomj of such an engine almost as great as that of a Corliss engine. USIMG SIKAH KXPAHSIVELy. The advantages of using atesm e^qnnsivdr instead of throttUni^ will appear from the following deductions : In a throttling engine the speed of the machine is regulated bf reducing the pressure of the live steam to suit the require- ments, which may be up to one-half fd the total pressure. We, therefore, do not get the benefit of the h^h boiler pressure, al- tbongh we gain a lililc by superheating the steam, nhich is dose by the reduction in pressure, at the same time reducing the steam cylinder condensation. But another great objection to this kind of engines is that it is necessary to fill the cylinder about three-fourths with steam — three-fourths is generally the cut-off a slide valve has — while in an engine using the steam expansively there is, in the first place, steam of full pressure, and secondly, the cylinder need be filled only about one-fourth of its capacity. There is another difference in the cnt-ofis of the two kinds of engines. The one provided with the slide valve cuts off very slowly, ihe valve being actuated by the slowly moving eccentric, while in the other case the vacuum under the dash-pot piston closes the valve rapidly. The process in the slide-valve engine can be called only a throttling, and the pressure is almost the same during the whole stroke. DIFFERENCES OF THE TWO KINDS OF EN'GINES. The differences in the use of steam for the two kinds of en^nes are not inconsiderable. In the formul* ihat will be given the steam cylinder condensation will be neglected. This condensation may amount to a little less in the slide-valve engine; owing to the lower temperature of the steam entering the cylin- der. But since it is here assumed that both engines exhaust into !■*■? atmosphere the lemperature will be the same during the cx- aat period, and the difference will be sntaW. y STEAM ENGINES. 267 Taking the case of 100 pounds boiler pressure, and 90 pounds preaiure at the cylinders, further assuming that the steam in case 6f the slide-valve engine is throttled to 60 pounds, the cut-ofiF in the slide-valve engine being three-fourths, and in the Corliss en- gine one- fourth, in that case, for the mean effective pressure in each c^se, the general formula is: p = P UnP''-lnP + i)—C, wherein: p = the effective mean pressure; P' = the absolute admission pressure; P = the absolute final pressure at end of stroke; C = the absolute pressure of the exhaust; In = hyper- bolic logarithm. The value P will be found through the proportion P : P' = y : V, wherein V represents the volume admitted before the cut-ofT takes place and V the volume at the end of the stroke. Calling V, which is really the capacity of the cylinder, = /, we, therefore, have for P in each case: P = = (90 + 15) XV4 = 26.25 lbs. I = ((5o + 75) X % = 56.25 lbs. and therefore: For the automatic cut-off p = P {InF — lnP + J)^C. = 26.25 (In 105 — In 26.25 -f j) — 15. = 26.25 {46540 — J.2675 +1)— ^5. = 62.64 — 15 = 47.64 lbs., and for the slide valve P = 56.25 {In 75 — In 56.25 -f /) — 15. = 56.25 {43175 — 40298 + /) — 15- = 66.38 — 15 = 51 38 lbs. If we admitted, therefore, in one case, one-fourth of a cubic foot of steam at 90 lbs. gauge pressure, and, in the other case, three- fourths of a cubic foot at 60 lbs. gauge pressure, we have for the respective weights of steam admitted: 0.24T4 X 0.25 = 0.0603 i^S'j and 0.1759 X 0.75 = 0.1 319 lbs. Or, allowing for the somewhat higher mean pressure in case of the slide-valve, we find that we use about twice as much steam for the latter as for the expansion engine. This shows clearly the advantage oi. wi\tv^ NiJcv^ ^\R.vrev ^^'^'*'^- sively. ^Gfi STfAM ENGINES. The conditions to be observed in selling cither valve are ifwsa; The valve should open before Ihc end of the exhaosi period so"*1 as to have a free passage for the steam when die piston is ft ttv end of the stroke. It is not desirable to hare the valve too wide open, one-sixteenth to oae^ghth of an inch bang genenB;r snflkient, as the piston moves very slowly «t (his time, wad m small opening allows infficient steam to enter the cylinder at fnll pressure. The indicator card shows this plainly. If the ad- mission line is an horizontal line with a sharp comer at (he begm- ning, the admission is good; if not, the lea^ of either the valve or the eccentric must be increased. Which of the two shooM be done, can only be ascertained by examining the enshion of the exhaost DEOMK ihow a Up-^f ] given length in ihe direction opposite the arrows over edges f, -| on [he bock cud oi (he valve u|iaui^p on cylinder. The length of lap is to be measured on the outside circumference of the valve. S- Set edges g and h, which arc indicaled by incisions on the Asc* end of exhmst valves, so that they bW-h a. W o^ ^inwo ^, ' STBAU ENGINES. 2/1 length jfitne direction opposite to the arrows over edges g, and k, inarkffd by incisions on the back end of the valve openings on Cinder. The length of lap is to be measured on the outside circumference of the valve. 6. Turn highest point of eccentric or pin on governor pulley to its upper position, as shown on drawing. Then turn the eccen- tric as arrow points until the live steam valve v and exhaust steam valve s show Ihe correct lead respectively. The lead in both cases is measured on the circumference of the valves in the direction as the arrows point. This completes setting of eccentric, rock arm, wrist plate, and live and exhaust steam valves, as far as it can be done without the use of an indicator. 7. Below is given a table showing the lap of live steam valves; of the exhaust steam valves; the lead of the live steam valves, and the angle of lead o DlBiD otite.mcvl \f l« 1ft m ». '» « «- lApo(llre.l.v«l7«. A A ■1, ■1, /< ^ ;, A t t. iH " *' *■' »■ W^ ' It might be best, after having set the valves according to in- structions, to see whether the angle of lead obtained on eccentric or governor pulley corresponds to the angle of lead given in .the table. It will be found a very useful check for the correct setting of the machine. It is further advisable to see whether, when the exhaust valves arc just on the point of opening, the live steam valves still show a lap, so as to prevent any blowing off 8. Set the horizontal weight bar y of governor so that it oscillates equally out of its horizontal position when the governor balls are brought into their highest and lowest position. 9. A ring with a notch or a pin is provided on the governor, by means of which the governor can either be placed in a posi- tion ready for regular running or for starting. When the ma- chine is to be started, the steam cylinder must be able to receive the full steam pressure, and the live steam valves must not be tripped. When the machine is set lot tego\M i\K\\\\wt% ^*- ^''">- cnior bar w must be able to sink \k:\o-w X'Wt MV^fct <.«tf|^ -A '^^ *v r^2 STEAU engine: ring Jr into a slot. If the belt should break when in litis position, the governor regulating rods m and n wil^placc two safety toes in such a posiii.:>n thjt ihc live sieam valves will ^ be permtuKntly unhooked, and, of conn^ the machine stopped. In case a pin is osed and die pin ii removed, the governor can sink down sufficientlj to allow the rods m and « u> perform tte sune service as mentioned ahove. When it is desired to start the machine, Uie ring f or the pin which performs the same service must be placed so that the safety toes are put out of la Set cut-off toes on live steam valves so that they do not cut oS when the governor is set for starting and so that tb^ do cut off when a piece of wood or iron of about a qtiarter at an inch thickness is put upon the ring x or corresponding pin. The toes must be adjusted so that the live steam valves will be disengaged after the steam cross-head has traveled the same lengths of stroke from the dead centers. The toe of valve m must disengage when (he steam cross-head has traveled (say for instance % of a stroke} from its dead center furthest from steam cylinder, and the toe of valve r must disengage when the steam cross-head has traveled the same distance from its dead center nearest steam cylinder, II. Set safety toes so that they will not touch the disengag- ing point of lever when machine is set for starting, but will fully and securely disengage the live steam valves when the ring s is turned or the pin is taken out for regular running (the gov- cmor, of course, is at rest). IZ. The dash pots be set so that their center is in a position just in the middle between the position given by dropping a plnmb-bob from center of dash pot rod pin when this pin is in its highest or lowest position and when pin is hnrir.ontally opposite I.). A by-pass valve is provided in governor dash pot which, when open, will allow the governor to move up and dovm freely, but when closed will retard the up and down motion of the governor. The dash pot should be kepi full of a not too heavy oil all the time, or the governor will make this up and down tnoi-enient in Jerks corresponding to the height of the dash pot trot occupied by the oil. , ' STEAM ENGINES, 273 14. Sn length of dash pot rods so that when the wrist plate is in j^ extreme position to the left the cut-off toe of valve » .i^'in the middle of both stops provided on its disengaging lever (the first stop is the one which lifts the dash pot piston ; the sec- ond stop is the one which will bring the dash pot piston to JCS lowest position in case the dash pot piston should not have reached this position of its own accord) and when the wrist plate is in extreme position to the right the cut-off toe of the valve w is in the middle of both stops provided on its respective discn- g^ng lever, 15. The dash pots must be kept oiled through an oil inlet, which is provided, but it must be remembered that too much oil might cause a breakage of parts of the dash pot, as soon as the oil cannot escape quick enough through the compressed air pas- sage when the dash pot piston drops. A cushion regulating valve is provided, which must be set so that ihc dash pot piston does not strike the bottom of the dash pot too hard, and must still be far enough open to allow the dash pot piston to drop sufBciently so that the lifting toe and disen- gaging lever can engage the dash pot piston. A vacuum breaking valve or cock is provided, by means of which the vacuum which facilitates the dropping of dash pot pis- tons can be ri^ulated at will. Should the piston descend too quickly the valve or cock must be opened very little to obtain the desired speed. When running the machine with full pres- sure steam (not cutting off) (he cock should be full open so that no extra strain is put upon the live steam valve by the dash pot. The dash pots should sometimes be cleaned, and if this is not possible, oiled with kerosene instead of lard oil, so as to pre- vent the sticking of the dash pot piston in the dash pot. which will take place mostly when the machine is started after it had been slopped for some time, and which prevents the engine work- ing properly. A little pushing with the hand and some greasing may bring the dash pots in perfect working order in a few seconds. Before starling the machine for the first time, the cylinder should be blown out thoroughly by steam so as to remove all sand or chippings which might be in the ports or cylinder, and for this purpose the back head and steam piston must be removed. It must always be remembered that il V\vc \ie\V, ■«\vi'iv it'vjs.-i Ihe governor, is not sufficiently tight, the 40NMUOT CMSWiV ^««* 274 STEAM ENGINES. ^*^ late properly. Any slip of the belt on the pulleys will by irregular ninning of the machine. When running a machine the first cotiple of days, it wiH found advantageous to run it without cut-off, but under throttle; this while the governor and dash pot are connected, however. The steam valves, which warp somewhat when heated, create considerable friction by grinding themsdves in place and grunt; and when the steam pressure is reduced by throttling, it wfll be found that the engine and valves and dash pots woiic mncil easier, and that everything will be in first-class order much aooaot than when cutting off. EXAMINATION OF ENGINE AND COMPRESSOR BY TAKING INDICATIONS. It is impossible to know, without an indicator, whether m steam engine uses the steam economically or not. The indicator will further tell whether the valves are set right or not, if good steam admission is had, if the cushion is proper and if the cut-off is even. The indicator will also tell if the piston or a valve leaks, and is the quickest means, and can be applied without stopping the engine, to find the trouble if the cylinder does not work properly. The same holds good for ammonia compressors and pumps. All of them should be proi^ded with openings for attaching the indicator, and provision should be made for attaching the indi- cator cord to the cross-heads. The best for the purpose is an aluminum indicator, since it can be used for ammonia, as well as for steam. Further, a reducing pulley directly attached to the indicator should be had, so as to accommodate all strokes of engines and compressors and pumps of the brewery. Such a set can be had complete in a case. If the connections are permanently made, to the cylinders, such as the attachments for the cord, then cylinders which need indicating, can be indicated in a few minutes, and the engineer can readily lo- cate any trouble, provided he has studied the reading of the cards taken. DESCRIPTION OF THE INDICATOR. The principle of the indicator is to give the pressure prevailing inside the cylinder for each part of the stroke, telling exactly rr/rat happens in the cylinder at any time. To do vVv\%, \V \^ c^ow- STEAM ENGINES. 275 structed m certain respects like a steam cylinder. In a cylinder is placed a tight-fitting piston below which the pressure is ad- mitted. Above the piston and secured to it, is placed a spring. Several springs of different tension are furnished, which can easily be exchanged. Their total compression, which is marked on them, should be a little higher than the pressure to be dealt with, but it should not be much higher in order to get the highest possible diagram, which will show the action the plainest. To this cylinder is attached a drum, which is held taut against the starting stop by a coiled spring, so made that the same tension is on the cord, pulling the drum for one revolution of it, at the end of which another stop is provided. The cord, which must be good fishing line, so as not to stretch, runs over a little grooved pulley which is secured to the bottom of the drum, and the cord guided by a swivel roller. The piston is provided with a piston rod extending through the head, which is screwed on the cylinder to facilitate taking out the spring, and cleaning, and connected to a parallel motion carrying a pin on the one lever for marking on the paper which is put on the drum. It is best to use metallic coated paper and a composition pin, as this gives the sharpest lines. To a screw at the bottom of the drum is attached the reducing pulley which carries the cord attached to the cross-head, and has, inside, a stiff spring to keep this cord taut. On the shaft of this large pulley small ones can be fastened, of which a num- ber are furnished, and which are marked for the length of stroke they can be used. PUTTING THE INDICATOR IN PLACE. After the proper spring and pulley has been selected and ad- justed to the indicator and the latter placed in position, the cord from the large pulley of the reducing pulley must be so adjusted that, if connected to the cross-head, it will be parallel to the pis- ton rod in every direction, and, if held opposite the starting and stopping point of the attachment on the cross-head — not yet hooked in — the large pulley of the reducing pulley does not touch either of its stops. Now have somebody hold the end of the cord just opposite the attachment on the cross-head, at both ends of the stroke, and secure the cord of the drum to the ?»rcva\\ v^sJOv^n ^\ the reducing pulley so that the pin is evenVy d\s\.atv\. Itotcv x\v^ ^tv\^ of the card holders of the drum at the Ivro e"xlTeme -^osvOvoxva*. 276 STBAM ENGINES. ^. Now put the paper on the dmm and connect the am^ tiie cross-head attachment, and open the mdicator cock conncil||ng one side of the cylinder with the hlow-off opening of the indicbh^ tor cock to let out the water, in case of the steam cylinder, and the oil, in case of a compressor; in the latter case, yon mnst be quick to open and shut the code, and should hold a piece of waste before the opening, as otherwise yoa might get a disagreeahie dose of ammonia in yoor face. Then turn the cock to the posi- tion to connect its cylinder with the steam cylinder, and press the pin gently against the paper, whidi must be drawn tight over the drum to prevent cutting by the pin. When one complete dia- gram has been made repeat the same <^>eration of Mowing off and taking the diagram on the other side, and, when finished, con- nect the inside of the indicator cylinder with the atmosphere to relieve it of its pressure, and again press the pin against the paper, which will then make a straight line, the so-called atmos- pheric line. Now disconnect the cord from the cross-head, and remove the paper from the drum, and mark on it date, pressures, number of revolutions and scale, also the name or number of the machine from which the card was taken. The card is then ready for inspection. When providing indicator connections for each pump, engine and compressor, it is best to place a half-inch valve with nipple directly in the two outlets of the cylinder, and to connect them with a union and tee, the latter to correspond with the thread of its outlet to the male thread of the indicator cock. If it is not desired to make connection for all cylinders, only valves and nipples should be put in the cylinder openings, to prevent stopping the engine when taking cards. Then a connection with a three- way cock in the middle, provided with blow outlet, should be had, and such cock should have a stuffing box of sufficient length on one side to allow for adjustment in length of the connection^ Pieces of pipe can then be cut to suit all lengths required. CRITICISM OF INDICATOR CARDS. FOR STEAM ENGINES. If it is desired only to examine the cards as to cut-oflF, cushion and admission of steam, no further preparation is necessary. If, however, leakage oi piston and valves is to be examined, then the expansion curve, which is the isothcrmic cuyn^ lot v^ttcvwv^tilV STEAM ENGINES. J es^tnust be laid in the diagram, which c 277 E will be considered ' Fig. 2 shows ^ perfect card as it ought to be, but seldom is. Fig. 3 shows slow admission of the live steam, because the pis- ton has traveled part of the stroke before sufficient steam opening was had to prevent throttling of the steam. In this case either the lead of the eccentric or the lead of the live sieam valve must be increased. For the purposes of this chapter it will hereafter be considered that the lead of the eccentric is correct, as advised in the chap- ter on steam engines for refrigerating machines, where the angle of lead for the eccentric is given as 25° for Corliss engines and is' for slide-valve engines. Fig. 4 shows that the exhaust valve opened too (\mwWi-j , iti.-ac- ing the mean pressure and, consequentty, ttvt tfcwtwt^ qV "^^^ tatgine. The exhaust should not escape \)elott W* w^ ^"^ * 278 STEAM ENGINES. Stroke, but the round comer proves that the exhaust valve 4ipeiied too soon, allowing steam to escape which could have done l ii A. In this case the lead of the exhaust valve must be reduced. * ^w In Fig. 5 the exhaust valve opens too slowly, and the efficiency is reduced by compressing the exhaust or, better stated, throttliog it. The pressure should drop in a straight line at the end of- the stroke. In this case the lead of the exhaust valve must be to- creascd. * Fig. 6 shows that the cut-off is too slow, throttling the steam for a time instead of closing the live-steam valve quickly. This causes loss of efficiency because the steasn is not used altogether expansively. Either the stuffing boxes of the valve stems are too tight, or the valve has no oil, or the vacuum under the dash- pot is not good and the latter should be examined, after the first two items are found not to apply. It may also be that the dash- pot has too much cushion. Fig. 9 shows unequal cut-off and unequal cushion. The cut- off should be regulated by lengthening or shortening the rods. //f < R, f='aftn cr But it should first be ascertained which rod needs it. This can be done by raising the governor balls to the height the engineer knows they generally commence to act upon the cut-off. A piece of iron of the required height is generally kept for this purpose. It will thus be found which cut-off rod requires chang- ing, which, of course, is the one not cutting off under this posi- tion of the balls. The piece of iron can be placed under the ring ^i'di'n^ an the governor stem. STEAM ENGINES, 279 Th*' cushion must be equalized, and only experience and the Jt^oclcing of the machine can advise as to which side to change. Che side which has the knock, if there is one, surely is the one which needs more cushion, and the exhaust valve on this side must be made to close sooner. The exhaust line of the card should fall together with the atmospheric line, when no conden- ser is used, and the distance between both will give the amount of back pressure caused by obstruction in pipe or heater. W- li^eoref/co/ Card this construction. Draw a line ck parallel to the atmospheric line ab in a distance of 15 pounds measured in the scale the indicator spring give!^, ascertain the clearance of ports, exhaust and live, and for piston for one side, in cubic inches, and divide by the area in inches of the cylinder. This will give ihe clearance for one side, in inches of stroke of the cylinder. If the atmospheric line, which represents the length of the stroke ift fct &vi?,fi.'TO., measures four inches, and the stroke is IwctA^-Iwit wOma, "C^^tt ttK scale is one sixtli of an inch to one \iwiv, Mv4 m ^J»* *''^' ago STBAM BNdHES. the dearance must be added. In the sketch ad is this dlftaace. Erect throtigh this point and through the end of the expabsipn line b two verticals, starting at the vacaiun line, until tb^ mcA a line which is the ccMitinuation of the steam admission line gp to both sides, in h and /; connect points c and f and draw a ver- tical ih.-Qugh the cut-oS point f to the vacuum line where this line {pi) and ef meet. Draw an horizontal line to the vertical kf, and this is the end of the expansion line. In the same way ever7 other point of the curve can be found. For instance, to find the correct position of point u, which we assume to be one point of the curve made by the indicator, draw line sr through « and connect r with c. Where this line meets the cut-ofE line pi. draw an horizontal tine In, and where this line meets line n, is the correct point u; and so on for all points of the curve. ABRIDGED METHOD FOfi FIHDIKG LEAKAGE. To save the engineer this rather tedious work, two diagrams are furnished, one for this cune, called (he isothermic curve, and another one for the adiabalic cun-e of the permanent gases, which will be used later tor the compressor cards (which sec). To use this diagram take the distance bk between the points of a compass and mark the height of same on the vertical erected at in the diagram, draw line xa, and the lengths cut off by it from the other verticals are the ordinales for the diagram, which is used in the following manner: Divide line ck o£ the sketch, or the atmospheric line with the clearance added to one side on your diagram, into ten parts, commencing on the side opposite to where you have added the clearance, and call Ihe end of the expansion line O. and the divisions /, 2, etc., up to ten. Erect verticals in these points, and make (hem just as long as the lines which you obtained by drawing line xu on diagram of isothermic curve. The end points of these verticals will give the right expansion curve. The same thing can be done to the other side of llic diagram, but it should be remembered that the clearance should be added only once in each case and then on opposite side;. After this curve has been laid into the diagram it will be noticed whether it corresponds with the line made by the indica- tor, as it should, if everything is as it should be. If not. for instance, as in Fig. 7, where the ac\.ua.l \me lies a.bove the '-Acoretical line, then there must have been sleam aiiti a.\V« ftvt STEAU ENGINES. 201 live st«|m valve had been closed by the cut-off, and, therefore, the,Kv% steam valve mu^t leak, and should be looked after. i^ig. 8 shows the actual expansion line below the theoretical. This can have been caused only by steam leaking from the cyl- inder, or past the piston. Therefore, the piston rings must be out of order or the exhaust valve must leak. Divide the atmospheric line into twenty parts, commencing to number the divisions with o at the end of the expansion line. Then measure with a strip of paper one after another of Ihc verticals bearing odd numbers, commencing at the exhaust, not the atmospheric, line and stopping at the expansion curve. A'ld them all on the strip of paper. Measure the whole length of all the ordinates thus added, in the scale which is marked on the indicator spring, and divide the result by ten. This will give the average height of all the ordinates. In other words, it will give the height of a rectangle having as base line the atmospheric lint. and having equal cubic content as your diagram. Or, it gives the effective mean pressure of the diagram, HORSE-POWER nEVELOPEO BY rHE ENGINE. Having found the effective mean pressure, and knowing stroke diameter o[ cylinder and piston rod. it is easy to calculate the horse-power as indicated by the card. The number of horse-power r= ; J3000 wherein p = effective mean pressure in pounds; A = area of steam cylinder in square inches; a — area of piston rod; j = stroke of the cylinder in feet; r =: the number of revolutions per minute; 33000 the number of foot-pounds developed by one horse-power. COMPRESSOR INDICATOR CARDS. The action of the valve can be examined directly without further preparation, but for leakages the theoretical curve must be laid in tfie diagram taken, as explained in connection with steam diagrams. Fig. I shows the isothermic and the adiabatic curve? as trans- mitted from the diagram furnished for this ^uv^o^c. TVt t\i\s«t drawn in the middle oi both represents t\\e tOTTcc\. twrvytfi^^oa earve for wet ammonia which should be ob«i\Tv«4 vn 'Sv^ wi'cw^ STEAM ENGINES. 283 :X ^4 STBAlf ENGINES. diagram if the compressor was properly handled. TMi curve is also correct for the oil circulating compressor, for all practical purposes. To construct the curve for the wet ammonia eompfea^ sion with absolute accuracy, is rather tedious, as the curve of the saturated ammonia must first be drawn, and then the addition be made of the increase of pressure by the evaporation of the liquid injected with the gas, and to do this correctly, the tempera- practice on with ture of the discharge gas must be ascerlained. sufficient liquid can not be admitted, a; oiherw: the compressor would be lost as explained in refrigeration. Fig. 2 represents the card as it should be. Fig. 3 shows the effect of re-expansion, caused either by too much clearance or by the discharge valve when not seating promptly. In order to ascertain how much the capacity of the compressor is reduced by it, erect a vertical line de in d. Where this line is tangent to the diagram, which is at c, draw an horizontal line until it meets the re-expansion line. The distance ab represents the part of the stroke during which no new gas was admilled, but only gas which had been compressed previously had expanded. The hei£bt of the I'crtical cd represents the pressure of the gas which £Iled the compressor at the end of i^ie sicuon ^VicA, iwi "Cut i STEAM ENGINES. 285 loss of capacity is proportional to the length of the distances ad to ab;^d representing the stroke of the compressor. fig. 4 shows the influence of a discharge valve which is either "loo heavy, or has too much seat, or too much cushion above. The pressure must first be raised to c in order to lift the valve. but owing to the large opening suddenly offered to tbe gas, the pressure (alls again below the pressure prevailing in the conden- ser which forces the valve to its seal. The pressure now rises again, but not so high as before, opens the valve, when the pres- sure is again reduced below the condenser pressure, forcing the discharge valve a second time to scat. Finally the valve opens for good, and Siays open to the end of the stroke. Fig. 5 shows the efl^ect of the discharge valve hanging. It throttles the gas, making :t necessary for the pressure below the valve to rise much higher than necessary, and additional po'ver is required to perform this unnecessary work. Fig. 6. Draw the correct curve in it, and the diagram shows that the discharge valve must leak, provided the gas was not luperhcaled during compression, i. e., the gas has not carried sufficient liquid into the compressor to absorb the heat of oww pression, and the volume has been inctea,sei\ \>? \\vft Vf*.^., twivV) 386 STCAlf ENGIVES. V Fig. 7, after the correct CDtve hu been dnwn in ft, >lMm dnt ihere is a leakage «ther in piston or soctioa vdre,.in the »er fart and the one taken from the upper part of the com- -' STEAH ENGINES. 287 Fig. 19 sfiows the diicharge valve hung up, giving free passage to the gas. The compressor must, therefore, be filled with gas at expensing pressure. ' Fig. 13 shows the suction valve of a D/l compressor hung up. allowing free passage for the gas in and out, and no gas is dis- charged, as the discharge valve cannot open. ,g0r...^l 1- eAt^J* \ (f'^W'"^ .™,,_ ■""'■'•'■ \^^ OA U The effective mean pressure and horse-power needed for com- pressing the gas can now be found in the same way as the horse- power of a steam engine. It must only be remembered that the formula there given is for one doublc-acdng cylinder, and that the result for one single-acting compressor will be only about one-half the amount. The correct formula here is 33000 II IS interesting to lake the indication of the engine connected to the compressor under the same conditions — better at the same time — and, by subtracting the amounts obtained for both, to as- certain the friction of the machine. This friction should be about 25 per cent of the horse-power retjuired for the compressor for DA compressors, and 33 per cent for SA compressors. It can now also be determined what the difference is in power required by a dry and a wet compressor, by freezing back correctly at one time, and, for the other diagram, keeping away the frost from the compressor. STEAM CONDENSERS. If it is desired only to obtain distilled water, and a cheap ap- paratus is wanted, which is at the same time a "Atam. W.\t^ ■i>\^ Steam washer, aJso a feed-water healer, then ttve 1S.q\w\^ WA« t^*- be recommended where the cooling water Aofts t^ot v^aXt ■cn>i.'ii- STEAK ENGINES. Tkt Opt* Air Holms Sttam Cotidtiuwr oongiif of flMsdma- tzed iron cylinders, one pUccd in the Other. The outer 4Vpiv luid the inner cylinder are lecnred tightly to the bottom, and wW^ is no communication between (hem below. The outer Cj&ailBt^ is provided with a conical top, and a lafety valve placed oa the highest point of this cover. The inner cylinder reaches aknotf to the top of the outer cylinder in order to allow free p»iim M the steam from the inner cylinder into the annular apace formed Iv the two cylinders. Near the \of of the outer cylinder, foiudag another annular space, is placed another receptacle reachfai( be- yond the conical top, for the reception of the feed water, vUcft is heated by the steam Rising the upper part of the outer <;^ inder and striking against the conical tc^. Just below this feed-water receptacle is placed a trough tor tfa- tributing the cooling water over the outside of the outer cjlinder, which stands vertical in order to allow the water to flow down its exterior surface. The water is fed lo this trough by a siiigle coil of pipe placed in the trough and perforated with small boles. The sleam enters the condenser near the bollom, passing through the annular space into the inner cylinder and ending in a fnimd pointing downward. The funnel is kept with ils orifice about one inch under water which will collect, and the height of which b regulated by a pipe goose-neck passing through (he annular space to the outside, and a drain valve is provided to drain the inner cylinder. Above this exhaust funnel is placed a grating covered with a fine wire screen ; above this, coke is placed nearly lo the top of the inner cylinder, and again a grating and wire screen to hold the coke in place. The larger pieces of coke are placed below the smaller ones on top. The annular space is provided with an out- let for condensed water on the bottom, and the safety valve on top of the conical top is counterweigh ted so that it will blow off at two pounds' pressure as the vessel is not built either for pressure or a vacuum. The exhaust steam is discharged from the fnnnd into the water, and washed, and so freed partly from oil. It tbeo passes through the coke, which retains the rest of the oil, and into the annular space between the two cylinders, where the steau is condenseA and runs out of the bottom outlet of the i STEAM ENGINES. 289 The feed water is fed to the bottom of the receptacle provided for it, and allowed to overflow on top. The coke must be renewed at least every season, and Connels- ville coke is Ihe best for this purpose. The combination is a good one, as it furnishes a cheap feed-water heater, and saves the insulation for feed-water heater and steam filter which otherwise woald have to be provided. The air helps the condensing ma- terially, the water running in a thin film over the outer shell, and being partly evaporated. It acts as in a cooling tower, cooling the water itself. The water collected in the inner cylinder from condensation of the steam is of considerable amount, and this is a disadvantage, as this water is greasy and cannot be used. Furthermore, if the water forms scale, the shell requires frequent cleaning, and leaks will soon appear. But the apparatus is so cheap that one can afford to buy a new one every year. Holms Submtrged Condenser.— To the above is added a third cylinder encasing Ihe two iirst ones, and in the annular space between the second and third ore the cooling water circulates, being thus not exposed to the influence of the air. Ordinarily it will not scale enough to make the removal of the outer shell nec- essary for cleaning. The water enters at the bottom and over- flows at the top. CONDE.VSEBS WHICH CAN BE USED FOR PHODUCINC DISTaLED WATER AND A VACUUM AT THE SAME TIME. Open Air Pipe Condensers. — These are made of the size pipe to fit ttje opening of the exhaust, and erected in stacks, the steam entering at the top and Ihe condensed water leaving at the bottom. The cooling water is showered over the cooler by means of a gutter. They are eflicient, and use the water to advantage, but not so good as the spclional one;. Sectional Open Air Pipe Condensers.— 1htf,t condensers are made of two-inch pipe in three sections, the upper one consisting of three pipes, ihc next one of five, and Ihe lowest of seven. The pipes are slightly inclined so as to drain toward the Qii0.t*. which is at the bottom. The three oiilkts aui wiXW.^ ^.t*; '^•^^- nected each to one vertical header, and iViis Xxeaaet ii'ivc^ ^'^■^' necti the inlet headers on top and the outtel 'heaAeT?. 'iX. 0\« \)0'*'^'^ agq stsam engines. ^ to the main pipes. The inlet headers are* connected on top to drain any oil which is carried with the steam from the 1 q^der, and form excellent traps. Drain cocks are provided each inlet header. The drains should all be allowed to empty into funnels, so as to allow observation of what is running out One condenser, ten feet long, is suflkient to condense five tons of water per day. The condensed water leaves the condenser at about 170*^, while the cooling water leaves at 160*, and csn well be used for feed-water, if dean. Submerged pipe coolers arc generally laid horizontal, or, better, a little on the incline in order to drain well. But owing to the slow motion of the water ran- ning over them, much more water and much more surface is re- quired to accomplish the same results as with open air coolers. Another form of submerged pipe cooler is the usual cylindrical form, like a heater, either vertical or horizontal. The cylinder is filled with five-eighth or three-quarter-inch brass or composi- tion tubes, fitted between two pipe heads placed inside the outer cylinder, and forming a passage for the water at both ends be- tween pipe-head and cylinder-head. An horizontal partition is often put in on the opposite side to the inlet, separating the upper half of the tubes from the lower ones, and thus sending the wa- ter twice through the condenser, using it to better advantage. The steam enters the shell at the top, and the condensed water leaves at the bottom. If used for compound condensing engines provide two square feet of surface per horse-power per hour. In this case, where the condensation must be done in a vacuum, an air pump must be provided to expel the air and the condensed water. SontC- timcs a dry air pump is used, and the water expelled by another pump. There arc combinations furnished, where all pumps re- quired arc directly connected with the surface condenser. The \acuum pump must be of such size as to maintain a vacuum of twenty-six inches. The amount of injection water required depends on the tem- perature of the cooling water and the vacuum required. It is generally from twenty-five to thirty times the weight of steam condensed. J/f/cc/WN Condenser, — Here the steam is brought into direct contact with the water in a vessel placed oiv Vo^ o\ v\v^ ^i "^mto.^ / STEAM ENGINES. 29I i Here, of toarse, the distilled water is lost, since it is mixed with the cooling water. ^ These condensers are cheap, and yet effective, and if the dis- iilled water is of no value, this condenser will be preferable to a surface condenser. If the cooling water is good enough for boiler feeding, the water discharged from this vacuum pump is available, and is about as hot as the condensed steam from the surface condenser. The Syphon Condenser, — This condenser requires no vacuum pump, but does not furnish distilled water either. It is cheaper and just as efficient as the surface condenser, but cannot handle varying loads so well as the surface condenser. It is based on the principle of a syphon. When water is allowed to fall thirty-two feet in a pipe, which it fills, it will be able to create a vacuum of twenty-nine inches in a vessel filled with air, and about twenty-six inches when the vessel is filled with steam, in this case the steam cylinder. The exhaust steam is led thirty-two feet high into a pipe through which water flows which creates this vacuum by falling thirty-two feet in the pipe, and at the same time condenses the steam. This water can again be used for feed-water. The amount of cooling water is the same as for an injection condenser, i. e., about twenty to twenty-five times the weight of the steam to be condensed. The height of the^two pipes may be an objection in some cases. All condensers should be provided with safety devices in order to prevent backing of the water into the cylinder, and a by-pass pipe should be provided which, by means of a pressure regulat- ing valve, leads off the exhaust automatically. A valve should be provided, so that the condenser can be shut off while the engine . is exhausting into the atmosphere, and the condenser can be repaired, if necessary, without shutting down the engine. In calculating pressures required by pumps to discharge given quantities of water at given levels, the following tables may be used in connection with formulas given in the chapter Mechanics (head Hydraulics) for computing discharge, etc., by converting the pressure into head. SIEAK TABUS. AbNlUK 11 i Pit ,5. "I 1^ LlL "iiT 1.04 ilo.36 i £.14 .7>.=a i! 1 !t« rMi**' ,x66 I'd" I I 9 i ^9 ».JS,I.»J|II4») J !*.4* SPJ.9 1144-1 19.17 MS 9 Si, jls. :.->^ ..4|j! »7-6i i}(li sia ii43i| lis* 3»M -•>Jt,iM^4; »5.*S u-^i iiao 114^]: ».s6 5Jej Mi4 "4»» ir.;i >4-T 03S« IS oj«7 li 3 ''4J9 •9 ^M «.,i .isai »T 04BJ 4»7J ,^ .1.5=.,. io« 43.7} ij^6 "SI';] ii-st '>S07 J a 44-M "»" "S»S, li<^ i: s SS' ^' ;;f**i ;i^ rf»S 1 Uw "V4 "M« : M ia C67? Il A Sr.c. .-4*4 ..J^,, M.)7 wj* I jf.^'tv;:;^;. ;ij. •na ■'. ij... ;.«= iij;4' ';oi 0740 , (US .JH ..J?9 .167 ^1 4 ^l> g; |;^| ;;?j t'. oSti 3 » JJ-=5 :.,,1 ',\:\^- 1;^ 4's ^ j^jr-V;, nfj . i.»74 L'ji I-r;. ii'i J 1W17 *oj t^* :--.., 11- J g *-v- is ?*;: »4) : iSr 3M 1 •JS4* 1..1.8 30.. 9 , 4>J1 JCJ.9 1 3039;! IS JS4-S', |s 3093 1 i ■M'4 t-'^Ji-Sy-j/nCi-f, 7.J6 STEAM TABLES. MM& 1 ' 11^ ^ ii 1 «„,.,. 1'* •* 4^ "-^ 1 1 l3 iSj PtHlurc !:i ft? '£ ^^': i ir 1" ^1 ."^ «J' 2" »j CS-ft. LH. .j«.% 1316 "V7 377 .=«M ■4>l i.jaj .rt i iS 19. 8+9 tu S »»* jsei'.isa.; :^ .a « /i 60 K . 1 '•'■t'l ».J9 }» jia i.-jj.fl iji 1«91 w 70 1 3«S=|IIM7 :S m* "r ^ s*™ jyt'S ■.«., ■iSw -^ S6. y. y r 38,1 a 16 it; r Si^iJ 5 ^ 9« B4> i 1= ^ y •m ? »|S j^Sg 1 3 »J7 "I** St' ::^l., ^.1 s i jiofi :|; ni .JOB if ^ a S* ** ia ■ 31 llSlT H Wi 'M iBi.m ..84, 3.>B vp 4M igoi -rfs-oj ..S4 J.36 .j.ii .37.07 "'»' i-U -^ JOB lljX ■P ■ .OU J« 169.7 JM' ;:|j JmI S^ .„}.« i'»»-9 i i.t.i =M'; "«9.r i.oS 6so ■^. 1% iii S^ ..S»9 isS s g ;ii itji ''»'» ■'•Ml ::i 3i^J 3--« 33^ .8], J 1516 .ni.» >.<'» .903 J> JU« SlS-S ,=4B.l Tl™. «'" uu» W.Mtl ^' i'v,.7;.v'cJt.Ki.| .-3 iZi I't'-J 'IS H" 5.86 ii„ '1^ tMi 3573 Jii iss 3.708 ',T,l i4<> 9*J 16s "^i' Ik 3fi ■ 601 j Us •K'l 511' J:. 8. ,/s<6 l".q51 I ' "5 ivw^ v».n \'^'t\ ii™.tevS'VcsA V V. REPRIQERATiON. Ref rigeratioii is the process of abstracting heat from, or coding; a substance. Where water or air is at hand at a lower tenq>eratare than it is desired to obtain in the body to be cooled, snch water or air can be used to do this cooling directly without a machine. Ice can be used directly if temperatures of 32* and above are desired, and a mixture of salt and ice or other freezing mixtures can be used to obtain lower temperatures than 32^, and without a machine. ICE AND FKEEUNG MIXTURES. One pound of calcium chloride, when mixed \iith ice or snow (see table), will give a solution, the lowest possible temperature of which will be found opposite the respective quantity of ice: MIXTURE MADE AT 32*. roonds of Snow. 0.35 ' 89 1 0.43 ' o.-yw I 0.48 ; 0. w ' 0.51 Lowest Tera|)6nture. -i-S2« ,1-240 -J-iy 4- 7=- 0« — S^ - 9' Pounds of Snow. 0.35 0.57 0.61 o.ea. o.w 0.66 0.70 Lowest Temperatore. -30* —38* |«>o — 50'» —57* But since all freezing mixtures and even ice are far too ex- pensive to be used for practical purposes, it is safe to say that whenever water or air cannot be used directly a machine must be employed. Practical temperatures which can be obtained by using ice for air-cooling are 40" to 45**, and the a\T \tv iVvt rooms cooled by it 'V vety moist. 294 REFRIGERATION. 295 The lof^t temperature which a freezing mixture can attain is the.ffeczing point of the resulting solution: Mixture. Sodium chloride Snow or pounded Ice. Ammonia nitrate Water Sodl um pbospbato . Nltrtc acid dilute. . Sodium sulpbate. . , Sal-ammoniac Potassium nitrate.. Nitric acid dilute. . Sodium chloride Snow or pounded Ice Potassium nitrate — Sal-ammoniac Water Nitric acid dilute Snow or |H>unded Ice. Potash Snow or pounded Ice. Sodium phosphate. . . Sal-ammoniac Nitric acid dilute.... Sodium sulpbate Ammonium nitrate.. . Nitric acid dilute.... Sal-ammoniac Potassium Nitrate... Water Sodium carbonate. . Ammonium nitrate. Water.. Sodium sulphate. . Nitric acid dilute . Sodium sulphate.. Potassium nitrate. Pal-ammoniac Water Sodium sulphate Muriatic acid Sodium sulphate Sulphuric add dilute. Sulphuric acid dilute. Nitric acid diluted.... Snow or pounded ice,. Sulphuric acid dlluto. Snow or pounded ice. Calcium chlorld*' Snow or pounded ico.. Calcium chloride Snow or pounded ice.. Propor- tion In Weight. 1 I \S W w 6 4 2 4 1 \ if 1 \ If 41 w If It 11 \ 31 "is 81 5 1 6 J f>\ 4 < if 1 I 1 < :u ^ V i-50"* 150'' ..50° .>'■ ^ .12- Temperature Drops Prom To +82° — 0° 4-50^ + 3° -f59° 4 16° 460° — 9° -r50° 0° -f46° -11° -i- r -31° +32° —85° 455° +21° +50° —13° 410° + 7° — 2° 4-5° 0^ —40^ Ti' -\N? « 996 RBFBIGERATION. ^ to unsatis&GtOfy tempentiire^ 'the ei s c o aifW yiitUue in the rooms, and the cspcnnTe handh'ng of the ice^^ttlle use is made of ice for cooltng purposes at the present tiinP|j|t mannfacturing plants. ^"^ However, if an emergency arises, and no machine is on hand, or the machine' at disposal is too small, then it might pay to inbc salt and ice, or calcium chloride and ice, and use this solution for cooling purposes. For instance, five pounds of snow or poundnd ice mixed with one pound of calcium chloride ¥rill furnish a adhi- tion having a lowest temperature of 25^, which is usually suffi- cient for all practical purposes. One pound common salt, if mixed with three pounds of snow, or pounded ice, will give m solution, the lowest temperature of which is 6*. The chemical, in this instance, does not help coc^og; it oalj allows the mixture to attain such a low temperature jiecanse tbe mixtures it produces have such low freezing points as 25* and G*. It must be understood that this temperature can only be obtained when the mixture does no cooling work, or ice and chemicals are constantly added so as to have always undissolved parts of both in the solution. REFRIGERATING MACHINES. There are, first, two divisions to be made according to the nature of the medium employed : 1. Permanent gases, which will not liquify under ordinary conditions, as. for instance, air. 2. Liquifiabic gases as ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric ether, etc. The first class employing permanent gases — air being the only one practically used — must again be divided into three classes, according to the manner of handling the medium, viz. : 1. Vacuum machines; 2. Air compression machines; 3. Dense air compression machines. VACUUM MACHINE. This machine is based upon the fact that water will evaporate at a temperature below 32', the freezing point of water, when such evaporation takes place under a pressure of below 0.181" oi mercury, which is almost a perfect vacuum. To maintain such vacuum continually, requires a very f\ne\y \>uv\\. m^icVvvwt, ;jltv^ vJofe REFRIGERATION. , 297 water j^ix which is produced during the process must be absorhbd by sulphuric acid, as otherwise it would be almost im- P^^ible to maintain the required vacuum for any length of time. The machine consists of a freezing chamber connected to a vacuum pump, from which the mixture of gases — air and water vapor — is passed off through a vessel containing trays filled with strong sulphuric acid before entering the vacuum pump, so that the pump really has to handle only air, which is discharged as useless. The sulphuric acid must be taken out from time to time, and strengthened again by boiling in lead vessels. AIR COMPRESSION MACHINES. This machine is based upon the fact that when air is com- pressed, heat is developed, and when air is allowed to expand, heat is absorbed. But this is true only when the expansion takes place in a cylinder, the piston of which is pushed by the expand- ing gas. Air under heavy pressure, leaving a large vessel through a small opening, will not do any cooling, except a trifle at the ori- fice, and this only because it performs some work there which, however, is minute in comparison with the work it could per- form if expanding behind a piston. The work performed in this instance is the friction of the out-rushing air on the sides of the opening, and the work required to push the outer air aside. At higher pressures, Prof. Linde found that some cooling effect is exercised by ai reduction of pressure, the temperature being re- duced about -Mi ° F. per atmosphere (15 pounds) pressure. After the air has been compressed to the desired point, having been taken into the compressor from the atmosphere, it is sent into a cooler over which water is showered, and cooled as low as the water will do it, then it is allowed to flow into a second cylinder, the so-called expansion cylinder. In this cylinder the air expands, driving at the same time the piston through the cylinder. At the end of the stroke, the air is considerably cooler, having been allowed to expand, and is now allowed to enter the rooms to be cooled. The compression and the expansion cylin- ders are coupled to the same shaft, and the work performed in the expansion cylinder by the expanding gas materially assists the compressor. It is evident that the heat which was produced by compressing the gas, and then removed by the water \tv iVvt cooVx, Twa.'^vXi^ an equal amount as the heat transiormed vxvVo hioxV ^wtvcvt "^^ agS • REmr[v^^, ^aar ^' REFRIGERATION. 299 not evapcrrkte in coils surrounded by brine, say of 18^, the tern- peninfie of the gas in the coils being 14^. Therefore, the liquid mtist first be brought to a temperature of 14". This is accom- plished by the expansion cock. Part of the liquid evaporates while passing the cock and cools the remainder to 14**. There is thus obtained a mixture of about 12 per cent in weight of gas, and about 88 per cent of liquid, the latter only doing useful work. The cooling effect of the 12 per cent utilized for cooling the re- maining liquid is absolutely lost. After the liquid has all been evaporated it flows back to the compressor and goes through the same routine as before. These machines are built horizontal and vertical, meaning, by this, that the compressors are either horizontal or vertical. They are further built with two or one compressors, and finally, as double-acting and single-acting compressors, necessitating differ- ent arrangement of parts. Compression is performed in one of three different ways : 1. Dry compression. 2. Wet compression. 3. Oil circulation. DRY COMPRESSION MACHINES. The gas is compressed in a jacketed compressor, water is cir- culated through this jacket to remove, as much as possible, the heat produced by the compression. WET COMPRESSION MACHINES. With the gas a small portion of liquid is admitted into the com- pressor, which, being evaporated while the gas is compressed, through the heat so produced, accomplishes the same purpose as the jacket in the dry compressor, but in a much higher degree. The best result will be obtained when just so much liquid is injected with the gas that the gas is barely saturated at the end of the compression, that is to say, there was liquid present up to the end of the stroke, but none to leave the compressor and en^er the condensers, since all of the liquid has been evaporated by the heat of compression. This result is, of course, not obtainable in practical work, as the danger of injecting liquid is too great. The injection is, therefore, kept safely within the theoretical bounds. This is controlled by the touch of the hand. A.S \ot\^ ^^ >\v^ \.^T«^tx'^Va\'^ of the gas, leaving the compressor, \s apprcd2\>Vj vj^xtcv^x >Oc\axN. ^'^ V JOO KBnUGBKATION. liquid Icaring the coodcnsert, there ctn be no H^JM^^Baniod from the compressor, since it cannot exist at a higher than that which prevails in the condenser. The danger of iojecting too much liquid is apparent If liqaid remains in the compressor after the completion of the compresnon stroke, it will fill the clearance existing in every compressor, and when the piston recedes to take in new gas, will prevent die entry of new gas until all the liquid which remained after comprestiOQ has been evaporated. Assuming that the condensing presaore would be 156 pounds, and the suction pressure 27 pounds, the lots will be about 270 times the amount of the clearance, which 007 be assumed to be one-sixteenth of an indi. Or, for about rf elk the stroke, no new gas would enter. If, therefore, the strofae of the compressor was only 16*, absolutely no new gas woold enter during this stroke, and. of course, none ^ould be dis- charged, and only half the refrigeration would be obtained. OIL CIRCULATION. The heat of compression is here removed by injecting cool oil instead of the liquid. The oil is injected during the compression period, and discharged with the gas into an oil tank, where part of the oil is retained, while the gas passes into the condenser. The oil is discharged into a separate cooler, and, after being cooled by the water, returned to the compressor. Any oil which has been carried with the gas into the condensers will run with the liquid into the liquid receiver, which is so arranged that the oil lias time to separate from the liquid, being about 50 per cent heavier than the liquid. The pipe conveying the liquid from the liquid receiver to the cooling coils is inserted from the top of the tank and reaches down to about 12" above the center of the tank, leaving ample room for the oil to collect. The other reasons why oil injection is used, arc: The perfect lubrication obtained, the sealing of the valves, the tilling of the clearances preventing re-expansion of any gas. and. finally, the sealing of the stuffing box in vertical compressors. This holds good, however, only for very slowly running niacliines. as other- wise the oil is not handled in bulk form. The oil used for this purpose nmst not saponify, must have a congealing point of about o*. and a flash point of about jdo**, and should be light -colored and not too heavy. T/ie same oil is used for lubricating lV\e di-y ;itv^ vV^^t v^^v ^:»vq^ REFRIGERATION. 3OI _ in the double stuffing boxes of the horizontal rna- chifie^r^ ABSORPTION MACHINES. The principle of this machine is the ability of water to absorb gases, and the best for this purpose is ammonia. One volume of water at 76** temperature absorbs 600 volumes of ammonia independent of the pressure under which both exist. It will therefore be seen that this absorption must be very energetic. The heat generated by the absorption of one pound of ammonia in water is 927 heat-units, or nearly twice as much as the heat of evaporation of aimnonia, which is, on an average, 560 heat-units. The process is as follows: The ammonia gas, after having been evaporated in the cooling coils, enters the absorber, which is a vessel provided with water-cooling coils for removing the heat of absorption. The ammonia is absorbed by the water con- tained in this vessel until a good, strong aqua ammonia is formed. This aqua is sent by a pump through a heat exchanger into the still. There, by means of steam coils, the strong aqua is heated, and the ammonia partly freed from it and sent into the condenser, where the ammonia gas is liquified and returned as a liquid to the cooling coils from which it came in the form of a gas. The aqua which remains in the still after having been de- prived of all the ammonia gas possible, is allowed to flow back through the heat exchanger into the absorber. This is done by its own pressure, the pressure in the still being about 156 pounds, while the pressure in the absorber is about 27 pounds. This so- called weak aqua is now ready to absorb ammonia gas coming from the cooling coils. The purpose of the heat exchanger is to reduce the temperature of the weak aqua, which is above the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure, to the temperature of the strong aqua coming from the absorber and having a temperature of about '75°, the temperature of the absorber. RELATIVE MERITS OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. The vacuum machine can be dismissed as entirely impractical. It requires such enormous plant of vacuum pumps to do little work, and the difficulties to build a machine which will maintain such a high vacuum for any length of time, as well as the cost of power, which is much greater than required iox \.Vv^ -aSx ^orccv- pression machine, have caused it to ia\\ \t\Vo v\\\.^t ^\^>\s^. 303 REFRIGERATION. The air compression machine has the disadvantagie. that Ibe whole cooling effect obtained by it is produced by expending power, which means coal. The water in this machine sintply takes away the heat produced by compression, so that the air is capable of reducing its own temperature while expanding to the desired low temperature. The amount of heat groduced by compression, ihe amount of heat removed by the water, and the amount of heat abstracted from the air while expanding, arc all of equal value. It must be the aim, in an efficient and economical machine, to do most of the work by water and not by coal. .Consequently one cannot economically employ a machine which requires fuel aniount- ing to about five times as much as a machine using a liquifiable gas as a medium, while the capacity of the compressor must be forty-five times the capacity of a compressor using liquifiable gases. The Di-iisc Air Machini- has only this advantage over the air compression machine, that its compressor can be of smaller ca- pacity because it handles denser air, and the capacity of this com- pressor need be only nine limes that ot a compressor using a liquifiable gas. There is. however, no saving of power, and coal still lias lo do the whole work. Regarding the economy of machines using the ditTerent tiquiS- able gases as n'edia. there i-- li'.i!v ty say. Theoretically, the effi- ciency is the same lor ;:11. but practically, the nature of the dif- ferent gases causes dirTerL-iices, and often determines the value of a machine charged with ::, The dH:r;:.^MJ ,\-iKrr,isi.-ii iiidJiiii.s h-ld the ir.nrket for the iollowii;g re:ir.ir.s : .-\i:imonia can be condensed and exjiandcd at ri asonjible pre;iurcs. A leakage wlI; be known soon by the strong i::id\. It is not injurious to lualth if r.iM itilialed in ex- cessive quanii'.ies. It has the liightfi laieiit heat in o"tnparison to hi specirlc hca;. which is a quality ahvay.^^ to be di.-ireJ. h less than t;-.e atmospheric I'rcssiire ar.d, cpnicquently, air will enter the stiiihiig bo.\ of tiie compressor, prodiiclns a mixture of gases which i; very explosive. Besides, it is very d.angerous to inhale the gas. The objections to sulphur dioxidf are that the suction pressure uiiif! be ki'pi so Hear the atmospheric viessuTC, and often goes ^/oH- /( //) i;je practical iiandling oi U\c TOac\\wic. Csiii. ^t » A REFRIGERATION. 3O3 sucked jsm the compressor through the stuffing box, carrying moi^re with it, and thus forming, with the sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, which will eat up compressor and pipes in short order. The objection to carbon dioxide is the excessive pressures un- der which it must be handled, viz.: 381 pounds suction pressure and 1,065 pounds condensing pressure. For all gases the temperatures prevailing in the condenser have been taken as 86"*, and in the cooling coils as 14^ ; therefore, the pressures given correspond to these temperatures. It is very difficult to get tight joints and stuffing boxes at such pressures. Moreover, since the temperature at which the gas refuses to liquify at any pressure — the so-called critical temperature of the gas, which is 89** — is so near the temperature of our cooling water which often is over 85 ''^it is dangerous to use this gas, and the condenser would be of small efficiency if working with a differ- ence of temperature of only 4^ between the gas and the water, while condensers are expected to work with a difference of tem- perature of at least 15''. If the water is only 85", the machine employing this gas will work very unsatisfactorily, and, besides, will require enormous quantities of water, owing to the small amount of heat each pound can take off. The gas itself is hardly noticeable by the nose or ear, and when escaping might kill the engineer before he knew he had a leak. Besides, it is difficult to detect a leak. It is claimed for this gas that it is cheap. But this need not make much difference, as ammonia joints can be made and kept tight. So it is only the first cost which could enter into this con- sideration. It is further claimed that since the gas is heavy and at high pressure, the compressor need only be small, which is true, as one cubic foot of it weighs 4.535 pounds, while a cubic foot of saturated ammonia at the same temperature weighs only 0.147 pounds, and therefore the compressor of the carbon dioxide ma- chine need have only one-thirtieth the capacity of an ammonia compressor. But, on the other hand, while one pound of liquid carbon dioxide furnishes 14.79 th. u., whereas one pound of liquid ammonia furnishes 500.35 th. u., which is more than thirty times the heat developed by the carbon dioxide, making up more than enough for the advantage in weight. The objections to the ammonia ahsorpiwx m-w^vcv^^ '^'^^ ^\n.^ K 304 REFRIGERATION. ^ miiiierotis. The handltnE oittQQu of different 8licligin/^^|ffefeBft t empe r atures and different pressures is work lor a chemist, llMkar than an engineer. As long as the machine works regolartSp^ there is no tronble. But the moment something nnusoal ^ happens, it takes a good chenust to find the trouble. There hare been many cases where a machine had stopped and many and good experts were present tr3ring to start it again, but did not su c c eed, and when the engineer took the machine in hand again, after having left it alone for a while, it started as wdl as ever. It is impossible to see what is the trouble by opening the machine, like a compressor machine, and only the intdligent reading of ther- mometers and gauges, and testing of the weak and strong an\^^ n>^^ Xvj^n^ i 306 REFRIGERATION. 4.^ mshing through the cooler would find nothing to ilAft^ict heat from, and would fill the cooler rapidly, and finally the ba£^lrott would come back heavily to the machine. It is very important to choose the pn^>er suction pressure for water cooling, if this can be done without interfering with other work, for instance, when the cellars are shut off, or an extra ii»> chine with extra suction pipe leading to the cooler is at disposaL It is always advisable to keep a difference of 8* to lo*" between the temperature of the gas and liquid in the cooler, and the water to be cooled, provided that the cooler has sufficient surface to al- low this without freezing back too much to the machine. In the table giving the properties of saturated ammonia wiD be found the temperatures of the gas corresponding to respective pressures. For instance, when cooling water to 40^, a suction pressure of 45 pounds is advisable. The temperature of the gas at this pressure is 31^, as per table, and therefore we have a difference of 9^ between water and gas; it is not advisable to use a suction pressure higher than 45 pounds for the reason that the gas would have a temperature above 32**, and the ammonia pipes could not show frost, depriving the operator of the only means by which he can regulate the flow of the ammonia. In this case, and if water is to be cooled to, say 50*^, a suction pres- sure of 60 pounds could be carried and good work done, but in order to regulate the flow of the ammonia properly, an ammonia gauge must be connected to the suction pipe so that the operator can regulate by its readings. Another disadvantage will be encountered when using sub- merged coolers, viz., the forming of thick ice on the cooler which acts as a non-conductor, and reduces the efficiency of the cooler. The attcmperator cooler is nothing but a regular water cooler. But if used little it is not objectionable if ice forms on the cooler. The work of this cooler is of necessity very irregular, owing to more or fewer attcmperator coils being supplied by it, and it should be of the right size to prevent the frost coming back to the machine too strong when used to its full capacity. It must be expected that ice will form when it is used to about one-half its capacity. TVj^ aifempcrator coils in tubs are made preferably of black iron oipe of 2" diameter, the coil having one cotvNo\MUoiv> ^xv^ ^^\K^^^n > J REFRIGERATION. 307 reduced (olt" are placed at its ends about 3" apart, the outside diamelef of the coil to be 6" smaller than the inside diameter of the tub aS the top, and the coil hung 18" from the top of the tub by tfiree 5" hangers. Each coil should be provided with two valves and unions for disconnecting. The. attemperator pump should be placed about 20 feet below the fermenting room, and the attemperator tank above the fermenting room, and placed in an insulated enclosure if the room above the fermenting room' is not cooled. This arrangement is necessary to provide for the automatic starting and stopping of the attem- perator pump. Attemperator Pump. — ^The speed of the pump is regulated, or it is started or stopped, by the weight of the water column in the return pipe from the attemperator mains in the fermenting room to the pump, by means of a pressure regulator attached to the re- turn pipe and connected to a balanced regulating valve placed in the live-steam pipe of the pump. The return pipe should be large enough to pre\'ent its filling at any time so that the water column can regulate without interruption. If the pump runs too fast, the water column in the return pipe will get shorter and exert less pressure upon the pressure regu- lator, and the latter will act upon the steam regulating valve, re- ducing the inflow of the steam, and with it the revolutions of the pump, stopping it entirely when all the water is out of the return pipe, and starting the pump again as soon as water collects in the return pipe, which will occur even if only one attemperator coil is turned on. To place the tank above the fermenting room will also prevent excessive pressure in the mains, as the water flows only by gravity to the coils. To cool water for cellar washing, the beer cooler can be used when not needed for wort cooling. The water can be run into a big tub and stored there ready for use. This will also prevent waste of cooling power, as the use of the water for this purpose. can plainly be seen, and the amount of work required by the machine measured, which is very necessary, as otherwise enorm- ous quantities of refrigeration may be wasted. Beer Cooler. — All that has been said about the water cooler applies also to the beer cooler. It should only be remembered that cooling wort with ammonia means much work, and therefore all possible cooling should be done by \.\vc >«*aX^\ s^Oav^w^ trhJch should have at least 34 pipes. 308 RKFRIGER.\TION. \ II takes, approxiniairly, one ton of refrigc^ralidn^tl. coo] Iod barrels id", and 80 barrels can b« run safely over a c'<)^|cr of ao feet lengtli- ' 4_^ The ammonia part vt the beer cooler fthould be made of two- -^ inch, smooth wrought-iron pipe, well polished. This kind nil] give the best remits. The old method of using copper-covered wrought-tTon pipe cannot be recommended, because it is im- possible to dnw copper tubes over iron tobe« so tightlj that there will be no air spice between them. Air space strkdy confined, as in this case, is the best non-conductor for hcM known, tt has been found at times by sounding with a tight hand hammer that two-thirds of the pipes were thns put onl of action. There is no danger of affecting the wort by rust, when the ^pes are coated with a good varnish; besides, the «ort will form 1 crust, which will thoroughly protect the iron. The beer cooler should always be made of ample height, as this will allow the machine to work with the most economical suction pressure and will prevent excessive back frost. Copper drip strips should' be soldered to the ammonia pipes and brass clamps used in the middle. Iron clamps will do for the ends, but these end clamps should be placed on ihc fittings and not on the pipes, so that the beer will not strike them and form ice. Lately, the entire beer cooler, the water part, as well as the ammonia part, have been made of polished iron pipe, which is preferable, as it is conducive (o cleanliness, no verdigris can form, and cleaning is an easy matter. But. owing to the thickness and the difference in conductivity of iron, about 90 per cent more pipes should be used for the water part than for copper pipes. CELLAR COOLING, There are iwo methods: 1. Direct expansion. 2. Brine circulation. In ihii Evstem the ammonia comes directly in contact with Lhe air, being eirciila.ed in wrought-iron pipes Uicated in the ooms lo be couled. This is the be« nitihoJ, because it is 'ect. Ill order to cool air in a room ^v v'.V-^^ ^'^ V **<■ «» I REFRIGERATION. 309 in the oJt>€s must have a temperature of 14* to 20*, according to tfc^^inount of pipes provided to do a certain work, and whether the pipes arc supplied with discs or not. To work with ^* a less difference in temperature will not pay, as the first cost of the pipes, the extra amount of ammonia required, and the extra friction of the gas in the pipes will more than counteract the gain in the coal pile. That pipes provided with discs cannot do good work with a small difrerence in temperature is plain from the fact that the cooling effect has to extend from five to seven inches from the center, and to spread out over a large surface, while in pipes without discs the distance ii has to travel is small, being about three-sixteenths of an inch, and the surface it has to supply is very small also. If there was too little difference of tempera- ture allowed in pipes supplied with discs, their edges would drip continually, which cannot be permitted as it would make the air in the cellar moist. Discs should not be used any more. It paid to extend the surface of the pipes by means of discs when ammonia was worth $1.50 and $1 per pound, as it was cheaper then to put up less piping and to use only one-half the amount of ammonia by placing discs on the pipes. But at present, with ammonia at 25 cents, the saving would amount to about four cents, while the disc would cost at least 25 cents. ' This calculation is per foot of pipe, one foot of two-inch pipe requires one-third pound of ammonia, and if discs are used, one is provided for each foot of pipe. If we woulci circulate brine through the pipes the brine must, from the above considerations, have a temperature of 20**, and in order to obtain brine of such temperature we must keep the temperature of the gas much lower than 20**, which can be done if we apply, lefrigeration directly. It should be at least 12°. But this necessitates a lower suction pressure, about 25 pounds. for the machine, while with direct expansion we can work with 30 pounds and without discs with 35 pounds if sufficient piping is provided. Now. five pounds' less suction pressure means 12 more revolutions per minute, and 12 per cent more coal, and 10 pounds double as much, which is certainly a u\^lV.^\ worthy of considtrsLiion, } \ 310 REFBIGERATION. ^ Two-inch cooling coils should always be used, anl^Ao rah connected to one expansion cock should be longer tluflhuoo feet. The returns should be made of i>ipe, and haye lO-indC^ir^ better still, 15-inch centers. The suction mains leading to tbe^ machines should be of such size that the gas will never be Crowded on its way to the machine, as this would decrease the suction pressure by the friction in the pipes, and, consequently, reduce the capacity and efficiency of the machine. If the suc- tion inlet to the machine is three inches, and there is one double-acting compressor, the main suction pipe should be at least. four inches diameter, or about 50 per cent larger, and the branches from the main pipe should be made of such area as is in proportion to the mrnibrr of feet of pipe supplied by each, their total area being equal to the area of the main suction or more. If there are more compressors, the suction-pipe area must be increased in proportion to their number. On all lowest point of the main suction pipe and its branches drips should be provided, to be able to drain water and oil, should such accumulate, and a good-sized drip tank should be set up to drain the lowest part of the main suction pipe by gfrav- ity. This tank should always be in connection with the suction pipe, and will give warning as soon as too much oil or water accumulates, because the frost which always covers this tank, as long as only gas and liquid is in it. will then thaw, and the part uncovered will indicate the amount of water or oil accumulated, which should be drawn off as soon as the tank is half filled. BRINE CIRCULATION. The brine is cooled in a large tank, which may be located in the engine room or close to the machine. This tank is filled with heat-absorbing pipes, preferably of two inches' diameter, as they will not choke up so easily with scales and oil. There should be at least no feel of pipes provided for each ton of refrigeration, if two-inch pipes arc selected. Not to exceed 500 feet should be connected to one expansion cock, pnd the brine pump, which is to be brass fitted, should be of such size that when each pislon makes 60 strokes per minute it will deliver 12 gallons of brine per ton of refrigeration. This will bring t^c brine bruk to fhe tank, with a temperature 1* hic;her than when It left the tank, and is considered ^ood \>T2ie\\c^. REFRIGERATION. 311 The pinnp should be provided with suction and discharge valv^«^\ strainer should be put in the suction pipe, so ar- rayf^d by means of a by-pass and valves that it can be taken t)ut while the pnmp is running. A thermometer should be in- serted in the suction pipe, so that it can be removed when broken without stopping the pump. The return pipe should be so placed in the tank that good circulation will ensue. It should enter the tank at the opposite corner of the tank from where the suction is located, which should be put near the bottom, and a header might be put on the discharge pipe with openings to force the brine along each cooler. Table of Bkine Solution. (Chloride of Sod lam— Common Salt ) Percentage Weight. §.08 '/J Specific Heat. Weight of One Gallon. Pounds of Salt in One Gallon. Pounds of Water in One Gallon. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Pounds of Salt in One Cubic Foot. Pounds of Water in One Cubic Foot. Freezing Point. De- grees F. 1. 1. 8.35 0. 8.35 62.4 0. 62.4 32. 1 .4 1.007 0.092 8.4 0.084 8.316 62.8 0.628 62.172 31.8 5 20 1.087 OM 8.fl5 0.432 8.218 64.7 3.287 61.465 25.4 10 40 1.073 0.892 8.95 0.895 8.055 66.95 6.695 60.253 18.6 15 60 111.*) 0.855 9.3 1.396 7.905 69.57 10.435 59.181 12.2 SO 80 I.ISO 0.829 9.6 1.92 7.68 71.76 14.352 57.408 6.86 25 100 1.191 0.783 9.91 2.485 7.455 74.26 18.565 55.695 1.00 The brine mains supplying the coils in the cellars should be so arranged that the brine leaving each cellar coil must rise to a point higher than the coil in the highest cellar, so as to equalize the pressure in each coil in the different stories. A vacuum breaker must be provided on top of the return pipe to prevent it being siphoned out. The pipe headers in the cellars must be of ample size to accommodate the quantity of brine delivered by the discharge pipe, the size of which is determined by the discharge opening of the pump, which should never be reduced. Each coil of pipes connected to the discharge header in the cellars should be provided with a good valve of the size of the coil, and no more than 120 feet of one-inch pipe, and no more than 240 feet of two-inch pipe should be conixecVt^ \o ow^ N-aXx^. Air vents should be provided for eacVi \\e^d' large to do this, and when the machine is in order again, it must first cool the brine, working for hours before the brine can be used for refrigeration. In the direct ex- pansion system, on the other hand, there is abundant storage of cold in the ice covering the pipes, which will last for almost 24 hours, if it has been allowed to accumulate, as is nearly almost the case, and when the machine is again ready for work, refrig- eration will Stan at once. ICE-MAKING. Ice-making is another practice which is coming more and more into favor in breweries, on account of the small expense incurred in making it in connection with a brewerj' plant. The same machine which is used for beer cooling and cellar work can be used for ice-making, provided there is spare capacity and sufficient boiler power. In ice plants of reasonable size, provided with a good Corliss engine, there is not sufficient exhaust steam furnished by the "machine to supply the amount of disliWed Yja.V« t^^vsax^^ Vk > I ) REFRIGERATION. 313 ice-maldii^. It is generally necessary to add 25 per cent of live steagi;''^hich has done no work, to the exhaust in order to jpjfply this deficiency. Now, the brewery has an abundance of exhaust on hand, and, therefore, does not have to pay for this additional live steam. It also has the required engineers and firemen, so that their wages need not enter into the calcula- tion. The expense, therefore, will consist only in the extra amount of coal and the wages of the ice pullers. . Figuring only coal and labor lo deliver the idb in the store room, ice can be made with a 40-ton plant at 25 cents a ton. The freezing of the ice is done in a big tank filled with brine and containing rows of pipes, through which ammonia is circu- lated, and between which galvanized cans are placed. The brine is circulated in the tank itself by a propeller. The water used for filling the cans is obtained by condensing the exhaust steam, reboiling, filtering thoroughly and cooling it. This is done to expel all the air and remove ail impurities, as oil, rust, etc. It is necessary lo remove the air from the water, as otherwise it would be caught while the ice is frozen, and the product would have a milky appearance. For each ten of ice made there should be furnished 260 feet of two-inch pipe, and sufTicicnt cans to freeze blocks of 11x22 by 42 inches, and 60 hours for freezing. Thus, a 40-ton ice plant would require 667 cans. The temperature of the brine in the freezing tank should be 18°. It is very important that the freezing tank be well insulated, and that the cans are straight and not twisted, and have the proper taper for releasing the ice. A can which will furnish 300-pound blocks should measure at the top iiMf by 22M.» inches, and at the bottom 21% by 10% inches to make a full-size block. The strength of the brine need not be higher than necessary to prevent its freezing at the temperature required. Stronger brine docs not help freezing; it only lowers the freezing point. It is generally believed by engineers that stronger brine docs better work. This is based upon the observation they have made that they succeed in lowering the temperature of the brine in a given tank with a given machine quicker when the brine is strong than when it is weak, which is quite true. But tUcv have done equal amounts of work in boVVv c;^'?*^^, -a^s >n'^ •^'^\>vs^ from the following reflection: — V One ton^ of refrigeration will cool 3S.400 pounds trf water 10°, while it will cool an equal number of pounds of ^itK of 36 per cent 12.5°, because the specific heat of this brinc-^^j only 0.8 of that of water, which ii = i. It h evident, there-* - fore, that nothing has been guiud. While it is easier to lower strong brine one degree, the same briiie will heat up so much qtiicker. If it H, ttiercTore, a matter of storing refrigeration, the brine should be made only sttoiqc enough to prevent its freezing If, for instat^ce, it is desired to store refrigeration in the most economical way and reqtiiring the smallest possible tank, it is' best to place lai^ galvanized cans between the coils in the tank and to fill them with brine of different strength, say, 5 per cent for the first one, 10 per cent for the second and 15 per cent for the third. Then the can containing the weakest solution will freeze first, next the 10 per cent one, and, finally, the 15 per cent one. In this way the work is dtMie at the highest posriUe suction pressure and the ice stored instead of brine, which is about as i to 14 in capacity. This system was invented and patented by Mr. George Richmond. PRACTICAL TESTS FOR MATERIAL USED WITH REFRIGERATING MACHINES. AMUO: J REFRIGERATION. 315 very lijlff? and a white vapor of evaporating liquid will ap- peary which must evaporate first in order to cool the jmyt, so that the liquid can exist as such under atmospheric pressure. It creates a temperature of — 27® while thus evap- orating. Soon, the liquid will follow in a thin jet, but the filling must be done very slowly, as otherwise the bottle will burst. The kind of bottle described is used because it is made of very thin glass and will stand a great change of temperature. The cork and glass pipe is provided to prevent moisture entering through the mouth of the bottle. A glass thermometer kept submerged in the liquid should show — 27* if the ammonia has not been mixed with another liquid, which has been known to occur. AMMONIA OIL. Ammonia oil should not be too dark, so that it can be easily seen in the gauges. It should be about 26° Beaume, as other- wise it would be too sluggish, and it should not congeal in brine, or in a freezing mixture more than one or two degrees above zero. If a brine tank is at hand it is safe enough to put a sample of the oil in the brine, and if it does not congeal in the course of a couple of hours, it is safe to use. The oil must not flash much below 360', which can be ascer- tained by heating it over a gas flame in a little tin pot, stirring it all the while, and moving a very small gas flame close over its surface, so as to ignite any gas which may be formed. Whenever gas forms the flash point is reached, and can be read from a glass thermometer which is held in the fluid, and at the same time can be used for stirring. SALT. The salt when dissolved should show no lesiduc. or at least very liltlc, and when heated for an hour at a moderate tempera- ture should not lose weight, as such loss would indicate that it contains considerable water. It is material to know this, so as not to pay for water if salt is wanted. Rock salt is usually the most reliable. Evaporated salt might contain a great ^toomwI Cil water. 3x6 iTOon. \ Piomnus or DwvBuarr LiQcnos Vtmo m BoUlBff PolBt Uesrett TeBfUmof Vafior la nmnds per Square Inch Abore Zero. ^N eSmbt. Salphar AauMBte. Methylie ' Cerbon Pleiol Flitar. Dioxide. IKBH^K* Dioxide. riBld. It 10 ti • «• —SI lS.fS • «•• _2E S.M tO.B6 ii.is M • «■ —IS 7.a tl^l 13.66 261.0 m m 99 »4 I.SS 9.« t7.0t 17.06 202.0 13.6 4» 1.30 11.10 ss.or S0.84 SIO.l 10.S 14 S.lt 14.7S 41 .» 66 27 396.4 10.3 a S.70 1S.S1 60.01 30.41 430.4 22.0 SI S.Si SJS 01.66 S6.84 6!0.4 26.0 41 4.45 27.40 74 66 43.13 »M.8 31 .2 SO S.SI st.so S9.S1 60.84 678.9 36.S 5S 6.8i S9.9S 10^.90 60.06 706.9 41.7 m SM 47.oe 1S6.0B 09.36 801.0 48.1 77 10.19 60.39 140.04 80.28 971. 1 55.0 S) 12.S1 06 S7 170.68 «e.4i 1086.6 04.1 96 14.70 77 61 107.a 1207.9 73.2 KM 17.80 90.32 «7.W 1338.2 82.0 SOLUBIUTY OF GaSES IN WaTER AT ATMOSPHERIC PrE.SSLRE 1 Vol. Water UU- •olre» Vclit. Gas. Air. or- F. 0.024; 39.2« P. I SO^ F, Ammonia 1019 6 VAtbtn Dioxide. Sulpbur l>loxld« MantbGaf Xltrofcen Hydrogen Oxygen 1.79W 79.789 0.0545 o.uaM O.OlflS 0.041! 0.02M Ml .9 1.5126 09.82K 0.0499 0.0184 O.OlflS 0.0072 0.0195 W2.t« 1.1847 W5.647 0.0137 0.0161 0.0191 0.ii325 60' F. 70-^ F. 0.0179 727.2 i.ixeo 47.276 O.OCWI 0.0U8 0193 0.02m 0.0171 654.0 0.9014 .'W.S74 0.0960 0.0140 0.0196 0.0284 ) 1.000 0.998 0986 0.979 6?2 0.9fi« 0.960 0.9.V3 0.M5 oasm O.fiSl Strength of Ammonia Liquors. ^2 t s e. 10 11 12 13 II 15 16 17.1 If^.S 19.b 20.7 I ""•'/ * mm • y •- •* £ SS |g I - 1 3 4 5 G 7 8.2 9.2 10.3 - ciif- .*. E r' 30~ 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 'Jl 0.925 0.919 0.913 907 0.902 0,H97 0.»92 0.888 0.HH4 0.880 X = •- .. p.. JT ^ si Zi 21.7 22.8 23.9 24.8 25.7 2« 6 27 5 28.4 29.3 30.2 O ^ •; ^ S 93 11.2 12 3 13.2 14.3 i:> 2 1« 2 17 3 1> 2 19.1 20.0 REFRIGEHATION. 1 i i 2s si- Ill it 1 1^5 -5 ill lO.M ia)«a ^S-RW 39 4^08 RTfl^aS JIM o^oioo oos» 4ISST —i B7 I4!i:< — j» 410. «g IRfltt +1 « Id.lT -K 4a. 6a STOioH ooast iraw f TB IS. IS 410. W 4I.0IB ao.tw 4U.W MM D!ai4] i 10 ra.80 -10 4i>a.ii« Ml HI u'.x 0.0M3 41 135 li « M.K 4M.W 10,18 o.iei 4u.mD 07 o.oet W BtilO D:IS40 O.OM to:w4 e « ■su 470 68 MO^M 7:a3 0.13R o.uM 40,100 « « O.OSM 39.820 o.asi. «i.ets » 7S 51:41 26 IW^DA Mooi h.^J^ o.oasB 89, 4X! M o'.am 0.03» ao.200 BI n IBM K iffi:iie .133, T« ):bi 0.ai8 o.oaa K n 12.88 .130.03 »,(■■ iwoM « 99 HDftI snsiw o!a»9 o.(Sf» M4AI as HBBIl .110.0a .■>::4.3U o.m4 0.0201 M.sae R a M.V«fl £.W o.raw o.ieoa :ff,n9t V xr.TM o.moe M7.4H1 u 4B IMW Kio.ea Rll^M 0.0418 87,»a> H u Ill.M 75 sas BO SM.M s.oo o!47Sl o.om «> MO.M I.W o.Kiue o.oaTi iiu:7Si IH KS 1I2T3 M.noii n M mm MO.ttO iiib!» rw oiBwi »,a» W ."BS M tX>.-SB t-^ 4<«.0] IM i«,77H 18 m'.w ftOi^W 488,72 u.rRH 0:02s W SB1.B7 no Wl l-i Taw IH2.41 o:o» tn ra KKI.IItl 47K.n> o:»80H 0.0287 »i u 3iH.ia [if. (V5.M 47S.4a 09009 1.0310 o.oasn IK 3».« nniHi 1.1040 0201 sto IS ssn.ia 4im:t.i 1.1)121 O.QMa sn »N.i2 rtw'-w tttSBn on» «B rs lu-in i» fo^.na 482 01 11.740H Iw 0.0207 m jso.aj 01(1, IW u.mio O.O^H u nin HO nifsii r»»i> o.oniH :::::: \m (W.UH o.Bjaji 1.M18 0,0»M M u S40.01 »UB dU 4i>i la 1 7S44 O.IOl"! iWwr uiili' ti llriuldunimonruHi 3^ Fabi.. fc [/'/oWflainH.N(«nt 3i" Pnhr ' lliliililammoBtu 3l8 REFRIGERATION. \ OPERATING REFRIGERATING MAOlhlSc; Run the machine as slowly as possible to do the woric neii^ sary. This will insure prompt seating of the valves, -reduce ' wear and tear and breakage. STEAM FSESSURE. Carry the steam pressure as high as the safety valve will per- mit The higher the pressure, the greater the economy in fuel The total heat of steam, that is, the amount of heat-units neces- sary to produce one pound of steam from water at 32**, is = ii&).3 for 80 pounds' gauge pressure, or 95 pounds' absdnte pressure, and for steam of 125 pounds' gauge pressure = 1189^ Or, it takes only 8.7 heat-units more to produce steam of laS pounds than to produce steam of 80 pounds, which is an increase in fuel of only three-fourths per cent, while the gain in power in the steam cylinder increases in direct proportion to the in- crease of the absolute pressures, or, the gain is as 95 to 140, or 47 per cent. It is true the ilue gases leave the boiler at a higher temperature, and, therefore, each pound of coal cannot yield quite so much heat. But this is a small amount, and could be used for heating the feed water, thus avoiding loss. SUCTION PRESSURE. The suction pressure should be carried as high as possible. The work which the machine has to perform, the temperatures it has to produce, and the amount of cooling pipes in which the work has to be done, determine the suction pressure. The best practical method is to try to raise the back pressure gradu- ally from 25 pounds upward, until the machine fails to produce the required cooling effect, and then to keep the suction pressure a little below it. To show what influence the suction pressure has on the effi- ciency and capacity of the machine, we need only consult the absolute pressure, which is obtained by adding 15 pounds, or the pressure of the atmosphere, to the gauge pressure. The capacity of the machine increases and decreases in direct pro- portion to the increase or decrease of the absolute pressure, for practical purposes. If we want to compare the capacity of a certain machine working at 15 pounds* gauge pressure, with the capacity of the same machine when worViiv^ nxwVv ^«j v^>3lti<^ _^ REFRIGERATION. 3 19 gauge srWiure, we have: (15 + 15) : (35 + 15) = 30 i 50, or, an m^ase of 66 per cent in capacity. Thus, ue can run the ma- chMe with 30 revolutions at 35 pounds' suction pressure, while we *naTe to run the same machine at 50 revolutions when working with IS pounds' suction pressure. The coal copsumption is in- creased only 10 per cent in this case. For pressures from 25 to 45 pounds the increase in coal consumption is practically nothing. CONDEHStNG PRESSURE. In order to reduce the coal consumption it is necessary to keep the condensing pressure as low as possible, since the higher the pressure, the more work must the machine perform, the pressure against the compressor piston being higher. This pressure is determined, in the first instance, by the tem- perature and quantity of the water at disposal, and, secondly, by the amount of condensing surface. The condition oE the con- densers, whether clean or not, and their location, whether ex- posed to an air current or not, has also a great deal to do with their efficiency. It is not proper to tigiirc how many feet of pipe are in a condenser, but how many stacks, assuming that submerged con- densers are out of the question, owing to their low cfGciency. Tests have shown that in a stack only about twelve pipes actually do any condensing. The remainder act partly as storage and partly as air cooler for the water running over the condensers. So, the condensers may be 12 pipes high for the purpose of con- densing simply, but it is desirable to make the condenser 18 pipes high, for the purpose of storing liquid ammonia, and for cooling the water by air lo some extent. For about 12 tons of refrigeration there should be furnished one slack made of two-inch pipe. The water required for on« ton o( refrigeration is, for well water of 56°, one gallon, ami for river water ol 85°, two gallons: It is the duty of the cnjji- ' neer lo see that his condensers are kept scrupulously clean, that the water is distributed evenly over the condensers, and each condenser receives an ciual amount of waler. When stopping the machine while the waler has run over the condensers as usual for about an hour, the engineer sUumW read the condcHsiiig- pressure indicated hy \\\a %av\ftt, i^^iX v^« tke temperature ol the water running ovct \he wrtvien.s<:t%, 'itvw >330 REFRIGERATION. by rererrinE to the table giving the properties of sawtled saianiea am- i If nowhere itil the aliqire J .ir, not beinH e whether they correspond o 1 the system, which must be vxpellcd, ed reading-s correspond with the (able. compressible under presrarei uKd in these machinei, it mixa with the ammonia gas which filb the condenser. Besides, the gas and the air join so perfectly that the air cannot be K^ arated from the ammonia by simply blowing it off at the top of the condenser. Such a proceeding would only waste con- siderable ammonia and not expel all the air. The only way is to confine the atr above the liquid in the condenser by liginfy- ing all that is possible, when only pare air can fill the top part of the condenser. This is done as follows: First, ascertain how much liqnid u in the whole system, so as to determine how many staclu of condensers can be fiHed at the time. Remember that each foot of two-inch pipe when filled contains about two-lhirds of a pound of liquid. Drain the liquid from those condensers which you do not intend to purge at present, shut them off from the system, closing all valves or cocks leading into them, then close the liquid valves of ihe condensers you want to purge, and Open their equalizing cocks, keeping the blow-off cock closed. Now start ihe tnachine, not too fast, as you are working with reduced condenser capacity and will soon fill the condensers which are connected, thus reducing the condensing surface still further. The pressure will rise gradually and should not be allowed to go higher than 250 pounds. When this pressure is reached, ihe machine should be stopped, and if the pressure drops again, started slowly till again 250 pounds is reached, and, after slop- ping, the pressure will not drop much. Generally before 35a pounds' pressure is reached, the hand of the gauge will move in jerks. This is a sure sign that the air is confined, as only a n on -compressible gas acts this way. When the machine is stopped, close the inlet valves of condensers, and open the blow- off valve very lilllc, the water running all the lime over the condensers. As long as there is any air in the condenser no pdor of am- monia is perceptible at the blow-off cock. As soon. howe\-er, as ammonia escapes and (he valve gets co\i a\\ a\r \a% \wim TtTOavcd, "^Aen this is observed, close the valve and cn»ti\TO« v\\t ^«u!aa« gaugt. If vresEure and temperature correspond, which is found by conftlltuig the table, then proceed with the reat ol the con- denaprt in the same manner. - ^ere has been a case where a plant did not work properly, notwithstanding the fact that everything was apparently in order, the ammonia was tested and found good, there was sufficient ammonia in the system, and no air in the condensers. But when the main supply of the liquid was shut off and the coaling coils pumped out, it was found that the suction pressure went down quicker than could be expected, and that the condenser pressure went down instead of up, which is not to be looked tor in a plant working properly, since when pumping out, the condensers must be filled with liquid and the available con- denser surface thereby reduced, and, therefore, the pressure increased. When the machine was stopped, the water still run- ning over the condensers, the condensing pressure went far below the pressure REFRIGERATION. 323 while the compression curve of the dry compressor rises much more rapidly. Jt has been claimed that when liquid expands while the gas is compressed it must necessarily increase the volume of the gas in the compressor. While this is true, yet the curve is the same as the cur\'e produced by injecting oil, because the oil does not cool the gas so much as the liquid does, and, therefore, this defect does not exist. EFFECT OF BAD AMMONIA AND OIL ON THE PLANT. Ammonia which contains water has not the refrigerating power which anhydrous ammonia has. It loses just as much of its power as there are per cent of water in it. Moreover, the water accumulates in the coils and prevents the free passage of the ammonia in places where water can collect, and prevents the pipes from transmitting heat where it locates. Besides, when paying for ammonia it is not pleasant to receive water instead. The oil, if it contains animal oil, will saponify, clog up the pipes and expansion cocks, coat the inside of the pipes with a non-conductor, and be very hard to remove. Care must be taken, if oil circulation is not used, to use as little oil as possible for the lubrication of the compressor. Generally in horizontal machines sufficient oil is forced into the compressor from the double oil-sealed stuffing box to make any other compressor lubrication unnecessary. Freezing back too much, so that the discharge pipe is almost or quite as cool as the liquid pipe, has another disadvantage, namely, that the piston rod getting very cold carries too much oil into the compressor which again brings it into the system, "necessitating a frequent removal and the supplying of new oil for the stuffing box lubrication. AMOUNT OF AMMONIA REQUIRED FOR A PLANT. Allow for One lo-ton machine 200 pounds One 15-ton machine 250 pounds One 25-ton machine 350 pounds One 35-ton machine 400 pounds One 50-ton machine ^«jO ^c»\w^% One 65-ton machine S"Q^ ^owxv(i% 324 REFSIGERATIOrf. One loo-ton machine 580 ponnda One 150-I011 machine 680 pounds One 300-ton machine 780 pounds One 300-ton machine i.oSo pounds One 4Cio-ton machine 1,380 pounds and for each foot of Iwo-inch cooling pipe, one-third of a pound of a AMOUNT OF REFRIGERATION REQUIRED FOR A BREWERY. For western conditions, allow one ton of refrigeration foT 10,000 cubic feet of space in fermenting room, stock cellar, rack- ing room and hop room, when figuring on the whole plant, and using this figure as an average. For the cooling of the daily brew, estimate the requited refrigeration as follows: Multiply the number of barrels of the brew by the number o( degrees the ammonia cooler must lake out, figuring ibat the lemperature which the beer will have when it enters ihe cooler will be 6° higher than Ihe cooling water at disposal. DJviilc ihc result by i.ooo. This will give the number of ions of refrigeration required per brew. If you have a beer cooler 24 feel long you can cool with it 100 barrels per hour, and with a 20-iooi cooler, 80 barrels. Divide the number of Ions above obtained by the number of hours required (o cool your daily brew, and muhiply ibe resuh by A(, to gel ihe capacily of the machine needed for beer cooling only, machines being estinialed on 24 hours' work. Add this amount to ihe amount required for the cellars. This will give the total capacily of the machine required, provided a direct expansion cooler is to be used. If the machine is en hand and a new one cannot be placed, the boi'r doling can be done by brine, and ihe w.Tk tf cooling the [>cer 'distributed over 24 hours. In that case, the machine ntcd only be larRc enough to do the actual work of beer cooling in additinn 10 cellar cooling. But this i? very expensive, as rx- pl.-iincd liefore. first, in running exp.-nscs. .-(nd fccmdly. in first cost, ns Ihe hrine tank bat to be very large in order t'l More suf- ficient brine for the work. Stiice Ihc hrine caTinol well give off move thai\ 12' and do e/Scicnt work, each i>oim»l of brine w\\\ Iwwi'wVv ""V- \Q Vt^l- REFRIGERATION. 325 units, the specific heat of brine being 0.8. One ton of refrigera- tion being = 284,000 heat-units, we must store 28,400 pounds of brine for every ton of work required for the beer cooling, which amount takes up a space of 400 cubic feet. If, for instance, we have to cool 400 barrels of beer 40° in four hours, we would require 16 tons of refrigeration in four hours. The capacity of a machine to do this in a day would be 16 tons a day, or two-thirds of a ton per hour. We can, therefore, do directly only 4 X 0.66 = 2.64 tens, and must store the rest of 13.36 tons, which would require a tank of 5,344 cubic feet, or measuring about 24' X 20' X 12', an enormous tank. AMOUNT OF REFRIGERATION REQUIRED FOR CELLARS. Many sources of heat which have to be removed must be considered in this calculation, viz.: 1. The heat transmitted through the walls; 2. The heat given off by the first fermentation; 3. The heat given off by the second fermentation; 4. The heat given off by the light used; 5. The heat given off by people working therein; 6. The heat admitted by opening the doors. It would be too complicated to go into details regarding items 4 and 5, and therefore only general data are given for these items. Heat produced by one man per hour, 518 th. u. Heat produced by one candle per hour, 430 th. u. Heat produced by one gas flame burning 3.5 feet per minute, 3.650 th. u. HEAT TRANSMITTED BY WALLS. We have to consider each side, the ceiling, and floor sep- arately, if the temperature on the other side of them is different from that inside the room. Ascertain the number of square feet of sides, ceiling and floor, and their respective temperatures outside, taking, of course, maximum temperatures; for instance, for the shady side, 90', for the sunny side 110°, for not Cv:)olcd sides adjoining living or storerooms, 75**. Use the values for each case as given below. The heat transmitted per square foot, per day and per degree difference between the temperature inside and outside of the wall in question, is as follows: For rooms containing 2,000 cu\V\c \e.»iVvi.w insulation is superior, 2V2 ih. u. 326 REPRIGEBATION. When insulation is good, 3 th. u. When insulation is not very good, as thick brick wi^ not insulated or having no air spaces, 3^ th. u. * ^ For rooms containing under 2,000 cubic feet, 4 th. u. For rooms containing under 1,000 cubic feet, 5 th. u. For rooms containing under 600 cubic feet, 6 th. u. For rooms containing under 300 cubic feet, T- th. u. The differences in the above figures are caused by the influence of opening the doors, which will have almost the same eflFect for small as for large rooms, but is greater proportionally to the whole in small rooms than in large ones. The side which is most exposed to the wind should be con- sidered 50 per cent more difficult to cool, therefore, if the value for it is 4, it should be changed to 6 in this case. For instance, wc have a cellar, the insulation of which is called good, the weather side is one of the long sides, and the side opposite it is the sunny side; one of the short sides adjoins a room used for general cold storage, and the other short side adjoins a cooled room, the temperature of which is 40°; the ceil- ing is the floor of a cooled room, which has a temperature of 34**, and the floor is on the ground, but well insulated, the tem- perature of the ground being assumed to be 55 \ The room in question is to be kept at 34°. Then we have: Weather side 40 X 10 X 3 X i-5 X ( QO — 34) — 100800 th u. Sunny side 40 X 10 X 3 X (no — 34) — 91200 th. u. Cooled side 20 X 10 X 3 X ( 40 — 34) = 3600 th. u. Storage side 20 X 10 X 3 X (75 — 34)= 24600 th. u. Ceiling 40 X 20 X 3 X ^ 34 — 34) = 00000 th. u. Floor 40 X 20 X 3 X ( 65 — 34) = 74400 th. u. Total 294600 th. u. Now, 284000 th. u. represent one ton of refrigeration. If we divide the above number of thermal units by 284000, we have therefore, the number of tons of refrigeration required per day = 1.04 tons. We must now deteriuine the amount of pipes leqiiired per ton of refrieeration, which is 400 feet of two-inch pipe per ton. when the difference in temperature be*, ween gas and air IS 2^°. For jnstnnce. the suction pressvvTC \s 27 v^->\\w<\?.\ \\\yc^ 3*? of tbe.ali' would have been 14 + 23 = 36*. If the difference is onfal' cme-balf, we shall need only one-lialf of the nmount of .^ing, = 200 feet, and so on. BEAT FBDH FERUENIATION, WARM KZG5, ETa To this amount must be added the following amount of piping to take care of the first and second heal of fermentation, cellar washing, and warm kegs. Add for each barrel of daily brew ; In fcTtneiiting room ■ • 7.4 feet of 2" pipe In rnh cellar 2.2 feet of 2' pipe In chip cellar 1.6 feet of 2" pipe In racking room, keg^ not previously cooled. .4.0 feet of 2" pipe Racking room, kegs previously cooled 1.2 feet of a" pipe In keg room, for each quarter entering, not considering the daily brew i.o feel of a" pipe In hop rooms 0.0 feet of 2" pipe if the room in question was a fermenting room and belonged to a brewery producing 100 barrels per day. If more than one room of any kind is lo be cooled, the above rule of adding pipes apphes only to that portion of the daily brew this cellar takes care of. We would accordingly require, in our examples, 720 feet outside the 400 feel reijuired by the cellar ilself to absorb the heat transmitted through the walls, which was one ton.. Assuming a difference of ttrnperatiire between gas and air of 22°. this one ton will require 400 feet of pipe, or the cellar complete, 1,120 feet of two-inch pipe. AMOUNT OF WORK REQUIRED FOR BEER COOUNO. For all practical purposes the formula as given before will be sufficient, i. e., multiply the number of barrels by the number of .degrees you want to take out, and divide by 1,000: the result is the number of tons of refrigeration tor a difference of tem- perature of 28°, which win be obtained when cooling beer to 4d' with a suction pressure of 25 pounds. (12°). The following si^es are recommended, but can be reduced 23 per cent, if absolutely necessary: To cool beer from 60° to 40° give 12 two-Inch pipes. To cool beer from 70° to 40° give 16 two-'mA ^\^e.?.. To cool beer from 80" to 40° give 20 lwt>-\T«:\i ?\^^. To cool beer from go" to 40° give 24 tvfO-VtitV ^\9e:>" 3^8 REFRIGERATION. If the difference in temperatares is not 28*, then the juunber of pipes should be increased in inverse ratio to the difference in • temperatures between 28 and the new difference. THE STEAM END OF THE REFRIGERATING MA- CHINE. There are really only two kinds of engines in use connected with refrigerating machines, viz., the slide-valve engine, either with throttling governor or with cut-off governor, and the anto- matic cut-off engine with Corliss valve and cut-off (for both of which see under the head of "Steam Engine")- Slide-valve engines are used only for smaller machines, where the parts of the Corliss motion would be too small to work well or for machines where cheapness is the first consideration. There is another occasion where it is advisable to use a slide-valve engine, even for larger size machines and where the matter of first cost is not the principal consideration: that is in the case of an ice plant where no additional exhaust steam is on hand to make up the shortage of distilled water, which will occur when Corliss cut-off is used. Here it is immaterial whether the extra amount of live steanr used to make up the required amount of distilled water has been taken directly from the boiler, or has gone through the steam cylinder and is con- densed as additional exhaust. In other words, the economical use of the steam need not be considered. It is advisable to use a slide-valve engine in this ca->c, because it is a cheaper engine and furnishes an absolutely tighi valve, which cannot be the case in a Corliss engine. INSULATION. The object of insulation is to prevent heat parsing through walls that are exposed to different temperatures on opposite sides. There are two kinds of insulation to be considered, which answer quite different requirements: First, the insulation for surfaces where heat is trying to escape, and, secondly, where "cold" is trying to escape, as, for instance, steam pipes for the first and brine pipes for the second. In the first case, we have only to provide an insulation of sufficient thickness and ncn-conductive quaiity to retard the passage of the bent as nuich as poss\b\e, wVv\cV\ q;jl\\\\v>\, ol course, ^e Jone with absolute perfcction. REFRIGERATION. 329 In Ihe'secoiid case, the iniulation must be such that the tem- pcratore od the warmer side must never be so low that the _.< -Atmospheric air, coming in contact with it, will reach its dew point, ihat is to say, be cooled so much as to condense some oi the moisttire which it carries, as this would cause sweating o[ the insulation, and spoiling it, and cause dripping, which is dis- agreeable and often injurious. If it is remembered that in surfaces which are cooled on one side Ihe difference of temperature is seldom more than gn° — 12*^78°, whereas, in steam pipes, (or instance, it is generally 340° — ()b°^250°, it is readily understood that thickness is not BO important for insulation for coid surfaces as (or (he protec- tion of warm surfaces. In protecting cold surfaces, the principal consideraiion is to have air and water-light material for the insulation. The influ- ence of the thickness of insulation for protecting cold surfaces is also important, but what will happen if air, and with it moisture, penetrates the insulation? First of all, the moisture will condense on the colder part of the insulation and on the surface to be protecled, and will be frozen, finally destroying the insulation and. perhaps, ihc surface in a short lime, affording a better escape for the cold, and finally cause dripping. While, therefore, ample insulation is necessary for warm surfaces, it is financial suicide to employ anything but the best insulation for cold surfaces, because it is not only the loss in cooling power which we suffer, but also the cost of a frequent renewal of the insulation. WALL INSULATION. Since one can hardly expect to get an insulation absolutely tight, it should be of such a nature as not to be spoiled in case moisture should enter together with air. It follows that all such material as mineral w-ool, felt, cork, charcoal, etc.. which, if it should gel moist, becomes a good conductor of heal, should be avoided. as there is no other remedy than to tear down ihe insulation if once spoiled. On the other hand, confined air is one of the best non-con- ductors, and certainly it is the cheapest possible material. Now, it might be elaimcd ihat in order \(> \vaNt ?,cic-&. 'cisgw. airspaces, the material and labor wou\d cosl mott ftv^ft -wVtrie. graaile, mtol or cork is used. But tbift W a mv*■«l^fce. "^ 330 matter what ve use to fill the spaces with, the spaces ^MBpdfes must be so made that thcj are air and water-tight, wheter filled with air or any other substance. Hence, confined air affonb^ the chei4>est and best insolation which can be had» and is the only insulation which can be dried out, when once spoiM. by simply blowing hot air into the space. RsLATivB Value op Nosc-conductors. (Ohas. E. Bdmit*) NoQ-Conductor. Wood Fell Mineral Wool No. S Mineral Wool wlthur.. Sawduai Mineral Wool No. ! Cliarcoal Pine Wood, across fiber. Value I. €00 o.e 0.7U 0.« 0.675 0.« 0.563 Non-Conductor. JLoam, dry and open :Slacked Lime jOas House Carbon [Asbeatoa 'Coal Ashen 'Coke, In Inmpa Air Space, undivided . . . iValne. i O.HS 0.4S0 ' 0.410 0. 0. o.sn 0.IS8 With all possible care it will still be difficult to make the partitions forming the air spaces absolutely tight, and this is just as impossible as when any other filling is used. But we have some substances which will do what we require of a perfect insulation, viz., pitch or resin, or any other substance of a like nature which is not too expensive, is imper\'ious to air and moisture, will not rou smd is a first-class non-conductor. In this case, it is not necessary to have the partitions air-tight, except the one which the warm air strikes, and this only to protect it from getting moist, if the layer of pitch is not thick enough to prevent a sufficient reduction of temperature on the exposed side, which might cause condensation. If ihe pitch is thick enough, even this partition can be made simply to hold the pitch in place. The refuse pitch in breweries, mixed with some resin to give it the right consistency, makes an excellent insulation. Holloiv Tile. — From the above it will be seen how wrong it is to use hollow tiles when air spaces for insulation are wanted, unless they are carefully glazed all over, and the joints per- fectly made with the best cement. But how can this be done on the inside unless they are laid against a surface with cement? Jt \s impossible to make a perfect joint when the hollow bricks ^/ngr placed two inches from the vj^W, loxrcv ^tv ^\t "^e, as the mason cannot be sure that l\\e \om\. \>f\o^ otv ^^ Var REFRIGERATION. ntr sid^ii propfrlj made, and the work cannot be anperviseil, un- It'uiipector is on the ground all the time, which is imprac- lesfJdt' ii If, however, the two-inch space between the liles and brick wall is filled with pitch and the exposed side of the tiles care- fnUy glazed and well pointed with cement, we have besides the pitch a fairly good air space, and can call the insulation first-class. See Fig. i. A good plaster on the exposed side of the tilca will be better still, as it forms a uniform surface, and there is no dependence on the work of the mason to make the jmnta perfect. If the tiles have not been carefully jointed, the amount of pitch required is astonishing, as the pilch will run into the hollow tiles, which, of course, improves this insulation, but is expensive. The inner wall, built of tiles, must be lied to Ihc main wall. which can be done, as shown in Fig. I, by building in hollow tile binders at intervals, which will be filled with pitch, being in connection with the two-inch pitch space; another method is to provide at intervals special ttles with openings for iron hooks, which have been masoned in previously, in the main wall, the holes in the tiles being arranged so that the tile can be slipped over the hook. The pilch will then enter the hole and fill this tile, which should be closed a( the boltoni to pre- vent waste of pilch. The hook should be a little lontrcr than necessary, so that the space between the nose o( the hook and the tile can be Kfouted with cement, lo get a solid connection. The beams should rest on pilasters, bnill inside ihc pitch space, so that they cannot transmit heat, \je\iig coTOi^'M^.VvitJi'j good conductors. IS thought necessary, iVicst v^\i^\.e^^ ^'^a.'J ** tied to the main wall, as shown in Figs. \ ot 2. There are other forou of insolation: T. Two-imeh pitch betmmt tkt maiii watt and m on the other side of the pitch, the retaining wall hdd ii by iron hooks masoned into both walls, and the bcwna ftamg^ through the retaimiq> wall into the main waU. Thia 1 serioni ditadvvitagei. The iron books and the beams rormi^bjtile*. very good conductors and both pass through the pitch, break- ing ihe insulation there Tig 3 2. The same insulalion hasiiig filch bct 1.^ ^«U Ak h^J/ hooks, to which either one laser or Wo U-jw* o\ unvM and groowtf psper >* nailed as tight as possible, to prevent the pitch pl>tn running out. It is not advisable to place the studs too^ar apart, as otherwise the filling-in o( Ihe pitch would Ibve to be done vcrj slowly, to prevent bulging out o( the boards. Eighteen to 24 inches is the best for the purpose. Ii it is immaterial how the inside of the wall looks after Ihe pitch is filled in, one laytr of hoards will dii. If not. il raighl be be.^il to put the second layer of boards on after the pitch is hard- ened, as there would be a certainty of getting a clean inside wall. Blick wait with wood and onn ait f p^or. 4. Insulation of a brick wall n'i//i ivood and one air s/^acs. — Fig- S' Place sluds against the wall, about 36 inches apart, and fasten thetn to tlic wall with wall hooks. Coat the wall and sluds with a good layer of pitch and lar mixed, so that there is absolutely no leakage of air or moisture possible lhtous\v rt. IAavX '.wv';- raeh matched boarding horizontally against \\\i! %U\4?., ViJiCw.*. 334 RBFKIGEKATION. care to have them tight againat each other. Nail twOcply hunlat- ing paper of a superior quality against the boards, the joints well overlapping, as well as the comers, and make all jqutts with good paint. See, also, that there are no holes in the p^^ .. Only when good air-light and water-tight paper is clamped tightlj between two boards can a reasonably light air space be expected. Against this paper nail another layer of Ti-inch matcheil finished boards, also horizontally, breaking joints. Fig. 6. This is done because when boards are laid crosswise, and they shrink, open- ings will be formed where the joints cross, and the paper will be exposed and not properly clamped. Fig. 7. There is now an air-tighl space as good as wc can make. But the air in this space is not yet si ill or confined air, which is required for a good non-conduclor It can be made so -^ „./^ by pulling cross partitions in the space, made of rough boards oi any thickness, and which need not be filled very accurately, though it will be belter if they arc reasonably light. These cross boards s/iould be provided at least, every 18 inches, better crery ij inches, and need only be spiVei Wi *t s\.iiii '\\«Mt REFRIGERATION. croH bOflia will prevent any circulation o( the air in the air qiacft ks this air circulation would increase with the height of it, Ifl^En it mostly lo feet, on the principle of a chimney, only, 'lin this case, the circtilation of the air is'cauEcd by the cooling of the air at the top by the cooling pipes located there, which cooled air will then drop, being heated by coining in contact with the warmer part of the insulation, and thus a circulation would be started. This should not be. By dividing the whole height of the air space into as many spaces as passible, this circulation is reduced to a minimum. Pig. 8. 5. Insulalion of a brick wall tvitli wood and two air spaets. — gainst the insulation just before described, again lace uprights, and against these one layer of boards, paper, and boards in the Pfcllc^jie ^' same manner, the air space lo be four inches lor the first, as well as for the second space. This insulation can be called hrst class. Fig. g. FLOOR INSULATION. I, Iron Beams and Concrete or Brick Arches.— PiW the space over the archos with a mixture of cinders and cement, up tu a little above the level of the beams, say, one inch above, and put two inches of good asphalt on top of it. The arches below must be protected, also, and especially the iron beams, as they will transmit cold freely and will sweat. An -expensive way, bu.' uiiduiihtcdiy the best, is to suspend a fila« ceiling below the arches by hangers and bearing bars of iron, the false coiling itself consisting of hollow bricks filled with pitch. This gives a firsi-class air space between arches a.«d faUe ceiling, and an almost perfect pilcV\ a^acc wi a.tt4 ^faos^ "C^e. boSow dies. The pitch should not on\y fiU ftve lA\e.», V-av oi■Jer turned over at the cornels. Then a heavy floor should be laid and either calked or covered with a layer of asphalt, which adds to the insulation. Below there should again be nailed rough board, paper, and fini-^hed board.=;. in the usual careful manner. This will furnish two good air spaces. Should the floor be already made, and it be de.^irod to insulate it well, then a second layer like the first one should be added below, with, say, two-inch spacing pieces between the two floors. Fig. 17. 7. fioor ll'hi'fi on the Ground. — A solid foundation is the first thing ro i^t secured. It the grout\d '\s cVan 01 so\\\ %tv»\w^, a thin layer of concrete should be pYOV^OieA, ^ccot^wvv^ \q >^^ REFRIGBR'VTIOK. 339 Wdght tU floor has to carry Then a layer of cinders mixed «mKcement as much as six mches and finally a layer of isphalt not tinder three inches as the two 1< wcr layers do not afford rauch protection against the penetration of heat from the groui d and the asphalt has to do nearly all the work The ground perhaps has only 65° Yet having an inexhaust- ible supply of heat at this temperature and being in close con- tact with the floor gord protection should be afTor la I the floor in order to get good results in cooling the cellar This is why the old style 01 undcri,round cellars has been abandoned. Formerly when temperatures of only 43° wtre had diid espe- cially where the grcund wis cooler as in the East where Ihc temperature of the ground is usually 56°. or tn Gerinanv, where the temperature is still loivcr, it vas advisable to build cellars nnderground. Bill not so at present. Where there is loose ground, and it is not desired to build a heavy concrete fuiiiid;ition. woockn sleepers can be laid, and heavy flooring on (op of tlicni, then an air space or two. formed, as described before, by two layers of board ami one uf paper. The only danger in that case is that the wood may rot from below, and it should, iherctore, be at lea-;t well iniprcRnaled. or, better still, ihc sleepers should rest on piers made of lirick or cement, girders being laid upon lhei;i. on which fiuallv U\«. sleepers rest, and the space below shouM Vie "KftW Ntn<\\a.\ti, \^> prevent dnnipncss Iroiii accumulating. Gooil AtivwiVi.': vsi'a.^'^ mIio be provided. 340 REFRIGERATION. ICE BOXES. In building ice boxes, the same principles hold good & tpt cellars, with the exception that we have no walls to insntete,- but must (orm them. The box should consist of three par- titions, formed of two layers of board and one layer of paper, as described before, only that in order to save space, ihinner wood can be used, and the air space reduced to two inches or less, if absolutely necess^ir}'. However, the wider the air space, up to four inches, the bi:tter the protection. Care must be taken, though, to build the box so that every part of it is actually protected by two air spaces, that the paper is overlapping well on joints and corners and all laps made with suitable paint. Especial care must be ^ivcn to the doors. They should be welt fitting and have good fasteners. It must also be borne in mind ■G^L&S that the (Icors should not be loo large, and as many compart- ments as po.ssible be provided, because the openinp of a door admii.! a large amount of warm air each lime, the amount being greater in proportion to the increased size of the door and I he cocnparlinent. Floor and ceiling should be just as well protected as the sides, the box lined with galvanized iron, and properly drained. A stationary box can be nuiUe very well with pitch insulation by [iiaking a single layer of boards on the inside, which, when lined with tin or galvanised iron, is suRicicntiy tight, and one layer of boards tightly fitu-d on ihe outside, whiili. aftrr tillirg with pitch, is cvwTtd nUh a second \aycv of tinishcil m-.itched boards ^:i(J i-.irnishfil. The i.ilch should (lieii Vie a\ \ku<,\ v'tiitt \i»^«» rii/cA-. If ,/;;, Ij,,^ „m5( jj^ moved al Vimvs, v'toc v'v^^cV ti»^ crack by th0 box being sligloly changed in shape, and in ihal MM itcff'better lo employ air spaces. But no other material idlpliTa be put tn the air spaces. An ice box with companinetiis is best built with a pipe cham- ber on top, the floor of which is made of wood, covered with galvanised iron, to prevent dripping, and well drained toward a pipe leading out of tlic box, forming a gooseneck, so as lo allow the water to get out, but keeping in the cold air. From this coil box two flues, extending the whole width of the b03c, should lead down lo the top of the lowest compartment. conveying the cold air to each compartment, the inflow to he regulated by shutters. This will give the desired temperature for each compartment, which can be kept at different tempera- tures, if desired. Ceiling and underside of shelves should not be lined to pre- vent dripping, but varnished. Fig. 18 represents a side corner. Fig. ig a top and bottom comer, and Fig. 20 a general arrangement of ice box. with several compartments and coil chamber. FREEZING TANKS AND BRINE TANKS. The sides should be insulated with an air space next to the tank, to prevent the pitch coming in contact with the very cold sides of the tank, and to afford a chance for ihe escape of brine if any should be spilled or leak from the tank. Over this air Space should be constructed a pitch space, and again an air space on the outside. It tmist be understood that since very low temperature prevails in the tank, belter insulation is needed than for walls of rooms. Instead of the pilch a second air space can be substituted, making in all three air spaces, ihe iron of the tank, which should be well painted, forming one side of the inner air space. The covers, loose ones as well as tight, should he formed of three layers of board, with two layers of paper between. The bottom insiiblion should be made like the floor of in- sulated buildings erected on the ground, only an air space be- ing, perhaps, added to iirovide for (he lower temperature of the brine. The tank should be tet on one-inch wooden strips and un- dercast with pitch. This will bed the tank well, prevent rastici^ist the bottom, and lead off. by means o£ a dtam ?\^ ^\*.\v ^ow*,- o*rfc *// bn'ne which accidentally or by \ta.V.ag,t tci\\tt\.^ -aV^'o but vvbhn 342 REFRIGERATION. INSULATION OF PARTITION WALLS Il^^rELLARS If both adjoining cellars have nearly the same tempera! kind of material will do, and no insulation is necessary, but on one side of them is a warm room or stairway, the same care must be taken to insulate them as the outer walls. Under no circumstances should hollow bricks only be used, and if the difference in temperature is not very great, they can be filled with pitch, and will then be foirly well protected. Under no circumstances should sawdust be put on a floor above a cooled room, as is frequently done. The moisture of the atmosphere will penetrate it, and when the moisture strikes that part of the sawdust which has the temperature which u the dew point of the air, it will condense, make the sawdust moist, and convert it into a good conductor, besides spoiling the floor. This can be easily proven by examining such layer of sawdust, which has been used for a summer, at the end of the season, when the weather is Still hot. The sawdust will in such case be found very wet. INSULATION OF COLD PIPES. The same considerations prevail here as in the protection of cold suriaces. But care should be taken never to cover the pipes when they arc cold or sweating, as this will spoil the insulation right at the start. Any kind of insulating material can be used, for instance, felt, magnesia, or paper cells, anything, in fact, which is a non- conductor, as air spaces cannot well be built around the pipes, and it is therefore just as cheap to use a tilling material. The chief consideration here is again that the insulation is air and wLter-tight on the outside. Covering the material with good canvas well sewed on aiwi coated with three coats of good elastic paint, will make the insulation nir and water-tight. Especial care should be taken to get tight finish for the ends. It is likely that a puncture of the canvas will occur, which would spoil the whole insulation under the same cover. It is therefore better not to take the insulating material very thick, but to make two. or still better, three distinct air and water-proof insulations, one over the other. If the first one is punctured and spoiled, the rest remain intact, and no harm is done, while the punctured /aver still affords a //ttle protection. a\l\vou%\v \t%^ v\v;iTv ow^ not ijpunctured. r REFRIGERATION. 343 The pipe^hould first be well painted. A Ur paint is best Jpr thi^Kfrpose, if the smell while putting it on is not objection- ij|lc.'<^'hen a layer of felt or any other good non-conductor ""' ihould be wrapped tight around the pipes and tied with wire. O^per wire is considered best for this purpose. Over this, a layer of good insulating paper, as tar paper, which is pliable, is laid, and then the whole coated with one or two coats of good elastic paint. Then again felt or other insulating material is wrapped tight with copper wire, still another layer of tar paper, and the latter coated with paint as before. It is best to tie the tar paper also, as it will give a more compact i^isulation, not so easily destroyed by knocking against it. If it is not thought necessary to add another layer of felt and tar paper, :hc canvas should be put on tight and well painted, as explained. Another form of insulation, and the best where it can be used again, is made with pitch. The pipes are layed in boxes Upon rests giving at lea^t a three-inch space from outside oi pipe to inside of box. The box is closed tight with a lid. and pitch poured in. This insulation can easily be removed by open- ing the box and knocking or melting out the pitch, and when the pipe is repaired, closing the box and putting in hot pitch, wbich will join the new and the old insulation. This process can be assisted by slightly warming the box on the outside where the insulation is to be joined. If pipes are laid under ground, the box should cither be made of cast-iron or impregnated wood, and the wood should be at least two inches thick. Clay pipes can also be used (o lay the pipes in. If the pipes are above ground, galvanized pipes made of thin iron can be used and the cold pipes held in place therein by wooden, or any better, insulating material which can be found, as a spacer. Pitch is then poured in through openings left for this purpose. The single lengths of pipes are joined by soldering, and special form pieces made for fittiuRs. This insubttloti can also be easily removed and repaired, and is the very best, pre- serving at the same time the cold pipes and saving ihoir paint. The best method is to use material which caw tt, ■3.^\\t&. In a plastic stale, in sufficient thickness, a\\4 vVctv Vo ^\i.-iVyA 344 REFRIGERATION. the outside of the parts in question as thoroughly % Dossihie 1^ painting or by putting on air-tight plaster or placing cMms ovfS it and painting well, always bearing in mind that the otatlMt must be air and water-tight. WATER COOLING TOWERS OR GRADIR WORKS. Where water is required for ammonia -or steam condensers, and the well supply is insufficient, or where it is too expensive to use city water, the only help is to erect a water cooling tower. The only natural cooling agents are water and air. To use air directly for condensing purposes would need too cumber- some an apparatus, and be too expensive in first cost. But we can cool the water first with air, and do it cheaply and effi- ciently, the water in this case not being wasted, but used as a medium to carr>' the heat of condensation to the air. The principle of the cooling tower is to allow air and water to come into close contact and to exchange heat thereby, and, fur- ther, to evaporate a small part of the water, the air absorbing the moisture, and the heat necessary to evaporate this part of the water being abstracted from the remaining water, cooling it in this manner lower than the air could do by contact alone. That part of the water which is evaporated must be replaced. But since this is only from 5 to 10 per cent, according to the temperature of the water entering the cooling tower and the capacity of the air for taking up moisture, the amount required is small, and if the well does not furnish it, can be bought from the city, and yet considerable money saved by the erection of a gradir works. CONSTRUCTION OF COOLING TOWERS. The construction of the cooling towers varies. That coolmg tower is the best which will give the best chance for evaporat- ing water. This can only be done if the water is retarded as much as possible in its downward course and not mixed with the air, but the air allowed to pass over the surface of the water only. For steam-condensing purposes this evaporation is not so important, as the temperatures of the cooling water required for this purpose need not be so low as for condensing ammonia, where a difference of a few degrees in the cooling water cuts a big hole in the coal pile. REFRIGERATION. 345 The gcttfTral construction of cooling towers is a cylindrical ., .cOr M|nre enclosure, made of wood or iron, containing means ii tO' ^tribute the water and to retard it in ita downward course, and a large fan for blowing air in tlie cppofite direction over the water. A good cooling lower is made of a square box of white pine, well painted on the inside, and filled with one-inch boards of cypress, arranged far enough apart to allow free passage of the air. On top are placed iron gutters which receive the water and distribute it through pipes to the gutters provided for each portion. In order to retard the water as much as pos- sible, the second row of partitions is arranged perpendicularly to the upper one, and so on, each row being again provided with gutters so as to distribute the water well. In this manner the water will always run in a thin Rim over the partitions and have the best chance to evaporate. This cross- ing of the partitions has another advantage, viz., (hat it forms square openings for the air to pass, and spreads the air, sup- plying each particle of water with air. The fan is placed in an extension built to the structure at the bottom. Another kind of cooHng lower is made, where cither gal- vanized iron tubes of short length and about four inches diam- eter are placed- in the cylinder forming the tower, so as to break joints, or pipes made of clay of .ibout the same dimensions as the iron pipes are used. The latter will last longer than the iron pipes, but arc considerably mure expensive and heavier. which is a consideration when the cooling lower is placed on the roof. Some builders put wire screens in the structure, which will soon rust out and make the water unfit for boiler feeding. All these towers use ians. But there are some made which are open all around and utilize the natural draft of the air, in- stead of a fan. The towers which employ tubes or wire screens, with sprink- ling devices instead of gutters, cannot be expected to furnish •uch low temperatures as towers with vertical partitions and gutters, since in the first case the water and air is thoroughly mixed and little chance for evaporation given, while in the second case all facilities for evaporation are aKoiAti- S TOWEKS. ^ A loo-ton reFrigerating maehioe wMild rtqiiirt a coolittgjowor of 2Cia X 1440 = 288,000 gallons per day, which rcquiri^s, a tTn' pf mat feet diameter, maldns igo Tevolntions, and reqairing » borsc-power to drive it The coat, complete, will be in the neighborhood o[ ta.000. It will reqaire, if used for cooling water for ammonia condenien, about 5 per cent of jSSjooa gallona a day, to nuke up for enp- oration = 14^400 gallons. The 12 horse-power, if a small engine for driving the fan is used, costs about 73 ponodi of coal per hour, and if Ihe tower is erected on the roof, so that the water inns I7 granty to the ammonia condensers, the pumping will not cost more than to pump the water from the well, as the extra height the water is to be pumped is mote than made up by the depth from which the water is generally pumped if taken from a well. These figures wilt suffice to calculate whether it pays to buy a cooling tower or not. The life of the cooling tower must also be considered when figuring on the investment. Iron towers with galvanized iron tubes cannot last long. The tower cannot be repainted on the inside without great cost and without ruining the tubes. It will, therefore, rusl through quickly, as will also the ^lubes. On the other hand, wood, especially cypress, will last (or a long timC. The tower can be erected on the ground instead ot on the root. But in that case the ammonia condenser floor must he located high enough to allow the water to flow to the gradir work by gravity. A height of about 35 feet is required for this purpose, otherwise the water must be pumped twice. punps. CENIBIFUGAL PUUPS. These pumps are usod when large quantities of water are to be lifted to moderate height, that is to say. not to exceed zS feet. They are cheap pumps, but must be run very fast. A pump of this kind, delivering 200 gallons to a height of 50 feet, makes 1.200 revolutions per minute, and a pump of the same capacity, lifting the water 30 feet, makes i.ooo revolutions. TAcj' require for this 4.25 horse-power and 2.55 horse-power, re- spectiiely. A pump lifting 1,000 gaWons yi Veev TOaV^w qao rrvoluiions and requires 25 horse-powM. ROTARY I Xb^^punips have two interlocking wheels, one of which has -« projection engaging the other, which has a recess to suit, and thus discharging what has been in the recess of the one These pumps should be run slowly, lo make them last long and to prevent noise. Fifty revolutions is a good speed for them, but they can be run up lo 200 revolutions. They are cheap pumps, are driven by a belt, and are made in capacities o( 8 lo 25 gallons, which capacity they have when making 50 revolutions, or, they will discharge 30 and 90 gallons per min- ute, respectively, when running at their maximum speed of 200 revolutions. They will lift water very little; it is best to have the water flow to them. They will discharge water 13 to 15 feet high. The pumps are very cheap, and where power to drive (hem can be had easily, they are preferable. POHLE AIR LIFT PUMP. This apparatus consists of an air compiessor, an air tank, and an air discharge pipe, located either inside the water discharge pipe, which also must be provided, or between w-iler discharge pipe and well casing. The water discharge pipe and the air pipe should reach down the well casing so far that the length under water is twice the length of the water discharge pipe over the water in the well, that is lo say. if it is desired to lift water 66 feet above the level of the water in the well, the two pipes must reach at least to [32 feet below tlic level. The principle of ttiis apparatus is that there must be such pressure carried in the air tank that the column of water pressing against the orifice of the water discharge pipe, in this instance 132 feet high, will more than coiinterbalance il. otherwi.^ie the nir would escape without doing work. The pressure, therefore, must be not f|uile fis pounds, as (-5 pounds' prcBsurc is alviut «iuiva- lent to the pressure exerted liy a column of water I,i2 feel high. If compressed air is discharged into the orifice of the water discharge pipe 13^ feet undvr the level of the water in the well, this air mixes with the water and forms a column of a mixture of both air and water, which is jgH feet high, which mixtucc will reach the upper outlet of the water i\sc\\aT%t v^Vt M\i -wX"^ Bov oat. The air in the water will < in short intenrala, and not u a steady stream, but s so for all practical purposes. It is better, however, to ifforldt; a water discharge tank holding a good snpply, so that any inter- mption in the working of the apparatus will not stop the water supply for the biewery. Where the conditions ate favorable to the employment of this land of apparatus it should be used, as it is 'economical. No pnmp rods and working barrel are buried in the well, in bet, all parts which must be attended to are above ground. It has been found in several cases that wells which furnished plenty of water, but could not be pumped sufficiently with a deep-well pump, after being worked with the air lift, furnished twice the amount of water that they did before. Where foul or thick water is to be pumped and more than 36 feet lifting done, this system is advisable. An air compressor is provided, located on the ground, and two large tanks placed so that the fluid will fill them by gravity. The tanks arc pro- vided with floats, actuating a valve motion, which opens or cuts oflf the air supply, and check valves are secured to the tanks to admit the water when it has been forced out of the tank and the latter connected at the top with the outside, to let the com- pressed air out, which still fills the tank. While one tank is filling, the other is discharging. In this manner the fluid docs not come in contact with any delicate machinery, and cannot injure il, whatever the nature of the fluid may be. Furthermore, by this process, the fluid can be lifted to any desired height, while the machinery is located above ground and easily accessible. This apparatus is used in mines, but can also be used to empty cisterns or cesspools, and can be started and stopped automatically. PLUNGER PUMPS. Thi;^ is the simplest kind of pump made, having the least number of lalvcs am! parts, and being very easy lo keep in order. These pumps are generally used where the clearance is no object, for pumping liquids. It can also be constructed to have only an equal clearance to a piston pump, but in this case a piston pump is preferred, because it is just the con- struction made regardless of clearance that makes the pun^ so simple, as the vaJie chamber is sctevici Vo vXvt ^incv ^^\i»- PUMPS. 349 der, apd-'each valve is in a separate casing, covered wilh a lid which can be removed by loosening one bolt. These pumps are used where high pressures are wanted, but if constructed with clearance, should not be called upon to lift the water, as this would be unsatisfactory, owing to the large clearance. This pump will also move heavy liquids better than a piston pump. MEMBRANE PUMPS. If heavy liquids are to be pumped in smaller quantities, or the liquids contain acids which should not come in contact wilh iron or brass, the compressed air system would not be suitable, and membrane pumps are a very good means to accomplish what is wanted. The pump consists of two parts, a plunger pump charged only once with water, which water presses a diaphragm against one and the other inside surface of a lens-shaped vessel. The diaphragm is clamped between the two halves of the lens- shaped vessel, the water being on the one side and the fluid on the other side of the diaphragm. The fluid follows the mo- tions of the water, which is withdrawn and discharged alter- nately into this vessel by the motion of the plunger pump. The vessel is provided on the fluid side with a discharge and suction valve, which admit and discharge the fluid alter- nately. This apparatus is cheap and gives good results. The rubber diaphragm requires replacing from time to time. These pumps are mostly built as plunger pumps. Since it is necessary to place the working barrel far below the surface, such submerged parts should be made just as simple as passible. The plunger is connected to the steam cylinder, which is erected above ground, by long piston rods, making the whole sy-^iteni very cumbersome and getting out of repair frequently. If the working barrel is very deep in Ihe well it is not easy for the en- gineer to repair it. If the conditions required for an air-lift pump do not obiain, there is no oilier way than to use a deep-well pump. These pumps can discharge water to any tcawi'c\a\>\t WxiA. V : double-"' These pumps arc now universally used. They : icdng and fanilt u single ud duplex pmnps. In acmt cue> even triplex pomps are nud^ mostly in case of power pomp* provided with sears. The Talve chamber in these pomps is generalljr locatcdton top of the respectiTe crlinder, and the vthres therein placed in two stories, the suction valves below and the discharge valves above. This arrangement enables the eii|p- neer to take out the discharge valves first, and, throogh tbcir seats, the suction valves, which are made a little smaller, to allow their passing through the seats o[ the upper valves. Tins also makes it possible to use man; smalt valves And avoid the noise big valves would make when seating. The water piston is genei^ly connected directly to the stem ^aton by the same piston rod, which is called a direct-acting pump. The steam valve, usually a piston valve, is connected to the pump piston rod by a suitable lever motion, to allow the steam to enter and to leave the steam cylinder at the proper time. This arrangement makes the stroke of the pump variable, as the adjustment of the valve lever motion determines this stroke, and though ever so nicely adjusted, the stroke varies almost with every revolution. This reduces the capacity ol the water cylinder and, still more, the efliciency of the steam cyl- inder, as the increased clearance wastes much live fleam. That is why such pumps, especially when small, possess such low efficiency, using about 120 pounds of steam per horse-power per hour, while a small Corliss engine produces the horse- power with 40 pounds of steam. If attached to the pump with fly- wheel. If that is done, the stroke will be positively equal (or every revolution, and the smallest possible clearance can be given to the water and the steam cylinder. The direct-acting pump has, however, many advantages, which often more than counteract ih; loss in efRckncy, vi».. smaller first cost, simpler construction, making it possible for a laborer to handle it, and the possibility of regulating the revolutions at will. If, instead of the Corliss engine, a slide-valve engine is con- nected with a pump and a flywheel added, the economy will Ae greater than if directly connected, and yet the vump is not e expensive nor the hattdVing awA ttftiAatwift -nunc J PUMPS. 351 LvRl^ pnmpi are often built with Corliss compound and condensing cnKines, and instead of the flywheel, an air balance is used, insuring full stroke. There is economy in the use of this pun^ though it is very expensive. ABKAHCEMENT AND CONNECTION OF FUUPS. The most economic and best way, if if can be done, is lo collect all the pumps into a room near the engine house and to give the engineer sole charge over them, all pumps to be belt driven and connected by belt to countershafts. Such countershafts should consist of two li ng, conical drums, placed close together, one of them sliding with jls bearings in the frame holding both drums, and pressed against the other by strong springs or weighted levers, with an endless belt be- tween them. This belt hangs loosely around the lower pulley and can be shifted by a shifter from one end of the conical pulleys to the other. This belt makes the connecrion between the two conical pulleys and connects at one end, the point o( the driven conical pulley with the butt end of the conical pulley to be driven, thus giving a large change of speed to the pulley to be driven. The driven conical pulley is keyed to the same shaft with a pulley connected by belt to the main counter- shaft, and (he conical pulley to be driven is keyed on the same shaft with a pulley which is connected with the pulley on the All the speeds which are possible with a direct-acting pump can be had with this countershaft, and if the engineer is con- nected by electric signals with the man requiring the use of the pump, he can regulate the speed to suit all purposes, stop- ping and starting the same at a moment's notice. i( a signal for preparation has been given and ihe engineer has answered. Such an arrangement would allow the use of a large compound condensing Corliss engine, which would utilise the steam with the greatest economy, save many repairs and time of ihe en- gineer attending lo pumps, while the life of the pumps would be at least twice as long as otherwise. Another iniporlanl circumstance is the annoyance of having to lead steam pipes a long way. cspeciaW^ Wom^V t^'i'" t&e engine room, arc cheaper to conned, as maV^^A ci\ > %Ve to the pUce where the pnmphig is done, an electric pump, or a pnmp driven by compressed air, should he nscd, the air compressor being located in the pnmp room; and only one compressed air pipe leading to the pump from the pump house. This will give an advantace over steam pipes, because the air is not hot and cannot lose energy like the steam, by condensing in the long pipes, and furnishing wet steam. Fnmps for brine and water should be br^ss lined and fitted. COUFUSSKD AIB PUMPS. These most be flywheel pumps, as the clearance in the air qrlinder must be reduced to a minimum to get good effideacr from it. The air compressor must have a water jacket to re- move the heat of compresuon, and internal water injection is often resorted to for cooling the compressoi still more effect- ively. If it is desired to cool the air still further, this can be done by tending it through a pipe cooler, over which either water of ordinary temperature is showered, or, the cooler can be built like a Baudelot cooler, and water circulated over it, the same water to be used over and over again. If slill lower temperatures are required, brine can be used as the circulating medium instead of water. The air pump must be provided with a pressure regulator which keeps (he pressure at the desired figure, independent o( how much air is used. COMPRESSING AIR BY L-SIKC WASTE WATER. In a brewery which has a refrigerating machine, there are generally large quantities of clean water running away from the ammonia condensers, which water generally lias a fall of 35 feet, and can be used to compress air without the use of a If, for instance, a lOO-ton mactiine is on hand, it uses 200 gal- lons a minute, and the water falling 35 feet, represents power to ihe amount of nearly two horse-power. Two air-tight tanks ar^ provided and fitted with safety valves, to \je s*^ »■>. ^'oe v^tv PUMPS. 353 - sore n^ired — which cannot be more than about 15 pounds iriieh the fall is 35 feet— and two floaU are so connected inside the tank with valves that they allow the flow of the water when required, and, when filled, open the water outlet and an air inlet at the top. While one tank is filling and compressing the air, the other is fmi^tying out the water and filling itself with fresh air, jmd is ready as soon as the first tank has discharged all its compressed air, to supply compressed air also. The air must be discharged into a receiver to collect any water which may have been carried with it, and to equalize the pressure. This tank ihould also have a safely valve attached. Such ap- paratus would furnish about 26 cubic feet per minute of 15 pounds' pressure, without any cost for power. If the water is clean, there can be no objection 10 using the air for racking b«er. Another advantage is that this air will have the tempera- ture of the water, coming in close contact with same. SIEAU EJECTOR. This is a very useful and cheap instrument, and easily con- nected, where it can be used. It will heat the ejected water somewhat, since the steam must condense to do the work. The lifting of the water is done by the vacuum created by the con- densation of the steam. To take water out of a tank or cistern, it is veiy handy. It will lift small quantities 30 feet liigh. but should not be ex- pected to work against picssurc. It is especially adapted to cases where a means of lifting water must be had quickly and where ordinarily such apparatus is not required. STEAM JET PUMP. This pump is very handy and cheap, and also easily con- nected. It will start with 10 pounds' steam pressure, and will lift water 10 feet high with a steam pressure of 80 p-"mds. It will discharge the water 40 feet high. BREWERY BUILDINQS. Following is given sample speci6catioiia for a meditiai-siKd brewery, abridged from > set drawn up by a brewer? ucUlcct of noie. It is intended oolj as a sample, to afford a general idea of the requirements sa well at to call attention to details tiut might otherwise be neglected. What suits one locality may not suit another. There are considerations of size and shape of lot, magnitude of the plant, building materials, labor, climate, etc., which will necessarily modify plans in each individual case. Speciticalions are always made out with reference to plans drawn. Where the words "as shown" occur in the following. It is intended to convey the need of referring the contractor to EXCAV.^TION. FILLING. CONCRETE WORK. MASONRY AND BRICKWORK. Exca^'ate ground according to plans and sections, dig trenches for footings of all walls, piers, etc. After foundations are in, refill, ram heavily and puddle with water all fillcd-in material. Ground lloor must be left in pr<^wr shape lo rtecive the floor. Fill up where necessary and leave the ground for fifteen feet all around the buildings in proper shape, slanting easily. All superfluous ground to be carted away. All fnunilalions must be started on natural ground. The foundations for all walls, piers under columns, etc. (concrete fiiundalions). shall be made of concrete up to Datum or o-linc, and of sizes as shown by drawings. CONCRETE. .Ml materials used for concrete must be measured by struck bushels, or barrels, and not by shovel. Concrete la lie prepared in the foUowiTis manw^T-. Otvc oart of imported German Portland cement {.DicVct\k,K, Cv 3M BREWI£RY BUILDINGS. 355 StettiB>- must be mixed in a box, 6rst, dry, with zK parts of sharp and clean sand; then water to be added, just enough to make the mortar resemble damp earth, and well mixed. Then five pans of broken stone to be added, and mixed again. Stones must not be larger than to pass a i%-iDcb netting. Mortar must fill out all empty spaces between broken stones. Lay the con- crete in six-inch layers, ram heavily with a heavy ram. A film of thin mortar must cover the stones after ramming. For concrete foundations above natural ground construct heavy boxes to receive ihc concrete and give foundation proper shape. The concrete work must be carefully protected against the influ- ence of the weather. The top of concrete must be leveled off with Portland cement mortar, mixed in proportion of one to two and one-half. For all sewer and other pipes required contractor must leave openings in concrete or brickwork, and cover same with 12 inch thick stones or arch them ovci. ( STONES. Dimension stones must be laid on top of concrete and solidly in a floating bed of cement mortar. Top and bottom of dimen- sion stones must be practically smooth, and be rammed down with a heavy wooden instrument. The lower courses of dimen- sion stones under columns may be in two pieces each, but the balance of courses to be of one piece each and of even thickness. The stone under foot-plate must be well bush-hammered, to give the plate a solid bed. Dimension stones under walls must meas- ure the entire spread of foundation in one direction, in the other not less than three feet. All the spaces between dimension sloncs must be well filled with concrete. RUDOLE STONE WALLS. Rubble stone walls are to be started on top of concrete work. Stones must be laid in courses of even si;cc and not less than B inches thick. The first course 'lying on concrete must consist of stones going all through walls in one piece, and this must be repeated in the fourth course, that is lo say, one course of di- mension, rubble alternating witli three courses of comtiion. rubble work. Walls mast be well bonded and joints caTc^MW^ \rtdV.«'(v. "^w wm//s on both sides, and wherever thej come m cciwvw.^ ■^' 356 BREWERV BUILDINGS. ground, plaster them with ccnent mortar specified for C All exposed rubble stone must be range work made of select rubble laid in regular courses. Where stone walls show above ground tbcy must be neatly pointed up with mortar. Mortar for rubble stone work, except for pointit^ and plaster- ing, to be composed of one part of imported Qerman Portluid cement and two and one-half parts of sharp and clean sand. Contractor to furnish sample of stone: BRICKWORK. The footings on lop of concrete must be of best hard burned brick in level courses. The brick must be laid wet if laid in warm or dry weather, and dry, if laid in cold or damp weather, with absolutely solid joints, leaving no empty spaces in wall whatever. This may be accomplished by grouting every course, or by d^g shove work; the outside of the work being laid all headers and no course projecting more than about 1% inches to I'.'i inches be- yond the one above it, except for piers, under columns, etc., where Ihe projection will be % inch to I inch. Base plates must be blocked up at the corners to pro[>er height, then close up the sides with clay, and fill the joint wiih German Portland cement mortar, mixed one to two and one-half. Foun- dation walls above footings to have a header conrsc every fifth Mortar for brick footings and fotindalion walls up to eighteen inches above ground line to be made of one part of I.f>nisville ce- ment to three parts of clean, sharp sanU, both to be measured by struck bushels or barrels, and thoroughly mixed dry before adding water. Brickuurk above foundation ■oralis lo be l-uUl. Mortar lo lje made of nine bushels of good, strong lime l'> one yard of clean, !-liarp sand. To fifteen parts of this mortar add ^jni- part of Louis- ville cement. Brick discharging arches lo Ik; built over all opt-n- ings where no iron lintels arc used. WIktc firewalls are built above the roof, lay two-inch by fonr- inch pieces in walls, so thai bottom of piece will he three inches above roof boards. This lo be omitted where w.^ll aliove roof exceeds a height ol ten feet. A// joists or M-aU plates must be set on waW^ w«\w\\\ \.\t«:VL. W. eicn il brick have lo be split for l\\c ?utv"?:e. M\ ■BsNt IIREWCRY BUILDINGS. 357 ^om to be set and no wallinK up of beams to be done before uichors are in right place, according to iron diagram. Brickwork around colunitis in walls to be anchored to columns with U-inch copper wire. Brickwork for SmokrUack. The inner shell must be well tied to outer one, every four feet in height up to where the round part starts. After that the shell must be tied where rings are placed. Inside of chimney must be lined with firebrick for a height of twenty feet, startiiig the firebrick eighteen inches below the bottom of smoke opening. Floors to be arched between the steel beams with four-inch brick arches hid in PortUnnd cement mortar. Build up stag walls in haunches of arches eight feet apart and nine inches wide to top of beams and across level with top of arch, forming beads, so as to prevent beam from giving, or being pulled out of plumb when strain is put on lie rods. Arches to be leveled off to top of beams with concrete made of sifted cinders and German Portland cement, mixed one to six. Soffits of all arches must be neatly pointed up, except those over fermenting and settling tub room, which will be plastered. All enclosing walls of stockhouse in all stories, excepting the rice storage and ventilation floor above settling tub room, the racking room and hop-storage room, to be furred or lined with an eight-inch brick wall, put i^-inch from the main wall. The Space between main wall and furring wall to be poured full with hoi pitch. Care must be taken that when pouring pitch into that space the brick lining will not bend out or cave. For this reason . only eighteen inches of lining is to be built at one time and then the space is to be filled as slated. Brick layer to wall in the galvanized iron strips which hold the lining. Strips to be two inches wide of No. i6 galvanized iron, reaching eight inches into main wall and tour inches into lining, and long enough that they can be bent up two inche4, 'j^.Oft, MBd then lined with one row of thrce-incVi \\o\\o'« U\cs". ft^'^^^ '"=*■"' B tpace ot two inches and put on anotbcr low ol iX^ttt-'wAi. ^ 358 BREWERY BUILDINGS. km tiles. Space between the two rows of tOes to be filiSI*1i^ mineral wool (or other insnlating material). Hollow tiles oseA must be good, hard burnt, of uniform color. Each tile must be" clamped to the adjoining by galvanized iron damps (No. 20 iron), and the tile row next to wall to be fastened to wall by spikes in every second course. The outer row of tiles must be clamped to the inner row; clamps to be formed so as to act as separators at the same time. All tile work to be laid in stroog approved domestic cement mortar, neatly pointed up, except in fermenting and settling tub rooms, which are to be plastered with one good coat of plaster, composed of four parts lime mor- tar to one part of imported Portland cement. Cross-walls in set- tling tub room to be lined only with two-inch mineral wool and four-inch hollow tile and plastered. IRON AND STEEL WORK. All castings shall be of tough, gray iron, free from injurious cold shuts or blow-holes. Tops of foot-plates and bottoms of columns must be turned off. Bottom of lowest column must have lugs to correspond with lugs on foot-plates and be firmly bolted to foot-plates. Columns to be straight and sound with all lugs, brackets, caps, moldings, etc., as per drawings. All wrought iron must be tough, ductile, fibrous, smooth and free from cinder pockets, Haws, buckles, blisters or cracks. All beams must be of steel, straight and of sizes and weights as per corresponding diagram. All work must receive a good coat of mineral paint before delivery. Holes to be punched in all beams three inches from ends which rest on walls. All splice plates for girders must have four bolt holes, those for floor joists two bolt holes. Stringers, brackets, posts, railings of stairs to be of iron or steel. Elevator enclosure to be of 5-32-incb wire, i^^inch mesh, with i^-inch channels, or grooved iron for frames, well fastened to walls and guy-post. All doors to swing or to be sliding, con- structed strong and similar to enclosure with approved locks. All lintels over openings must have wall anchors. CARPENTER WORK. All lumber to be thoroughly seasoned and sound, common '^'oe, free from sap, cracks, loose or lat^e VnoVs ot ^\v>j oiORfci BREWERY BUILDINGS. 359 defects that will injure the strength. All lumber must be dressed where exposed to view. All straps, splice plates, anchors, stir^ 4ftips, etc., for connection of woodwork, also all spikes, nails, bolts, screws, locks and all hardware to be furnished and fitted. All centers for arches over openings must be set one-half inch higher than frame to take the weight of the wall from frame. Lay two-inch by four-inch scantlings in firewalls only three inches above roof boards for fastening of roofing felt. Build gables behind all ventilators, ventilation pipes, etc., to lead the water to the downspouts. Carpenter to furnish and hang the wooden centers for brick arches between the steel floor beams and remove them after arches are sufficiently dry. All openings in mason work, if not otherwise specified, must have yellow pine lintels six inches high by the required width, resting on walls at least four inches. All joists from nine feet to twelve feet span must have one row of cross-bridging. Joists from twelve feet to eighteen feet span to have two rows of cross-bridging and above that three rows. Bridging to be made of good, sound two-inch by four-inch stuff, well fitted at the ends and solidly nailed in place with two ten- penny nails at each end. Where joists are planed, planed bridg- ing is to be used. Frame out for ventilators, ventilation pipes, scuttles, etc., or wherever framing is required. All headers and trimmers must be double, thoroughly spiked together and well framed and hung in extra heavy iron stirrups. Every fifth joist must have strong pin anchors, pin not less than fifteen inches long and straps extending well into wall. Ends of joists must butt against each other over girders and every pair must be spliced by two-inch by twelve-inch by three-eighths-inch wrought iron splice plates with two spike holes for each end of joist. Floors, ceilings, sheathing of roofs, etc., must be firmly spiked or nailed to each joist or rafter. Doors and Windows. All window and door frames must be surfaced all around, as they will be primed all around. AH door and window frames to be set in place by carpenter. All window frames and sashes must be of thoroughly seasoned pine. All windows must have window stools where practicable. Windows in cold rooms to have triple sashes and plank frames, which must begin iowx \TvO[vts ^x ^v^^eX laches from outside of walls as may be pTON\d^^, ^vA \y^ "s^X j6o ^' f Ouongk mdls ud hollow tik ladar Suba M be riMMhH ' ttuck, made to iwioc u ■bown on dnwinB. Center autt*- idltt jk be tmnged for double ^sxins. All jointa b cl W Mii viaMK ^ Enmei and walls mnit be canlked with mineral wool (or otfacr tnaolating matnial), and made «> air-URbt ai poaiible, and then ■Iripi nailed over joists. All other windows to have box franxi and iK-inch uahea with check-iipped meeting rails. . Hnltion windows to have molded mullion posts, transom faana transom sashes, etc Heads of all circnlar. scmi-drcnlar or Kg- ment windows, to be square inside. Transoms to he seon-ctr> cular or segment all through walla. Sashes to be hung with weights and best braided cotton cords, and to have extra stronc axle pulleys and extra strong sash locks and lifters. All outside doors to be aU iochea tbick, made in two thicknesses, well glued and screwed together, paneled, upper panels ar- ranged for glass. Door frames must be 2% inches thick, starting four inches back of face of wall, paneled and molded to corre- spond with doors, all with transom bars, mullion posts, transom sashes, etc., complete. Each wing of the doors must be hung to three extra strong wrought iron, black japanned five-inch by five-inch loose joint butts. Doors must have extra strong three- tumbler mortise locks top and bottom bolts, etc., ^■omplete. Tran- som gashes to be of same thickness as doors below and hung with strong black japanned wrought iron hinges and have the required transom lifters of the strongest make. All thick or insulated doors must be made as follows ; Scven- eighths-inch by 3^inch matched and dressed flooring, double building paper, T6-inch flooring, ili-inch by i^-inch strips, six- tecn-inch centers, then Ti-inch matched flooring, double building paper, and 'K-inch matched flooring, all solidly nailed together. Doors to be hung to extra heavy black japanned ice-house T- liinges and have proper locks. Insulated doors must have groove cut all around and a rubber tube fastened into it to keep the space between doors, frame and floor tight. Door frames for all insulated doors must be s% inches thick and reach all through wall and hollow tile lining where not otherwise specified. All doors not before specified, in refrigerator, boiler and wash- house, must be made in two thicknesses of %-incli by j^inch matched ffooring with double layer building pa^T between and *^« and rail complete Doors to be hung to «?/i.-\wAv Vj ajl*.- BREWERY BUILDINGS. 361 iadi-'llhck japanoed loose joint butts and hare all required iockt, qW: Alt doors in brew-house, not specified before, mast be iH fBchca thick, five panel O. G. hung to three 4l4-inch by 4U-inch bUck japanned loose joint butts, and have strong mortise locks, etc Sliding doors to be made of two thickaesses of' 1% inches for ■tiles with %-iiich by j^itinch matched and beaded floorings for panels. The doors of stock-house, wash-house and brew-house, having iron jamb protectors two feet six inches high, to be made so that frame will be flush with protector when in place. Frames to be screwed lo protector with stove-bolls before being set. Doors in stock-house to be made as specified for insulated doors,, slide or swing. When sliding they should be hung with weights lo wire and running over heavy steel anti-friction pulley, polished brass wheel, heavy strap hinges to be used for insulated doors snd the same Co be boiled Co doors. Oak sills to be five inches and full width of wall with i^ineh projection and properly washed aiid seated. Coal shutters in boiler house must be of two thicknesses %-inch b!y 3'/^inch flooring, with two-ply building paper between and have proper stiles and rails. The box window frame in boiler house must be made large enough lo receive the coal shutters, which must be hung in same manner as sashes in the same frame; the coal shutters to slide in iron jamb protecCors between the two sills which arc to be of tour-inch oak. All doors must have oak thresholds. All stiles and rails of doors and shutters to be of thoroughly seasoned pine, panels of well seasoned pine. Scantling in hollow tile partitions for fastening of door frames must go up to ceiling. Tower of bretu-house to be constnicted as shown on plans. Wall plates will be six inches by eight inches, well anchored lo walls with %-inch diameter ancliors. Bttild two trusses for tower, made of double two-inch by twelve- inch truss rafters, and double lwo-ii:ch by ten-Inch cords, well spiked together. Intermediate rafters will be V'no toOml^ 'Vi-i t^^V inches — sixteen-inch centers. Frame ouV iot l-Vt "Mvcvic*^ *^^ baiidroofg over same as shown. The otViet ea.tt oi toq^. «''« '^■^'■■* 362 BBEWEBY BUILUNGS. honse to be co mLtu c t ed of tfarec-hich br tta-iaA wMtM planed jobtt, plincd d^iteea iachet on niiten. to be u ^edfied before. JmaU to rest four incliM on wilb m give same proper intch for gnvel rooL Roof over bicw-bone^^ incloding lower, to be sheathed with onc-incb bj fi ¥e- i ndi matched and dressed flooring, dressed side laid down. Build a two-foot by two-foot six-inch acuttle on one tide wiA light, but strong scuttle cover and hung on strong wroi^fal inH japanned hinges, and have all necessary fastenings complete; also provide neat, light and strong ladder to scnttle. Uath-htb platform muBt be made of three-inch by auc-incA dressed and matched flooring, planed to be turned down and wd bolted to top flange of ten-tncb steel beams with %-inch bofcs. Bmild Malt Bin j4t Shomi, Support for hopper bottom of mdt bin to be constructed of ten-inch by ten-inch timbers for girdrra and posts. Joists for bottom to be three inches by twelve inches on centers, and sheathed with three-inch by six-inch matched and dressed flooring. All woodwork must be solidly and com- pletely framed together with all necessary irons. Bin walls to be made of crib-work, constructed of two-hich by four-inch scant- lings, surfaced on all sides, well spiked together with 4^incb and four-inch wire spikes mixeil, put in zigzag, sixteen inches apart. All crossings must be spiked with 4^-inch spikes. Bin rods and ladder irons will be furnished by another contractor, but must be put in place by carpenter. Spout openings in bottom of bins must be made in the most careful manner. Cover of bin must be made of two-inch by six-inch planed joists, placed eighteen inches on center, and nailed underneath with 'K-inch matched and boih sides dressed flooring. The lumber used for construction of bins must be thoroughly seasoned and dry hem- lock, and without any bad knots and other defects. Bin partitions must be perfectly plumb out and inside. Provide a trap door to each bin in floor of tower where shown with strong hinges and connect to wooden shaft going down into bins. Stairs will have iron stringers and railings furnished and put in place by another contractor, but carpenter must construct platform and furnish and solidly screw to iron brackets on stringers 1%-inch sound white oak treads. Platforms must be made in strongest manner 0/ three-inch by six-inch planed joists secvitri-j ia^^tntd to iron stringers and covered with two-inch by io\ji-'TOt\i TOa.\tii*.4 ^\«ait BREWERY BUILDINGS. 363 oak -flooring dressed on both sides. All required hardware to t^Ice the carpenter work complete must be furnished and put in '^'^Scc. Carpenter ipust build partition for office and closet and also brewmaster's office of two-inch by four-inch studs, sixlcen- inch center, sheathed' on brew-house side with %-inch matched flooring. Put shelves and ceiling into closet. Around Baudelot cooler, both sides to be finished with neat cornice panels, mould- it^, etc., plain but tasty. Baudelot cooler partition to have slid- ing sashes below and above platform. Doors to be sash doors. Posts, stiles, panels, rails, moldings, etc., of partitions to be of the best quality yellow pine. Uardviarc. AH required hardware to be imitation bronze (or as selected). After the cooler is erected, build platform, using four- inch by sixinch joists, planed four sides and floored with two- inch by eight-inch planks, planed four sides and laid with one- inch space between them. Rice Tub Platform. Build steps and platform for rice tub, as will be directed or as shown. Floor in oiHce to be made of four-inch by four-inch sleepers, Iwo-foot centers, sbcathcd with one-inch matched hemlock, then double tar paper and %-inch matched maple flooring. Ventilator over b-cw house to be built as shown on drawings in Strongest manner of Iwo-inch by four-inch studs spiked to roof joists and double two-inch by four-inch plate below the two-inch by four-inch ventilator rafters. Ceiling joists to be two inches by six inches. Rafters to be covered in same manner as roof joists. Ventilator to be sheathed out and inside with one-inch by six-inch matched and dressed fl 00 ring and have wuidows as shown. KEntlCERATOR 01 Girder supporting part of stockhouse roof to be ten-inch by twelve-inch, Georgia pine planed with anchor and fastened to columns with heavy lag screws. Roof joisls 10 be three inches by twelve inches, planed and sized, placed eighteen inches on centers and two-inch by four-inch planed cross-bridging. Roof joists to be sheathed with one-inch by six-inch matched and dressed floor- ing, dressed side down. Provide five wooden stoppers for three- inch hose thimbles. Provide boxes ot Iwo-iTvcV ^Mw.i ■iVa'i. eight inches l>y eight inches in clear t\iiotts^ wa.\\^ d \cxTO«v';\tv'i. rotm, at shoyrn. to let out the carbonic aciA %a^. Tv^\ ^^^^^^ 364 BREWERY BUlLDtNCS. for same. Furnish and put in treads and platform for fUus from fermenting to settling tub room, as described for brcp house. Build two scuttles two feet by two feel six inches, tweW'^ roof over vcniilatinE floor of settling tubs, and one. in lower roof over rice storage room with light, but strong, covers, hung on strong wrought iron hinges, and have all necessary fasteniiqt complete. BOILEK HOUSE. Build ventilator over boiler house as shown on drawings, in the strongest manner. Bottom plale to be of double two-inch by four-inch, screwed to beams with 9fi-inch bolts. Studs to be two inches by four inches, with double two-inch by four-inch ptate be- low. The two-inch by four-inch vcmilalor ratter braces to be two inches by four inches, ceiling joists 10 be two inches by six inches. Rafters to be covered in the same manner as roof joists over brew house. Vcnlil.itnr to be slicalhed out and inside with one-inch by six-inch matched and dressed flooring and have windows as shown. Ventilator will be shealhcd witli iron outside and inside. Root joists to be supported by two trusses. For si7cs of tim- bers, etc., sec drawings. All timber must be perfectly sound, thoroughly seasoned Georgia pine, free from Iitosc and large knots, cracks or other defects that will injure their slrcrgih. The nec- essary iron rods, washers, etc.. will be furnished by another contractor. Spikes and nails to be furnished liy carpenter. The trusses must be put together in the most careful and substantial manner and properly put in place. Bi'll a lliree-inch by eight- inch dressed limber lo members of trn-^cs, ns shown, to support roof joists. Bulls to be furnished by carpenter. Roof joists to Iw two inches hy eight inches placed righleen inches on centers. Ceiling joists to be two inches by six inches, eighteen inches on centers. Fonn a truss between rngf and ceiling joists of one-inch by four-inch stuff, as shown, every third joist. Studs for vcntila- o be two inches by four inches, iviih double two- inch by four- rafters. Braces to be tw iwo inches by six inches. Rafters ol vemiintor. i s^me manner as root joij below ihe two-inch by four-inch ventilator two inches by four inches. Ceiling joists ■ BREWERV BUILDINGS. 365 of YMitilator, as well as exposed parts of trusses and the ceiling jo^ts, to be sheathed with one-inch by six-inch matched and *'l!pessed flooring. Ventilator to have windows, as shown. Stairs to wash house to be made in same manner as brew house stairs. Girders supporting roof joists to be twelve inches by fourteen inches, planed, and to he connected with straps, as shown, where they butt against each other above column. Roof joists to be three inches by twelve inches, planed, placed eighteen inches on centers. Sheathing to be one-inch by six-inch matched and dressed floor- ing. Shipfing plalform to be built along brew house, as shown on drawing, in the strongest manner. Brackets to be constructed of eight-inch by eighl-inch and four-inch by eight-inch pieces, rest- ing on projecting stones and lirnily anchored to walls. Joists to be three inches by eight inches, floored with Georgia pine planks three inches thick and spaced ^-incli apart. Build stairs on both sides of platform, as shown, Slocb hotise parlition between racking room and chip-cask cellar, to be made of two-inch by four-inch studs, placed eighlcen inches on centers, flatways and sheathed on both sides with T^-iiich No. 1 common matched and dressed flooring. Provide two doors in partition made of double %-inch m.itched and dressed stuff, put together with double tarred paper between flooring, hnng to 2ti-tRch frame, with proper butts and trimmcl with suitable Strong latch and pull. PAINTING. The contractor for painting and gla;ing nnisl provide and use all the necessary materials of every description, including glass, lead, oil, putty, varnish, sandpaper, ladders, scaffolding. ropes and all other things necessary for the perfonnancc of the work and do the same in a substantia! and workmanlike man- ner. All materials used must be of the best qnaliiy for their respective places. Clean off all woodwork before painting. Sand- paper smooth, prepare all parts properly before painting ihe AH knots, sap spots and other detects m wooi-wOTV i\\v\«i. ^«. cowered wi'ih a sfrong coat of sheUac \>«Votc ?.t\.UT.^ ftv-^ ^■**- 366 BKKWKRy BUI coat. All planed inside and outside woodwork, includios f wini 1. which must be primed on all sides, all doors, sashes must*'ie- cetve two good coals of hard oil finish. Tin roof, gutters. do«n*«' spouts and flashing must be given two coats, the first ooat to be of mineral paint and to be put on after it has rained on the roof. Colors to be as directed by the owners. Painter must read over galvanized iron and carpenter Specifi- cations to see what work to include, and these spedfkations an to be considered a part of the specifications for painting. GLASS AND GLAZING. Furnish and put in place all required glass. Glass to be No. AA, double thick American glass, well bedded in putt;, sprigged and puttied up. All glass must be left clean and wliolc on com- pletion of the job. ROOFING. Cover the root boards with four-ply and one dry thickness of roofing felt in the following manner: Felt to be evenly and smoothly laid and cemented between cath sheet llic full width of lap iviih bcsl roofing asphalt, nioppi-d solid and covered with clean screened gravel, well embedded, not less llian ?i-inch thick. Roof must be guaranteed tor five yoars and al! defects arising froni poor workmanship or materials corrected wiihout charge or delfiy. On some of the buildings roofs will. lia\c to be cut in many places to allow ventilalion pipe:'. e:c., 10 be put in place, and contractor must iii.ike all necessary repairs for this porjfOie without charging anything e.\tra for it. HOLLOW TILE. All tht tile used must be good, hard-burned, hollow liles of luiiform color. They must be laid in good, sound bond, and the hollow spaces of tiles mn-t be virticai. Each lile must be clamped to its neighbor by galvani?fd iron clamps, and llic row next to wall to be fastened to wall by sjiikcs iti every second course. The ouicr row of tiles must be d.imped 10 ihe nearer tow. and clamps must be so formed as to also act as separators. .■Ml the tile w-ills must be laid in strong. dA.,n.?:ic cement inor- lar and be neatly pointed up in rooms whkU "nM tywi. V« ^'■''Stercd- fn fermenting and settling tub room tftes vcVW W \A»^\'^^'''^ *''A BREWERY BUILDINGS. 367 mtut have rough lurface, all others to have smooth surface, bat contractor to confer about tliis wiih owners. , ' Chip-cask cellar, racking room, stock cellar, fermenting celUr: Double three-inch tile, two-inch air space. Settling tub room xnd hop storage: Triple three-inch tile, double two-inch air ■pace. Mill partition : Single six-inch tile. The roof over boiler bouse will be covered with three-inch book tile between T-irons in same mortar as specified before. T-irons will be furnished and laid by another contractor. Titei which are not plastered on the exposed sidf should be glued. Air spaces should be filled with pitch. Separate bid to be given on filling the air space with insulat- ing material selected. TINNING. GALVANIZED AND CORRUGATED IRON WORK. All the tin used to be Carnmet brand, ten ounces to the square foot, well painted on underside before laying. All flashing to be done against walls, vcniilators, pipes, etc., in the most care- ful manner, so that roofs be absolutely waltrtight. Where down- spouts empty on lower roofs thirty-inch by thirty-inch striker plates must be placed on root and the pieces must have elbows on lower end. All down-spouts must lie made of No. 24 corru- gated galvanized iron. Where down-spouts connect to sewer extra heavy cast-iron pipes are to be used for the last ten feet. They must be well secured to. but not against, the walls, and be properly calked into sewer. Tin off roots of venliblors over ice machine house, brew house and boiler house. The mullion posts and sills lo be covered with galvanized iron No. 2Z. Molrlings.to be of galvani^ccd iron No. 24. All surfaces to be covered with corrugated galvanized iron No. 22. Cover the inside of iHiiler house ventilator with corrugated galvanized iron No. 22. Provide neat galvani:!ed iron cornice above windows and neat molilings around ventilator opening. Cover the pendant roof over shipping plalforin with ror- Tugatcd galvanized iron No. 16. The tower roof and dormer win- dows must be covered with best black slate. Two ventilation pipes of No. 16 galvanized iron for ^V.'Jk.V, houe, sixteen inches' diameter each, wittv Vwo cas^.-wow fet*^?. ^^.^ att-iron frames, doors eight inches bj c\ft\\\. "vfttVtt "w "^^"^^ 368 BREWERY BUILDINGS. cellar, as shown. Two-inch by three-inch angle Iran collxr oa pipe in each floor and on roof. Two rcntilaiion pipes for Ikif room and ventilation floor to be twenty-four inches' dianletefV*' made of No. 16 galvanized iron. All these pipes to hare damper on ends and ventilator heads. Furnish and use the necessary gar ropes for same. Three ventilation pipes for top floor of stock house, as per diagram. Three scuttles, each two feet by two feet six inches, iwo in stocic house, one in tower. Two six-inch down-spouts for brew house, two six-inch diun- eter down-^pouli for wash house, two six-inch diameter down- spouts (or machine house, one six-inch diameter down-spont for boiler house, two six-inch diameter down-spouts for stock bouse and one five-inch diameter down-spout for stock house. Every down-spoul to have ten-inch by len-inch wall box through thir- lecn-inch wall with conductor head, overflow, etc., complete. Shcalh outside of malt bin with corrugated galvanized iron No. 22, galvanized iron to extend to walls. Galvanized iron must be lightly fastened to brick walls. Trapdoors above bins must be tinned. PLU.\IBIXG. All soil pipes must be four inches' diameter, extra heavy cast- iron tarred pipe, well coated on l>oth sides nnd of i!ie best quality, with all proper finings. .Ml pipes must be put up in the best and strongest maimer with iron hooks .ind stays, set up plumb and true, and the joints calked with oakum and melted lead. .•\!1 necessary elbows. Y-branclies. etc., mii-^t be furnished and .Ml cesspools must be constructed so as to secure water-tight conneciions with floors. • All connections lo sewer must be made with met.il. well caulked with oaknni and asphaltum or pitch. The soil pipes must have proper connections to cesspools and reach proper dislancc aht'vc roof. Above rnof, starling at bottom o£ roof joists, llic four- inch pipe must be increased to six-inch pipes. .Ml soil pipes in brew b"usc must have Y-branclies ciRliieen indies imder each t'.fior llicy pass for the reception of overllow? and wastes from brewery ulensils. Required are the foUowinj; soil pipes; Br.-n- //iVisi: — Two stacks of (o«r-\ncV\ v*?"^^- cuVewAvn^ (kjto seiit-r up through root. BHBWERY BUILDINGS. Slodt HMue.—Thne stacks of four-inch soil pipei, extendins Erain Mwer up through roof. •Wash Hotue.—Oat stack of four-inch soil pipes, extending from sewer np through roof. Ifachm* Hotut. — One stack of four-inch soil pipes, extending from sewer up through roof. ncbes by n ine inches, with inches by i line inches, with ispools, nin e inches by nine Required are the following cesspools : Brew HoMse. — Platform elevator pit, one (i) cesspool, nine inches bj nine inches, with bell trap. First floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with bell traps. Second floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with bell traps. Mash tub platform, one cesspool, nine inches by nine inches, with bell traps. Third floor, one cesspool, nine bell traps. Fourth floor, two cesspools, nint bell traps. Stock House. — First floor, two c inches, with bell traps. Racking room, one cesspool, thirl with bell traps. Second floor, two cesspools, bell traps. Third floor, two cesspools, r bell traps. Fourth floor, three cesspools, bell traps. Woih House. — First floor, two cesspools, thirteen inches by thirteen inches, with bell traps. Second floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with bell traps. Mackme House. — First floor, four cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with bell traps. Second floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with bell traps. BMer House.— Two nine-inch by wnc-iwAv tcs^yi**^- -»C\*^ belt traps. n inches by thirteen inches, ic inches by nine inches, with : inches by nine inches, with nc inches fay nine inches, with 37^ BREWERY BUILDINGS. CEMENT FLOORS. All the floors must be given the proper pitch by contractor, alU | grading or filling which may be necessary to bring the groawT to proper grade must be done and the ground must be solidly rammed down to make a solid foundation for the floor. Under the concrete a layer of cinders solidly rammed down most be placed by the contractor in specified thickness. All traps and cesspools must be set in proper height and place and the floors must be laid even, smooth and without any budcles or hollows and properly pitched toward gutters or cesspools. Around all walls, piers, columns, openings, etc., floor must be turned up at least one inch. Gutters must be properly formed where shown on drawings. The gangways must be high in cen- ter and slope to gutter and the edge of gutter toward gang- way must be % inch lower than the edge toward casks. Con- crete must be prepared in the following manner: One part of imported Portland cement and three parts of sharp and clean sand must be mixed, first dry. then water to be added, just enough to make it resemble damp earth, then add about six parts of broken stone not larger than to pass through a one-inch diame- ter ring. All must be thoroughly mixed. No ocean sand must be used, sand to be entirely free of salt. Concrete must be well rammed and fill out all spaces between the stones, and a film of thin mortar must cover the stones after ramming. The fin- ishing coat must be made of one part of imported Portland ce- ment and one-half part of clean sharp sand. Where no stone sills are provided, floors must be laid between openings. The ground floor to receive throe inches of cinders, five inches or three inches of concrete and a finishing coat one inch thick. The floors of ventilating lofts above settling tub room and hop storage to be laid with concrete made of sifted cinders and ce- ment in proportion of six parts sifted cinders to one part of im- ported ^Portland cement and to be eight inches thick over eye beams. First floor of stock house to have three inches cinders, five inches concrete and one inch finish. First floor of brew house, ice machine house and boiler house to have three inches cinders, three inches concrete and one inch finish. Ceiling of hop storage room and ceiling of settling tub room to have eight inches cinder concrete. Office floor ^ three inches cinder and \owt mcVv^s cvwdjer I BREWERY BUILDINGS. 37I concrete between four-inch by four-inch sleepers placed two feet on /Centers. PLASTERING. All tile walls and brick ceilings which are to be plastered will receive one coat; plastering must follow the curves of the brick arches. Surface must be rubbed to even surface. All corners and angles must be plumb, square and true. The mortar used for plastering must be made from one part of imported German Portland cement and four parts of good strong lime mortar. Contractor must find all necessary scaffold- ing, ladders, etc. Only sweet water sand to be used. All rub- bish belonging to plasterer must be removed on completion of job. Partitions of office and brcwmastcr's office to be lathed and plastered two coats, one of hair mortar and one finished as above described, and walls and ceilings of these two rooms to be plas- tered on brickwork. ASPHALT FLOORS. Gjncrete must be well rammed down and mortar must fill all spaces between stones. A film of thin mortar must cover the stones after ramming. Where no stone sills are provided floor must be laid between door-jambs, without extra charge. All cesspools to be set in proper place and made tight. Floors must be even and smooth and have proper pitch to cesspools. Gutters to be properly formed and cesspools to be set in right place. Floors must be turned up around walls, columns and openings at least one inch. Where the difference in connecting room is not above four inches contractor must provide easy inclines for the doors. Examine building plans and execute in accordance therewith. Floors, three inches concrete, one inch asphalt. Extra concrete under Baudelot cooler, beer tank and water tank. In mash tub platform, double tar paper, two inches concrete, % inch asphalt. Wash house floor, three inches cinders, four inches concrete, two inches asphalt. Hop storage, four inches cinder concrete. three inches concrete, one inch asphalt. Floor above, % inch asphalt. Natural Rock Asphalt. — Asphalt is a natural product, a bitu- minous limestone in which carbonate of lime and pure mineral bitumen are intimately combined \iy natural ^^cuo.^, \>cvt \k\Qk^<^\- tion averaging from six per cent bitumen and OA V^"^ ^^^"^ ^'*^ 37^ BREWERY BUILDINGS. bonate of lime to twenty per cent bitumen to eighty per ceol ctr- bonate of lime. Bituminous rock asphalt is found in Kentadjv Utah, California, Limmer, near Hanover, Germany, Lobsannii^. Alsace, Neufchatel, Switzerland and France. Mineral bitumens are found on the British Island of Trinidad, West Indies; Ber- mudez in Venezuela; Barraquilla in Colombia, Central America. Bitumen, or so-called maltha, is also found very extensively in California. Bitumen to be good should be free from dross, non-evaporating, and contain no oil that will evaporate at 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and at 70 degrees Fahrenheit have the consistency of beeswax. Refined Trinidad pitch will always contain from 20 to 30 per cent of fine clay, nevertheless it is preferable as a fluxing ma- terial for melting natural rock asphalt mastic than some other short-6bercd bitumen chemically purer. Bitumen and mineral pilch arc interchangeable, but asphalt stands alone. The largest deposits so far known on the American continent, covering an area of some twelve miles square are situated in the Indian Territory, Arbuckle Mountains, the center of the conces- sion being Brunswick Station, three miles east of Dougherty, Indian Territory, on the Santa Fc Railroad. FLOORS OF BREWERIES^ STABLES, DRIVEWAYS, ETC. Under usual circumstances, one inch of rock asphalt, laid over a three-inch concrete foundation, will stand ordinary traffic for many years. For wash houses and racking cellars, a thickness of 1% inches, laid over a four-inch cement concrete foundation, is advisable. For residence cellars and floors, for light business purposes, %-inch asphalt, laid over three inches of concrete, will make an everlasting floor, and will cost only a trifle more than a floor made of cement. A square foot of asphalt one inch thick weighs about ten pounds; % inch thick, about 8Vj pounds. Advantages. — The chief good qualities of a first-rate asphalt mastic are its utter impcrviousness to water or dampness, and its elasticity, which prevents cracking, especially from the influence of frost. From a sanitary point of view also the advantages of an asphalt pavement are incontestable, for it possesses great anti- septic properties, and owing to its having no joints it is im- ptissible for pnrtides of animal or vcgclaVAe \w;v\.\cx Vo Vod^e in BREWERY BUILDINGS. 373 crevices and putrefy. It greatly promotes cleanliness, as it can be easily washed, and for this reason it is invaluable in brew- eries, hospitals, morgues, slaughter houses, stables, waterclos- ets, etc. INSULATING INSIDE WALLS OF COLD STORAGE, STOCK HOUSES, ETC. The contractor of insulation work will include in his bid the coating, as indicated on plans. For all inside walls the material for this work shall be cither Trinidad or bitumen asphalt. This material is to be heated in regular asphalt kettles and applied to the walls while hot. The walls to be cleaned with a steel broom and all loose mortar, etc., to be removed before the coating is put on. ^ Contractor will not be allowed to carry on this work if walls are wet or damp, which will prevent the asphalt from binding to the walls. Contractor may use in connection with the above ma- terial a pure grade of bitumen for fluxing. The mixture should be prepared by competent laborers who have had experience in this line. The contractor shall see that a uniform mixture is kept for the full completion of said work. The coating to be of such consistency that when the temperature of the cellar is about at freezing point or under, the asphalt shall have sufl&cient elasticity, and that in case a higher temperature is kept up in the different rooms it remains of the same hardness. Nothing but experienced labor will be permitted on this job. and the con- tractor will be required to furnish evidence of the laborers so employed in this work, of their qualification, and to discharge any such person or laborer from said building if so requested by the owner or superintendent in charge. MISCELLANEOUS SPECIFICATIONS. As the specifications for following would be different for the various appliances, etc., to be installed, and as each manufacturer requires different conditions for operating or installing his de- vices, it is practically impossible to compile a general form of specification. The following items are, therefore, only such as apply generally, and are in nowise complete. Foi ^wOcv ^^nvl^^^ etc^ complete specifications are usually submilttd V*'^ \>cv^ ^\^^\«^n. iudden and vary much from each other. 374 BREWERY BUILDINGS. REFRIGERATING MACHINE. All work called for in these specifications, or that may Ht necessary to make a complete plant, according to latest practice to refrigerating engineers, whether specified or not, must be fur- nished by the contractor, and all work and materials most be of the best for the purpose. Contractor must examine building plans and execute all work in accordance therewith. Plans and specifications are intended to co-operate. MACHINES. Furnish and erect on the foundations built by the owners, ac- cording to plans and template furnished by the contractor, the re- frigerating machines required. The machines are to have con- tract capacity when running at ordinary speed, which in no case must exceed (contractor mention speed) revolutions per minute. Foundation bolts to be furnished by the contractor for this work. State size and style of engine intended to drive the machine, also horse power required for operation of each. CONDENSERS WITH PAN. Ammonia condensers must be of the atmospheric style. Con- densers must be figured on the basis of one section per twelve tons, each section to consist of twenty-four two-inch pipes, each twenty feet long. Elach section to be provided with stop valve on the inlet and outlet. Pan for condensers to be made of V4-inch steel and twelve inches high and of suitable size. Provide slotted pipe gutters. Pan to have large strainer. Condenser room is located over ice machines. AMMONIA PIPING. The following rooms must be cooled by the direct expansion system, and contractor is to furnish and erect all the necessary first-class piping to keep the rooms at a temperature of 32 to 38 degrees Fahrenheit all through the year. Rooms to be cooled arc as follows: Chip cask cellar, racking room, stock cellar, fer- menting room, settling tub room, hop storage room, ice storage room. Pipes in fermenting room must all be hung in the aisles and a)ong the walls and none over tubs. Pipes in racking room and Jmp storage must all be hung along lV\e v^aW?*. xV wooden gutter, 'ned with galvanized iron, must be pTOvxAeA ww^^^t \\\t \C\^«&Vbl p storage. BREWERY BUILDINGS. 375 BAUDELOT COOLER. ■ The Upper part of the cooler will be made by another contractor. The lower, or ammonia, part of cooler must be made by the re- frigerating contractor, with necessary fittings for direct expan- sion. This lower portion must correspond in pattern to the pat- tern used by the coppersmith. Wort must be cooled from about 75 degrees to 38 degrees Fahrenheit in two hours. ATTF.MPERATORS. Attemperators of the swivel pattern, made of one turn of two- inch pipe, must be furnished and connected to fermenting tubs, and the swivel joints placed outside the tubs, so that any leakage will not run into the wort. The brine, or sweet water, for all the attemperators to be taken from the attemperating tank furnished by owners. All connections to be made complete, including attemperating pump, rubber hose, valves, piping in tank, etc. AMMONIA. Contractor must furnish the ammonia for the first charge of system. Contractor must also furnish all the carpenter work that may be necessary in the erection of this plant, and clean out all rubbish made by him. He must also furnish two sets of foundation drawings and one set of pipe connection drawings. All ammonia and attcmperator connections must be made by the contractor, but owners will make all steam and water connec- tions. The temperature of the condensing water must be figured at not less than 75 degrees F. Contractor must state in his pro- posal the amount of water and coal used daily. Condenser pres- sure must not exceed 180 pounds, with the expansion pressure at 30 pounds per square inch. Around all moving parts of ma- chines brass rails must be erected. Contractor must guarantee his entire work and material for one year and make good any de- fects found in that time. After the machines have been tested and performed according to contract they must be neatly painted as may be directed by owners. Contractor must furnish a com- petent engineer for thirty days at his own expense to run the machines and instruct the man the owner may em^lov ;i.s» wTev\c\\e?» ^v\^ ^v^^ q>\>r^ toab that may be of special use. 376 BREWERY BUILDINGS. MACHINERY AND MILLWRIGHT WORK. All of the machinery furnished to be of the best quality and pot up substantially and in workmanlike manner. AH of the work done to be of the best workmanship. All the machinery put up to be set in running order without any extra charge, complete in every respect and to be of the best improvements. All imperfect work or materials to be removed. All required timbers for posts, bridge tees, supports for hangers and other machinery to be furnished, as well as all required bolts for proper securing. All lumber to be of planed, clear white pine, dry and free from large knots, holes and windshakes. All pulleys for double belts to be flanged inside. All hangers and bearings to be self-oiling. All shafts to be of turned steel. Pulleys to be turned true, ImI- anced and painted. All hangers to be of extra heavy double braced pattern, fastened with strong bolts and cast-iron washers. All bearings to be babbitted with genuine babbitt metal. All machinery must be guaranteed for one year. State time you will need for setting up above machinery from day you receive the order to commence. STEAM ENGINE. Furnish and erect on the foundations built by the owners, according to plans and template furnished by the contractor, the (here specify the size and kind of) engine. Strong driving pulley on side. Foundation bolts must be furnished by contractor. State the size and make of the engine you intend to furnish. Furnish and set in place also one upright steam engine for wash house, and bring this engine in right speed connection with main shaft. MASH R.\CK. Furnish and set in place one right-hand improved hydraulic mash machine, with grains remover and step for bottom and top bearing. The step at bottom to be furnished to the tankmaker, who will put the same in. Deliver and set up one hydraulic pump in connection with rack. The upright shaft to be of steel. RICE RACK FOR RICE TUB. Furnish and set up in place one right-hand rice rack, with step for bottom and top bearing. The step at bottom to be furnished to the tankmaker, who will put same in. MALT MILL WITH WLE.U -Furnish and set in place one iron t\otv-ex^\os\\^ tv«\\. xoS\. Furnish on top of mill one reel, comp\ele, as s\vo>Ntv oiv ^twi- BREWERY BUILDINGS. 377 iilgs, including driving shaft, bevel wheels and tight and loose polleys, dust chamber, etc., as usual. Provide magnets above mill to keep iron nails, etc., out. MALT ELEVATOR. The elevator legs and head (if of wood) to be made of i^-inch finished clear white pine, screwed together, and put in on every joint one iron plate two inches high; make the legs perfectly malt tight. GRAIN CONVEYOR. Conveyors must each have one extending shaft with tight and loose pulleys. SHAFTING. Shafts, hangers, pulleys, collars, wall boxes, pillow blocks, miter wheels, bevel wheels, friction clutches, etc., to be specified in de- tail I SPOUTS. Provide swivel spout from malt elevator to malt bins and also to the feed hopper above reel and from malt mill to meal scale hopper, and from this hopper to mash tub, made of No. i8 galvanized iron, the latter to be provided with meal-tight slide and operating lever. The spouts from and to meal scale hopper are not to be fastened on to hopper, but made meal-tight by rub- ber. Provide spout from outside of building with feed hopper on top to malt elevator and make this removable. Provide the spout from grain valve to grain conveyor from galvanized iron. Provide cast-iron outlets for the two malt bins and connect to malt elevator. Have tight slides in these outlets and arrange transmission for opening these slides from the mill room up- stairs. SCALES For meal hopper will be furnished by another contractor, but unloaded from car, erected and connected complete by millwright. FINALLY. All cutting through floors and all walls to be done by the con- tractor of machinery, and sll millwright work. Furnish and put up all necessary posts, timbers, planks, etc., for hangers and supports for conveyors and provide the required belts and stirrugs for same^ all materials to be of the btsl ^\\3lb\\Vv ^^^ ^^'bVOs.-jcy^ workmanship, and the whole machinery lo W ^vA. >^V '^"ci %oo^ \v>J^- 378 BREWBRY BUILDINGS. ning order before same will be accepted Provide cast-iron belt thimbles wherever belts pass through floors. The contractor shall be strictly held to do such work and to use such materials as above specified, and in cases where the drawings are figured the figures are to be taken in preference over what the scaling may show. He shall be further held to remove all improper work or materials upon being directed to do so by the superin- tendent or owner. The superintendent shall be at liberty to make any reasonable amount of alterations in the construction or execution, and will appraise and settle the cost of such in- creased and diminished work, which will be allowed . by the owners or the architects. It is strictly understood that the job must be delivered in running order and everything furnished and used by contractor for this purpose without any extra charge whatever. Owners will furnish the keg scrubber, shaving wash machine and filter mass wash machine, but con- tractor to submit separate bids on these machines, put up com- plete with belts, etc., in running order. COPPERSMITH AND TANK WORK. AH the materials used in the construction and completion of this job must be of first-class quality and all work done in good, sub- stantial and workmanlike manner, and everything to be done and furnished to make a perfect and finished job to the true in- tent and meaning of drawings and specifications. All the work to be erected complete and in running order in the brew house. All necessary openings to be made in all tanks which may be required for steam, water or other connections, even if rot specially mentioned hereafter and flanges of proper size to be furnished and put on. All copper must be of the best Lake Su- perior quality, well hammered and finished. All brass must be of the best metal and well finished and polished. All steel must be flange steel. All handling, moving and raising of tanks which may be necessary in the execution of other branches of the work to be done by the tankmaker. Contractor must also examine building plans. Give separate prices for each item and state the time it requires for setting up the work complete from date the order for erection is given. Also state the time it takes to get the materials ready for setting up from date of the closing of Mtf contract BREWERY BUILDINGS. 379 FOUNDATION WORK FOR MACHINES. Do all necessary excavating which is required according to plans and refill when foundations are in. Superfluous ground to be distributed on premises. Concrete to be made of one part of Portland cement, three parts of sharp and clean sand, and six parts of broken stone well mixed and rammed. Bricks used . in foundations must be extra hard burned brick, laid in Portland cement mortar, composed of one part of Portland cement and three parts of sharp and clean sand. Ice machine bolts and template will be set by another contractor; shafts of bolts must be walled in loose, leaving four-inch by four-inch holes around same, and after machines are set on foundation, all bolt holes must be poured full with clear Portland cement mortar in liquid state. t Foundations for pumps, heater, etc., to be made of brickwork in the same way. All necessary capstones for foundations to be furnished and set. Plans for this work will be furnished by the different contractors. PIPING. STEAM PIPES. Make proper sized connections from steam drum across boilers to engine and ice machine. Run pipe up through brew house, branch off to hot water tank, kettle, mash tub and rice tub, make all connections to pumps and place a valve at each branch. Pro- vide ring around outside of mash tub and make inlets into tub with check valves. On brew kettle two-inch regulating valve, one-inch safety valve, %-inch vacuum valve, and a steam gauge. Condensation from brew kettle to go through a steam trap to the receiving tank in boiler house. Make steam connection to copper coil in hot water tank, condensation also to go to receiving tank, but without trap. All the pumps to be set up and connected with the proper size of pipes as required for respective size of pumps and valves to be placed at all pumps. Make also steam pipe con- nection to suction and discharge of beer pumps for cleaning out purposes. Run steam pipe to wash house. Branch off to keg washer, shaving washer, filtermass washer, combination cock as will be directed. EXHAUST PIPING. Provide 077e main exhaust pipe. ConneeV \\\t ^y.\v^w%V q>\'^^V5» '^^ engines, and collect exhaust from aU puw^^ \wVo \^. "^X^^^ N-^^'t 380 ItKEWKfty BUILIMKGS. at all connections. The mam cxhaurt pipe to be connected to - heater, also to the steam condenser in ice plant, and to toil in hot water tank: From heater m» galvanized iron pipe to out- side of building and place exfaanst head on top. Make drip and Uow-off connections to iron blow-off basin. Connect blow-off from boilers to this basin and nm four-iach cast-iron ^pe to next catch basin. Make the proper drips for engines and pun^s. WATiK rats. Connect the discharge from boiler feed pump to heater and re- boiler complete. Form a discharge header of fonr-inch openings, one for each boiler, one for hot water tank, one for reboiler, each with separate valve. From these openings mn pipes separately to points named. Place safety valve near heater, connect com- plete, put on water gauge, overflow and vapor pipe. Connect suc- tion of boiler pump to water main, and to receiving tank. Con- nect the water pump and provide full-sized standpipc to top floor of brew house, also make connections lo all water tanks. Leave opening at each floor, with cock for hose connections. Make connections lo water tank, underlet (pfaff),.rice tub and water part of Baudclot cooler. Discharge water from Baudclol cooler into hot water lank and make provision also to run it into sewer. Put standpipe in stock house connected to water tank and pro- vide cocks for hose in each floor. Connect water pipe also to beer pumps in order lo force up Ihe last beer in pipes. Beer pipes lo be put logether with flanges, sO ihal they can be taken apart and cleaned. Connect one beer pump to grant and discharge into mash tub and also into rice tub, so that the water sprinkled over grain can be used for ihe next brew, aiid tiiakc suction to Baudclot cooler pan and discharge to settling tubs. Conned suction of large beer pump to hop-jack and discharge into beer tank. HOT WATER CONNECTIONS. Run pipe from hot water lank to mash tub pfaff. also to rice tub and ovcrsprinkler in mash tub and hop-jack. Make proper sized discharge from rice lank to mash tub with gate valve. Con- nect waste and overflow from all brewery tanks to soil pipes. Put up Ihermomeler on hoi water tank and ma>h tub. Provide scaies with fivimmcrs on water tanks. Furnish and erect one artesian or sliatlow well pump, as wiU be 4\Ttc\.e4, it\4 nu^ce. "roper connections to ammonia condensers. BREWERY BUILDINGS. Connect the suction pipe of air pump to outside of building and the dischai^ to chip cask cellar, and provide regulating vatve. Uake all necessary steam and water connections. to the artificial ice plant PIPE COVERINC Cover sides and bottom of the steam brewing kettle, sides of mash tub, rice tub and hot water tank, with the selected insulating material in the best approved manner. AH live steam pipes, elbows, etc., to be covered with sectional covering. Give prices for covering of tanks per square foot, and for pipe covering per lineal foot for the different sizes of pipes. LIGHTNING RODS. Contractor must give estimate on rods, 16 in thick, of solid twisted copper wires, and also on copper covered rods with iron or steel centers, not less than % inch diameter. Sections of rods must be screwed together with good copper connections, so as to make it continuous, and wherever branches are made a copper T burr must be used. All points must be of the bayonet pattern, gold-plated and platinum tips. All fasteners to be of malleaUe galvanized iron. All insulators to be of glass and large enough for the rod to pass through. Where rods enter the ground they must be encased in il4-inch gas pipes, not less than six feet long. Ground rods must be placed in trenches and extend not less than ten feet from building, and then penetrate the ground not less than ten feet perpendicularly. There must not be more than five points to one ground rod. No holes must be cut in roofs, bat ro<1s fastened to walls as much as possible. Where it becomes necessary to cross the roofs, two-inch by four-inch crosses to be used and fasteners and insulators placed on same. To tin and slate roofs fasteners must be screwed carefully, flashed around and solder run all around fasteners to make it perfectly water- tight. APPLIANCES AND APPARATUS. Specifications for following are obtained from their manufac- turers: Elevators and conveyors, pumps for boiler feed, racking off, mash tub vorlauf, cellar pumps, wort pumps, etc., hopper scales, belts, kettle, mash tub and support, copper false bottom and grant, hop-jack, rice tub, hot and cold water tanks, beer taat tix surface cooler, Baudelot cooler copper p»n., tiio^ii%^, -vi^v Aoiise and pitching machines, boilers and V>e»\.«ft, e:^««\«'i. \^■6^■' CHEMISTRY. Cfiemistry is that science which treats of such changes in bodies a; pcnnanently affect their properties; that is, produce new bodies. Chtmislry is generally divided into ;' "Synlhetica!" chemistry, which teaclies how the compound bodies are built up from simple bodies, and "Analy:ical" chemistry, which teaches how to decompose bodies into simpler substances. From ancient times the question has been debated whether matter could be divided into in6nitcly small particles, or only to a limited degree. We have no means of deciding such a question. It is, however, assumed that matter cannot be divided beyond "Atoms." To a particle of the smallest size in which mailer can exist, the name of atom has been given. ''Molecules." Two or more atoms, held together by a force called "chemical affinity," constitute a molecule. "Masses." Two or more molecules, held together by a force called "cohesion." constitute a mass. A piece of chalk is a mass made up of billions of molecules, and each molecule of chalk is made up by the union of five atoms of three dilTcrcnt kinds. Matter, therefore, is made up of atoms, molecules and maises. Atoms do not exist alone. If an alom is separated from one molecule, it immediately joins other atoms and produces new molecules. "Compound Bodies" and "Elements." If all the atoms in a molecule arc of the same kind, the molecule is said to be a "simple" or "elementary molecule;" if the atoms arc of different kinds, ihc molecule is said to be "compound." Subst.inces whose molecules arc compound are called "comi>0'™*l jubilances." Of this kind arc most substances lound in t\a\«Te, is -KMei, ^VyL\* 384 CHEMISTRY. TABLE OF THE MOST IMPCHTTANT ELEMENTS^ WITH SYMB0L3 mM ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Name of Atomic Element — Symbol. Weight Oxygen O i6 Hydrogen H i Nitrogen N 14 Carbon C u Sulphur S 32 Chlorine Cl 35.5 Iodine I 127 Bromine Br 80 Fluorine F 19 Phosphorus . . . . P 31 Silicon Si 28 Boron B 11 "■ Mon-metallic Elements. Name of Element — Symbol. Potassium K Sodium Na Lithium Li Calcium Ca Barium Ba Strontium Sr Magnesium . . . .Mg Aluminum AI Beryllium Be Thorium Th Zirconium Zr Name of Element — Symbol. Iron Fe Manganese . . . Mn Chromium Cr Uranium U Cobalt Co Nickel Ni Zinc Zn Lead Pb Copper Cu Bismuth Bi Mercury Hg Silver -Ag Gold Au Platinum Pt Tin Sn Arsenic As Antimony Sb Atomic Weight 39.1 23 7 40 137.4 87.6 24.4 27.1 9.4 232.5 90.6 Atomic Weight. 56 55 52.2 239.4 59.0 58.8 65.4 207 63.6 210 200 108 194.8 119 75 I2p Light Metals. Heavy Metals. CHEMISTRY. 385 of ft'^iew substance, called "sulphide of iron/' which resembles neither the iron nor the sulphur. In this new substance neither sulphur nor iron can be detected by any mechanical means. A chemical combination differs from a mechanical mixture in this, that the two or more substances which constitute a chemical combination unite in certain invariable ratios. Thus we find that if sulphur and iron combine, 56 parts by weight of iron unite with 52 parts of sulphur' to produce 88 parts of sulphide of iron. If more iron is added, it is left out of the combination, and retains its original form. The fact that different elements unite in certain ratios only, has led to the acceptance of the theory of the existence of atoms. ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Atomic weights are the weights of the atoms of the different elements, compared to the lightest atom of them- all, that oi h^-' drogen , the weight of which is called iCAn atom of iron is 56 times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen, and an atom of sulphur 32 times the weight of the hydrogen atom, hence the atomic weight of iron is said to be 56 and of sulphur 32. If sulphur and iron unite, one atom of iron combining with one atom of sulphur, the weight of the iron is to the weight of the sulphur as 56 is to 32; that is, in a combination of this kind, between sulphur and iron, every 56 pounds of iron and 32 pounds of sulphur make up 88 pounds of the compound. SYMBOLS. Instead of the full names of the elements, symbols are generally used to represent them, being, in most cases, the first letters of the Latin equivalents of their names. NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS. Oxygen. Atomic weight, 16, Symbol O. Oxygen is the most important of all elements. It sustains ani- mal life and all ordinary combustion. In a free state, that is, not combined with any other clement, it is found in the air of which it constitutes one-fifth part. Pure oxygen is, like air, a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. Bodies which burn in air, burn with much greater energy and brilliancy in pure oxygen. Oxidation, — If a substance burns, or undergoes combustion, it unites chemically with oxygen. The butul Vk>^^ \^ ^;iA^ VCk\^^ "oxidized. " Tlic ordinary burning o£ coa\ tnaxV.^ ^ Ocvtvcvv^^ v^vcv- 25 386 CHEWSTBY. Unation between tbe coal (or carbon) and oxygen. TM-oev body which results is called carbonic add gas. The fact that tUa new body is a gas, makes it appear as if the coal had been de- stroyed in burning. Snch is, however, not the case. Every par- ticle of the coal is found, after the burning, in the carbonic acid gas produced by comboation. Every la poands of coal give ^4 pounds of carbonic add gas. "Slow Combustion." — Combustion is not always accompanied by great heat and light. Coal (or carbon) can bum at a low temperature as completely as at a high. Respiration in animals is combustion of (his type, daring which the carbon in the blood is burnt at a temperature of 98* F. It is this slow combustion that generates heat in the animal body. Oxygen being present almost everywhere, acts upon nearly all bodies, producing modifications. The decay of plants, the cor- rosion of metals, are changes of a similar nature to combustion. HYtmoGEM. — Atomic weight I, Symbol H. Hydrogen, like oxygen, is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas. It is the lightest of all elements, fourteen times lighter than air, the weight of its atom is therefore taken as a unit. Hydrogen is not found in a free state; wherever it occurs in nature it is always combined with some other element. Such a combination is water, which is composed of I part by weiglit, of hydrogen and 8 parts by weight, of oxygen. An elec- tric current conducted through water will decompose it. At the negative pole of the battery, that is. where the wire from the 7inc-plate is immersed in the water, hydrogen is generated, and at the positive pole, that is, where the wire from the coppcr-plate dips into the water, oxygen is disengaged. If the two gases are collected in graduated jars, it is found that the volume of hydro- gen is twice as large as that of oxygen. .\s equal volumes of gases under equal pri^ssure and at the same temperature contain equal numbers of molecules, it follows that water contains two atoms of hydrogen combined with everj- single aloni of oxygen. To express this ratio between the atoms in the different com- pound bodies, chemistry uses certain formula; in which each atom is expressed by the symbol of the clement. Thus the chemical formula of water is H:0, signifj-ing that twn atoms of hyilrngen ■Te combined with one atom ol oxygen. T\\e aVomvc -JitA^VvH «f hj-drogcn being 1, and of oxygen \t. rtve toTmxAi Ava \nS\cA>» CHEMISTRY. 387 thKnn a certain quantity of water, the weight of the hydrogen is to the weight of the oxygen as 2 is to 16, or as 1 ts to 8. Nine pounds of water, therefore, contain 8 pounds of oxygen and 1 pound of hydrogen. Hjrdrogen gas burns in air with a pale, blue Hame, that is, it unitei with the oxygen of the air, and the product of the combus- tion is water. It can thus be said that water is burnt hydrogen in the same sense as carbonic acid can be said to be burnt coal. The two gases, hydrogen and oxygen can be mixed at ordinary temperature and kept in a vessel for any length of time without combining. That means that al ordinary temperature the mole- cules of oxygen and the molecules of hydrogen move around each other without any cliange taking place in either. But if the mixture of the two gases conies in contact with a Hamc, i. i., a burning match or an electric spark, the molecules in the immediate neighborhood of the hot body open up, the atoms of the oxygen and hydrogen molecules are set free, and two hydrogen atoms immcdialcly juin one oxygen atom, forming a new mole- cule, which consists of the two elements of hydrogen and oxygen. In this process a great deal of energy or heat is generated, which causes the next molecule to undergo a similar change, and 10 the movement is Iransiuitted through the whole mass of gas. This movement is instantaneous. If a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is ignited, an explosion takes place. If there is twice the volume of hydrogen as of oxygen, there will be produced a weight of steam exactly equal to that of the two masses of gas together. Two cubic feet of hydrogen gas weigh — at ordinary air pressure and temperature — about 0.173 ounces; one cubic foot of oxygen, under like circumstances, weighs 1.3S ounces, [f these two volumes o( the gases arc mixed and i);nited, and the resulting steam condensed, it will be found that the water weighs 1.38 oz. -I- 0.173 oz., or I.S53 oz. A high temperature facilitates chemical combustion in many cases. Coal may. at ordinary temperature, lie exposed to the air for a long period, without undergoing any pcrccjitiblc ch^itific. But if healed to red heat it combines rapidly with oxygen, giving off carbonic acid gas. The solid carbon, by combining with OM^en %^«„ Ws.Ov.Wiw.iTO.nt a gas, whereas (he gra.scotis hydrogen, by cnmVmXwi •«\'Cft crt.-sW:' gas, turns into a flii/rf. 388 CHEUISTRY. NmracEN. — AtcHiiic weight i^, Symbol N, ■- Nitrogen is also a colorless and odorless gas. Mixed with , oxygen it makes up ihe atmosphiire, which rcnsisls ot about % nilrogen and K oxygen, together with a small quantity of carbonic acid gas. Unlike oxygen, nitrogen does not readily enter into combinations with many other elements. In an atmosphere of nilrogen aloiie, there could be no combustion, as neither coal nor hydrogen, nor any of the metals, even it heated lo a high tempera- ture (as by 3 powerful electric current) will unite with nitrogen. For the same reason nitrogen cannot support animal life. In the process of respiration the nitrogen of tlie air taken into the lungs is cxh.iled wnchanged, only the oxygen being absorbed by Ihe body. If a large number of people are crowded in a room which is without ventilation, a feeling of suffocation is soon ex- perienced, which is caused by the decrease of oxygen. It the amount oi oxygen in air is reduced lo a ren.'iin limit, a candle will not burn in such an .ilniusphcrc. r.s the nitrogen cannot sustain combustion. Neverlliclcss, nilrogen enters largely into the composition of vegetable and, slill more, of animal >^u(ist.ince«. Plants and ani- mals are mainly composed of oxjgen, liydrngcii. nitrogen and carbon. Plants receive their oxygen ami hj'lrogcn from water. the c.irlK>n from the carlxinic acid of the air, and the nitrogen from a suhilnncc called "ammonia," which is a combination of hydrogen and nilrogen, and is ahvay? [irc-icnt in the ?i'il. When plants die and decay, these ,-ainc substances, water, am- gcii aiul !■ acid, are all rcKascd fr. 1. the more compK- in the plant!, and rcii le their elemcntat; nia of the dying plant is to some extent ab- nd Rives ivmri^htnent to a new crop. After ve .lii.rived the soil oi lartr-.' share of the cd. the dctioicncy mun I' made up by intro- ncc lh.it is rich in ai;:m ■nia. such as stable is also produced when cal i-i distilled for gas. Coal contain? snia! qu.iniitie.s ot hydro- and in ihi- h>nt t.t .h-;ill t\.n Ihiv unite and ihich c(.lle.-ls ii: the watc '.hr..ut:b which the led, Fr.-.ra thi' ^.™icv e ^\\^(■i \\w \ai?.t«.^tt CHEMISTRY. 389 UMer ordinary air pressure and temperature, ammonia is a . gu possessing a strong, puiigent odor. Water absorbs large quantities oi ammonia and acquires the odor of the gas. This solution of ammonia gas is called "ammonia water," or "aqua ammonia." UQUID AMMONIA. Ammonia gas can be condensed to a fluid by cooling it below —40° F., or by subjecting it to a pressure of 60 pounds per square inch at a temperature of 32° P. 1( this liquid ammonia is exposed to any temperature above — 40° F. or the pressure on it removed, it comes 10 a boil. If a thermometer is held in the boil- ing liquid it sinks to nearly —29° F. The heat consumed in keeping up the boiling is taken from the adjoining objects, which are thereby cooled to a low tcmpcrainr«. On this observation is based the use of liquid ammonia for producing artificial ice and for cooling purposes. When nitrogen and hydrogeti combine to form ammonia one volume of nitrogen unites with three volumes of hydrogen, hence (he chemical formula of ammonia is NHj. As the :itoniic weight of nitrogen is 14 and of hydrogen i, the formula also indicates that 14 parts, by weight, of nitrogen, combine with 3 parts of hydrogen, to create 17 parts Nitrogen can also be made to combine with oxygen, although with ditncully. If electric sparks are passed through a moist mix- ture of nitrogen and oxygen, these two gases combine with each other and the water into a substance called "nitric acid," a color- less corrosive t!uid. which dissolves nearly all metals. If a piece of copper is dropped inio nitric acid, red fumes are generated, the fluid assumes a blue color and after awhile the C(q>per has disappeared. If the resulting blue solution is evapof' ated slowly, blue crystals bi'gin to form. These crystals are a combinalion of copper and nitric acid. Such a substance as ts formed by tlic action of an acid on a metal is called a sail. A salt is l^amcd itom X\\c tiw.\,A ^tvi >\\?. Mcjd that enter into its make-iip, Th«s \\it a.\»\e. iM^t'iwA talt is called "nitrate of copper." 3SK> CHEMISTRY. ^ . In Northern Peru are found beds of great extent, comiihf of a salt called Chili saltpetre. This salt is a combination of fH^h. metal sodium and nitric acid, and its chemical name is ''nitrate of sodium." This salt is used lor the manufacture of nitric add. Cakbon. — ^Atomic weight 12, Symbd C The element of carbon is found in a pure state in two distinct forms, as diamond and as graphite or plumbago. Ordinary coal and charcoal is carbon, a small part of which is combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and mixed with mineral substances which remain behind as ashes, when the coal is burnt Carbon also con- stitutes a large share of all animal and vegetable matter. I! such substances, f. i., meat and wood, are heated in closed vessels, the volatile parts, such as water, ammonia, etc., are expelled and the charcoal remains behind. CARBONIC ACia If carbon is heated in oxygen or air, it bums, that is, it unites with oxygen. The new substance which is formed by the chemi- cal combination of the two elements, carbon and oxygen, is, under ordinary circumstances, a gas called carbonic acid. It consists of 12 parts, by weight, of carbon and 32 parts of oxygen. Its chemical formula is COs, expressing that one atom of carbon has taken up two atoms of oxygen. The coal tliat apparently disap- peared during combustion, has in reality formed a new body, which weighs more than three and one-half times as much as the coal. Carbonic acid, also called carbon dioxide, is a colorless gas, of an agreeable, pungent taste and smell. It is 1% times as heavy as air. The gas is very injurious to animal life, when taken through the respiratory organs, even if diluted with air. A lighted candle is instantly extinguished in carbonic acid gas, for, although it contains much oxygen, this oxygen is already united with all the carbon it can consume. Water of 63.5** F. absorbs a volume of carbonic acid equal to its own, whatever be the density of the gas. Under heavy pres- sure water can. therefore, be charged with large quantities of the gas (soda water). Carbonic add is found in the air in small quantities (4 volumes 0/ carbonic acid gas in 10,000 volumes oi a\0 ♦ "^X^tvVs Vv^n^ the power 0/ absorbing this carbonic acid oi lV\e ^\t, ^tv^/vtv v\v^ %:>mv- CHEMISTRY. 39 1 Ii^|Sr*\^^Ocvvcv% ^xq^^\<\^^\ used for Improving the color and kcepm^ ^w?\\V^ ^V V^^'s* '^'^v^ 392 CHEMISTRY. ^ sometimes to fraudulently "improve" the color of damagea ^u*- Tey. A red colored flower, if exposed to the gas, is quid^ bleached white. SULPHURIC Acia With the aid of nitric acid fumes and steam, sulphurous acid can be made to take up more oxygen and changed to a new acid, called sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. Like nitric acid, sulphuric add is a very corrosive fluid, colorless, when pure, and nearly twice as heavy as water. It also dissolves most metals, forming salts that are called "sulphates." Iron, dissolved in sulphuric acid, thus gives sulphate of iron (green vitriol) ; copper and sulphuric acid give sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) ; lime and the acid form sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris, gypsum). Sulphur also combines with hydrogen, producing a gas called sulphuretted hydrogen, which has the odor of rotten eggs, and is generally contained in sewer gas. Chlorine — Atomic weight 35.5, Symbol CI. Chlorine is a heavy, greenish-yellow gas, strongly suffocating and poisonous. It combines with hydrogen into a colorless, cor- rosive gas, called "hydrochloric acid." Like sulphuric and nitric acid, it dissolves most metals and forms salts which are called "chlorides." Common table salt is a combination of this acid and the metal sodium, and the chemical name of table salt is chloride of sodium. The three acids, sulphuric, nitric and hydro- chloric (or, as it is called, muriatic) are manufactured in enor- mous quantities and used for various industrial purposes. Bromine — Atomic weight 79.96, Symbol Br. Bromine is a heavy brownish-red liquid, which at ordinary temperature gives off red vapors of a strongly suffocating odor. Combined with metals, this element forms salts which are called "bromides." Bromide of potassium is largely used as a nerve tonic. Iodine — .Atomic weight 127, Symbol I. Iodine is a solid body of a bluish-black color. When heated it boils at 347 • F. The vapor has a beautiful violet color. It is in many respects like chlorine and by uniting with metals produces salts that are caJJed "iodides." With the potassium metal it forms iodide of potassium, a salt that in apveaiT^wc^ \% n^xn much //X-e- common table saJt CHEMISTRY. 393 A*soIution of this salt in water has the power of dissolving . -'4bdinc to a dark red solution, which is called "iodine solution," and is used to detect starch. If a drop of iodine solution is introduced into a cold solution of starch, a deep blue color is pro- duced by a combination • of iodine with starch. Very small amounts of starch in wort or beer can be detected by means of this solution. Fluorine — Atomic weight 19, Symbol Fl. Fluorine can hardly be isolated at all, as it attacks, and com- bines with, nearly all other bodies. It is very similar to chlorine, very poisonous and corrosive. With ammonia it forms a salt called "acid fluoride of ammonium," which is used as an anti- septic. The magnesia and lime salts being insoluble, the soluble fluorides may be used as boiler compounds. Phosphorus — Atomic weight 31, Symbol P. Phosphorus is a yellowish-white substance, very much like wax. It is very inflammable and poisonous. When heated it burns with a bright flame and unites with oxygen to a substance called "phos- phoric acid." Phosphoric acid enters into combination with many of the metals and the resulting salts are called "phosphates." Most of them are insoluble, like the phosphates of lime and mag- nesia; hence, the soluble phosphates, like that of soda, can be em- ployed as boiler compounds. The phosphates are taken up from the soil by the plants, and from the plants they pass into the bodies of animals. Phosphates are a necessary nutriment for both ani- mals and plants. They can be used to strengthen yeast. Silicon — Atomic weight 28. Symbol Si. The element of silicon is never found as such in nature. United with oxygen, however, it is a very abundant substance. and of great importance. All rocks and mineral masses of which the surface of the earth is made up, are largely composed of silica, which is the element silicon combined with oxygen accord- ing to the chemical formula SiOs, that is, containing 28 parts of silicon and 32 parts of oxygen. Silica is taken up by plants and is found in the straw and hull of grain. Boron — Atomic weight 11, Symbol B. Boron is contained in borax, a sa\l \oww^ *vc\ Kiv^., Sv^nx^x America, California and Italy. Ordmat^ >x>xa^ \^ ^ ^wc^a^s^a2C^si of aodinui and bonck add. It u largdr cm^oycd u a jfnamf- live for meats, fruiti, etc, for aoldering, for softening hariW- watCTs, and in place of so^ THE METALS. The Mcond and larger gnmp of dements, which are embraced [■nder the name of metals, is generally divided into two rls^tn, vie: "The light metals," of which the most important arc potas- sium, Eodinin, calcium, magnesium and aluminum, and "the heavy metals," the best known of which are iron, manganese, nickel, zinc, lead, copper, mercury, silver, gold and platinum. Of the light metals only magnesium and aliuninum are of con- siderable importance, in a metallic state. Potassium, sodium and calcium are mostly used in the form of oxides or as salts. The heavy metals, on the contrary, are of the greatest import- ance in the metallic state. LIGHT METALS. Potassium— Atomic weight 39.1, Symbol K. The metal of potassium is white and soft ; it is lighter than water, its specific gravity being only 0.86. Upon exposure to the air it combines directly with oxygen and forms oxide of potas- sinm. The chemical fonnula of this substance is KiO, indicating that two atoms of the metal unite wilh one atom of oxygen, or, by weight, 2 X 39-1 or 78.3 parts of potassium with 16 parts of oxy- gen. If potassium metal is thrown upon water it takes fire and burns with a purple flame. It is the oxygen of the water that unites with the metal; the hydrogen of the water is thus set free .ind ignited by the heat developed by the combination of the metal and the oxygen. The resulting oxide of potassium is dissolved in the water and when the water is evaporated there remains a white substance called potassium hydrate or, generally, caustic potash. As the potassium metal is oxidized both in the air and in water, it is kept in naphtha, a substance that does not contain any oxygen. Potassium forms salts with the different acids. The most important ol these are; "Carbonate of potassium," extracted Itom l\w a»\ves lA 9\m\%. The crude product is the pearlash, or crude iioWati ol (1 CHEMISTRY. 395 ''Nitrate of potassium," or saltpetre, used in the manufacture cf " gunpowder. "Meta- Sulphite of Potas'^ium" used as an antiseptic. Sodium — Atomic weight 23, Symbol Na. The metal of sodium is in nearly all respects like potassium. It is a very abundant clement. Like potassium it oxidizes very rapidly in the air, takes fire when thrown upon water, and then forms "caustic soda." The most important sodium salts are: ''Carbonate of Soda/' manufactured in great quantities from common salt. It is sometimes found in natural waters, which are then said to be alkaline. Such waters arc unfit for brewing. "Soda Ash" is a crude product obtained from the sulphate of soda used in the production of carbonate of soda, containing. besides carbonate of soda, also caustic soda, sulphate of soda, and common salt. "Bicarbonate of Soda," produced by charging carbonate of soda with more carbonic acid. "Chloride of Sodium," or Common Salt, which is found in nat- ure dissolved in the water of the ocean and also occurs in solid beds in many parts of the world. "Sulphate of Soda." often contained in water, acts as an aperi- ent (Glauber salts). "Sulphite of Sodium," a combination of sulphurous acid (50 per cent) with sodium, and "Bisulphite of Sodium," containing still more sulphurous acid (over 60 per cent) are both used as antiseptics. "Phosphate of Sodium" is a combination of phosphoric acid and sodium. By adding caustic soda to a solution of this salt, another phosphate is obtained which is called "trisodium phos- phate," and is used as a boiler compound, or for softening hard water. Fluoride of sodium, carbonate of sodium (soda ash) and caustic soda may also be used for this purpose. AMMONIU.M — Atomic weight 18, Symbol NHi. Ammonium is not an element, but a compound body called a radical, which acts like an element. It cannot exist alone, as it would immediately fall apart into hydrogen gas (H), and so- called ammonia-gas (NHa). This radical (ammomum) combines vj\\.\\ ?ica^s ^\ci^^^.oxs% salts which, in many respects, arc simWaiT Vo VVv^ cciw^is^crcv^ 3g6 CHBH ISTBY. ^ --^ ing salts of potauinm and aodiain. The moct common a win dli to n salU arc the following: ^W "Cbloride of Ammoniam," or "Sal- Ammoniac," obtained from the gas water of gas works. "Carbonate of Ammoniam,** or salt of hartstiom, obtained by the dry distillation of bone and other animal matter. &n be used to strengthen yeast. Calciuu— Abxnic weight 40^ Symbol Ca. Calctnm is one of the most abundant of the metals, but sever occurs in a free state. The metal is yellow, its specific g ra yilj 1.58. When heated it bums with a bright light to a white pow- der, which is "oxide of calcium," or "burnt lime" (CaO). When this is moistened with water, it slacks with great violestce, giving off a large amount of heal and crumbling to a soft, white powder. This "slack lime" is a chemical combination of the oxide of calcium, CaO. and water, HX>, and its formula is Ca(OH)i. It is soluble in water to a certain extent, the solution being called "limewaler." Burnt lime unites with carbonic acid and produces "carbonate of lime," which, as limestone or marble, makes up whd is found in some localities in laige qvianttoes, coTO^mti «VOti CHEMISTRY. 39/ • waM* as gypsum. Plas'ter of Paris is burnt gypsum, or gypsum ^ ffccd from water. When plaster of Paris is moistened it takes up water again and forms gypsum. Being slightly soluble in wa- ^cr, gypsum is also found in many natural waters. ''Bisulphite of Lime. When sulphurous acid gas is led into limewater, or milk of lime, it is speedily absorbed, thereby form- ing bisulphite of lime, which is a strong disinfectant. Magnesium — Atomic weight 24, Symbol Mg. The metal of magnesium is white and light of weight. When ignited it burns with a dazzling, bluish- white light to a white pow- der» which is oxide of magnesium. In a natural state magnesium often accompanies lime. Thus, it is found together with lime- stone as carbonate of magnesium, and in many natural waters as bicarbonate of magncsiuin, producing hardness like the lime salt. When such water is boiled, the bicarbonate of magnesium is precipitated and becomes carbonate of magnesium. Aluminum — Atomic >veight 27.1, Symbol Al. Aluminum is very abundant in nature. Combined with silica it forms many minerals, and it is a constituent of the various modi- fications of clay. The metal of aluminum is nearly as white as silver and very light, its specific gravity being 2.6, whereas that of silver is 10.5. It is not poisonous. Weak acids do not affect it, which makes it suitable for cooking utensils or receptacles for food and beverages. "Oxide of Aluminum," or the burnt metal, also called alumina constitutes the greater part of clay. "Alum" is a combination of sulphate of potassium and sulphate of aluminum. MISCELLANEOUS METALS. The elements of barium, strontium, beryllium, thorium and zirconium occur less frequently. "Barium" is found in nature as 'lieavy-spar," a combination of barium and sulphuric acid. Barium chloride is used by chem- ists as a means of detecting and determining sulphuric acid. "Strontium." The nitrate of strontium is used in the manufac- ture of fireworks. It imparts a red color to fire. "Thorium" is found as a rare mineral, combined \vitl\ <>\U^\^si 's^ thorium. 398 CHEMISTRY. HEAVY METALS. '*'- Iron — Atomic weight 56, Symbol Fc ^ Iron, the most important of all the metals, is very addom found in nature in the metallic slate. Combined with oxygen, it is fuuud everywhere. The reddish tints in rocks and soil arc al- most entirely due to iron oxides, nearly all natural waters contain more or less carbonate of iron; it is contained in plants and in the blood of the animal body. Pure metallic iron has a white color, is quite soft and tough; its Specific gravity is 7.8. Iron combines widi oxygen in varying ratios, and thus forms oxides of iron of diilerent compositions. The most common is the "ferric oside," which, when combined with water, is called rust. "Iron Ores." The oxides and the carbonates of iron are the natural products from which metallic iron is obtained. They are called iron ores. These ores are mi.\ed with coal in large furnaces and heated lo a high temperature. The coal, under such eircumslances, has the power of withdiawing the oxygen from the oxides of iron and uniting with it to carbonic acid The melallic iron, being thus liberated, mclis and finks to the bottom of Ihc furnace, whence it is drained off. This crude iron, which contains a good deal of carbon (from 2.5 per cent to 6 per cent), melts at a lower temperature th.in pure iron, and is called pig-iroii. or, after rcmelling. cast-irnn. Bar Iron. If the cast-iron is rcnielted and the larecsl part of the c.irl>on and other impurities arc removed by nxidation the resulting iron is called bar iron cr malk-aMc irnn. Bar iron is al- most pure iron, containinp rnly 0.2 lo 0.6 per cent carbon, .ind two pieces of it. when healed to while heat, can be haamiercd to- gether, which operation is called "welding," Sifcl. When bar iron is he.ited to full red heat, while in cnntacl wilh carlnin, it laVes up 0.8 (o 1,8 per cent "f carbon, and thereby Kvnnics harder, ll is changed into sled. Bc^-cmer steel is producoil by forcins air into mnlleii cast-iron. When enough of the carlioii of ihc cast-iron has been o.tiiH/iil, (lio curri'n; of air is stopped, and the molten mclal run info ingot-molds. IS'/icn .T/ce/ I,? ficaled to redness and then submerged in cold >va- fcr. It hcconics so hard that it scratdies gVass, \\ ^■iVtM.si \t> rcffncfi. nrii! allnncd to cool slowly, it a^wn \>ecoTO<:s aNTOo^V** CHEMISTRY. 399 lofV as iron, and any degree of hardness, between these two tonditions may be attained (tempering). Iron combines with the acids and forms salts. The most im- portant of these is "sulphate of iron," commonly called green vitriol, or copperas, which forms large, green crystals. "Bicarbonate of Iron" is found in a state of solution in many spring waters. When such water ij heated or exposed to the air, the iron is precipitated as a reddish deposit of oxide of iron, commonly called rust. Nickel— Atomic weight 58.8, Symbol Ni. Nickel is a white, malleable metal of a high melting point, and a specific gravity of 8,6. It does not oxidize so easily as iron, and dilute acids affect it but litde. Consequently it docs not (arnish in the air, and sulphur fumes do not blacken it. Nickel can be welded wilh wrought iron, and such combination rolled out into very thin sheets. Iron can also be coated wilh nickel by the ordi- oaty processes of electroplating. Nickel electroplating was in- vented by Bottgcr in 184S, and has developed into an important industry. Zinc— Atomic weight 65.4, Symbol Zn. Zinc has- a bluish-white color and tarnishes sloi^ly in the air. The specific gravity of zinc varies from 6.8 to 7.2. At ordinary temperature the metal is brittle, but becomes malleable at 250° to 300" F. At tliis temperature it is rolled into sheets, after which treatment it remains malleable when cold. At 410° F.. it be- comes so brittle that it may be powdered. It melts at 773° F., and at a bright red heat it boils, and, in the presence of air burns yrith a greenish flame to "zinc oxide," also called "zinc white," the "philosophical wool" or "flowers of zinc" of the alchemists, which is used as a pigment (enamel paint). Dilute acids dissolve line readily, and form salts, the most important of which is "sul- phate of zinc," or "white vitriol" ; "zinc chloride" used in tinning and soft-soldering copper and iron. "Galvanized iron" is iron coated witii zinc. Copper— Atomic weight 63.4. Symbol Cu. Copper is sometimes found in a natural state as metallic copper. It is of a yellowisb-rcd color, has a specific gravity of 8,9, and is very niallcible. Il is a very good conductor ot hci<. atii littLW'vt- it^. Copper iinilcrgms no change in dry aW, W^ to ^ mwa. ■a.^-- mospherc it is covered wilh a green coat. w\\\t\\ cow5\?.\% ^o^ '«''=*- 400 CHBHISntY. most part of "carbonate of copper." DUute sulphuric and hjljfo- chloric acids act but slightly upon copper, whereas nitric acM> dissolves it readily. The most common salt of copper is the "sulphate of copper," commonly called "blue vitriol." "Verdi- gris" is acetate of copper. "Paris green" consists of copper, acetic acid and arsenious acid. Leab— Atomic weight 207, Symbol Pb. Lead is found in nature combined with sulphur in the so-called galena, which is the principal lead ore. Lead is a bluish-white nietal, very soft and plastic. The specific: gravity of lead is 11.35. It melts at 633° F. In ordinary air it tarnishes rapidly, but the thin coat of o.\ide increases very slonly. When heated to melting in the presence of air, lead rapidly absorbs oxygen and forms oxides of different composition. "Litharge" is an oxide of lead which forms dark, yellow scales, and is used for making lead salts, oil varnishes and for many other purposes. "Minium" or ■ "red lead" is another oxide of lead, which Is used as a pigment and for making certain cements. Of the If.id salts the most im- poriaDt ?,re carbonate of lead or "white lead," which if used In paints, and acetate of lead which, on account of its sweetish taste is also called "sugar of lead." ME«Ct;RV — Atomic weight 200, Symbol Hg. Mercury, also called quicksilver, is liquid at all ordinary tem- peratures, and congeals at — 40° F. At 66j' F, it boils. The fpccifie gravity is 1359- II is used extensively in thermometers and barometers. Silver — .Atomic weight 108. Symbol Ag. Silver is found in nature in the metallic stale, and also com- bined with sulphur, chlorine .ind other elements. The greater [■art lA the silver is cxtmcted from its ores by smelling, or by extracting it with mercury, which dissolves the silver to a mix- ture called am.ilgam. Pure silver is of a nearly white color, very niallcablo. and is the best conductor of boat and electricity. lis specific gravity is 10.5. Silver docs not change in air or moist- ure, but hlackvn^ it the air contains sulphuretted hydrogen. The most iniport.int sails of silver are: -Chhiride of silver.'" in the //,3//i<7 .-.-Mie called '■born silver"; "nitrate of silver" al^o called 'lunar c.iii.'iic." CHEMISTRY. 4OI 4 Gold— Atomic weigbt 1967. Symbol An. Gold is also found in nature in a metallic state, often combined with silver, both in regular mineral veins in quartz and in the sands of many rivers. Pure gold is soft and can be hammered out into exceedingly thin leaves. The specific gravity is 19.5, It is perfectly unchangeable in air and moisture, no single acid attacks it, but a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, called "Aqua rcgia," dissolves it to chloride of gold. Platinum — Atomic weight 197.4, Symbol Pt. Platinum is always found in the metallic state. Although one of the so-called precious metals, it lacks the fine color and luster of gold and silver, and is, therefore, not much used for articles of ornament. Nearly all platinum is made into chemical utensils,, for which it is eminently adapted, being infusible and not attacked by acids except by aqua regia. Platinum is used ex- tensively for scientific purposes. The specific gravity is 21.5. Tin — Atomic weight 119, Symbol Sn, Tin is mostly found as oxide of tin. Pure tin is white, soft and malleable. Air and water affect it but little. The specific gravity of tin is 7.3 and it niells at 45?" F. The metal rollpd into thin sheets and furllicr beaten out with wooden mallets is called "tin- foil." The ordinary ''sheet-tin" is tinned iron. Tin is also used as a protecting coating for iron and copper (tinning). Antimony — Atomic weight 120, Symbol Sb. Antimony occurs mostly in the stale of sulphide. The metal b bluish-wbile, and very brittle, and is an important constitiittnt of several alloys. Antimoiiial preparations arc used medicinally. the best known lidng "tartar emetic," a tartrate of potash and antimony. When two or more metals arc melted together the combina- tion is called an alloy. Few metals are used in a pare stale for industrial purposes as the pure nietals seldom have the ([ualilics necessary for special applications. Gold and silver in a pure slate are loo soft, and are, therefore, hardened by an addition of about a tenth part of copper. The most common and ii\i^ntVTkViV ■^\^^^■^■i 402 CHEHrSTRV. Name— Composition — * Aluminum-bronze ...Aluminum and copper. Brass . .'. Copper with 28 to 34 per cent of zinc. Gun metal Ninety parts of copper and 10 parts of tin. Bronze Copper and tin in varying proportions. Pewter Tin hardened with a little antimony. Plumbers' solder Two parts of lead and one of tin. German silver One hundred p^rts of copper, tio parts of zinc and 40 parts of nickel. Britannia metal Nine parts of tin and one part of antimony. Type metal Three to four parts of lead and one pan of antimony. Babbitt mclal Eighty-three to 89 parts of tin. 8 to 4 parts of copper and S to 7 parts of antimony. THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS (ORGANIC CHEMISTRY). Originally the term "organic chemislry" denoted the chem- isrry of substances generated in plants :>nil animals. When it was shown (hat many of thcc substances could he produced direotly from the dement?, the name of nrnriiic chtmiftrj' was replaced by the name of the "chcniiMry of c.nrbnn compounds." These conipoiui.ls slionUl nntnrslly he described in connection with the element o( carbfm. Bn( as they .irc very numerous and IKisscss peculiar inlcre'Jt to the brewer, it was considered best 10 di'cu's then: separately. .■\n orf-iiiic substance, then, is r. carbon compound. Organic snhitanecs contain, for ihe w.i'H part, only a small number of elements. Some cnsist ur.ly of hydiomn and carbon, as coal-oil or .Vmtricaii peirolcum. Oiher?. stich as -ilcohol, starch. sugar, cnii.-ii'l of i.".rb in. hydriiRC;! and oxyjion. (.lihcrs, again. especially arjim.i! svibstaiiecs. eoniain ii'iir elinitnis. c.irbon, hydroL'en, o\yi;s,n. am! nitrogen, for instance, the nlhuniinoids. Rut. nhil,' the number .11 elements in i.rj;anie substances i-' small, the itnieturc of ihe nKikeulcs :s ofun very complex, tint i?. ihc I uii'ljer of ,i;oni: in each uioU.ul: is lar);c. For that r.-.isi'ii, liiey c.i'ily ch,iri;e t" les* ,-. t:;p!c.>: -nbstanccs. Thii'', the molecule '^f grape sugar is comp.^se'l of six atoms ■•f i-nrbon. Mu/ii' r.f [lydrogcn and ri^i o\ i.>^\'A'". but if a solu- n'i'ii i-i (hi' •[i-;ii in Hater is niiscA w'AVi \>.-.\-\. \\\c s\vj-\^ ^w^- iiU- hrf:,k^ ,lov.ii. /..riuing two iivAeeMV-^ oi ^:m\...«V ^<\4 mA CHEMISTRY. 403 * two^f alcohol, both the carbonic acid and the alcohol having . less complex molecules than the sugar. r ALCOHOLS. Originally the name "alcohol" was limited to one substance obtained by the distillation of fermented liquor, and termed also spirits of wine. At present several substances are known, whose molecules arc constituted in a similar way and which are also called alcohols. They are all composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, but differ from each other in the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms that form their molecules. The simplest in composition contains but one atom of carbon in each molecule; the next in order contains two, three, four, etc.. atoms of carbon in each molecule. Methylic alcohol, or "wood-spirit," is the simplest member of the series. Its chemical formula is CH4O. The molecule is composed of one atom of carbon, four of hydrogen and one of oxygen, or, by weight, 12 parts of carbon, 4X1 = 4 parts of hydrogen, and 16 parts of oxygen for every 32 parts of the alcohol. This alcohol is obtained if wood is charred to make charcoal. The tarry liquid flowing from the retort contains small quantities of wood-vinegar and wood-spirit. The alcohol is separated from the fluid by distilling at low heat. Methylic alcohol is a colorless, thin fluid; in a pure state it is similar in odor and -taste to common alcohol, but coninicr- cial methylic alcohol has a strong, disagrcoablo, characteristic odor. It boils at a low temperature, namely, 152° F. It dis- solves pitch, shellac and volatile oils, liko common iilcohol, and, being cheaper, is often substituted for the other in the manu- facture of various articles. Ethylic Alcohol, or "Grain" Alcohol. This alcohol which was the first known and is the most important of the whole group, is most commonly designated by the simple name of "alcohol." Its chemical formula is CJIcO. or. by weight 2 X t2 = 24 parts of carbon, 6X1 = 6 parts of hydrogen, and 16 parts of oxygen for every 46 parts of alcohol. This alcohol is produced by the fer- mentation of sugar by yeast. The fermented liquid is distilled and a dilute alcohol obtained, the strength of which is increased by repeated distillations. Pure ethylic alcohol is a colorless Vu\w^<^^ <>^- Vnxv^V^^^"^^ ^■•\'^'^" and odor. It hsis a specific gravity oi 0.79. W. \^ ^^^^^^ X^'cCxVt^. 404 CIIKMISTRY. and burns \\ith a palo-bluish flame without smoke. It boils at 173° I^- when free from water; in a diluted state the boiling point is the higher, the greater the degree of dilution. It can be exposed to very low temperatures without congealing. It ab- sorbs water from the air, and can be mixed with water in any ratio. When so mixed a contraction of volume takes place, and, at the same time, the mixture becomes much warmer. Al- cohol dissolves many substances that are not soluble in water, such as shellac, pitch, oils, etc. Amylic Alcohol. In the manufacture of spirits from grain or potatoes, the cthylic alcohol is found to be accompanied by an oily fluid called fusel oil, or amylic alcohol. As the latter } boils at a higher temperature than common alcohol, it can be separated by distillation. Thus, separated and purified, amylic alcohol is an oily, colorless liquid cf a peculiar odor and burning taste. The vapor, when inhaled, produces coughing. It is not readily soluble in water, but floats on the surface like an oil. Glycerin or glycerol is an alcohol formed in small quantities during fermentation. It is a constituent of all fats and fixed oils, from which it is obtained when the fats are decomposed by an alkali, as is done on a large scale when fats arc saponified for making sc)ap. Glycerin is a colorless syrupy liquid, of a pure, sweet ta>to. foluhle in water and alcolu»l. Its specific gravity is \.2(\ and it Ivijls at 554 V. ORGANIC ACII^S. If two hydroRcn atoiii> of an alcohol au- replaced by one atom of oxyiien, ihe alc^^^hol is changed into an acid. Thus, if coninin:i alc« hoi i: diluted wi:h water and exposed to the air. oxygen is taken up by the alcohol, which is thereby changed to acetic acid, or vinegar. .A corrcspondinj^ acid can be pro- duced from every alcohol. Thus, methylic alcohol being oxi- dized produce? formic acid: ciliylic alcohol yields acetic acid; butylic alcohol !»uiyric acid; amylic alcohol, valeric acid. etc. In wort and beer several of these acids are found, and some of them are produced by the action of bacteria on the sugar of the wort. The most important of thc-c acids are: Acciic Acid. This acid, when diluted with water, makes common \i!ici:;ir. It is obtained by the destructive distillation n/ nond. Jn ihi< j^ r. » c c s s a s « ■ u r , \v ale \ v \\v vvi'^A . - '^wt Va^T , -a^A ^m/c/i ^.7s. pn<:s over, while the c\\aTCo;i\ TC\^^;v^x^^ m \\\^ x^^tV. ( CUEMISTRy. 405 From this fluid the concentrated acid, often called "glacial . acetic acid," Is prepared. It congeals below 60° F. It mixes with water in any ratio, and when diluted has a pleasant acid taste. Acetic acid is also produced by the action of certain bacteria on a dilute alcohol, and is generally found in beer, where it causes the sour taste. Acetic acid is c.tpelled (rorn a solution like beer by boiling, and is called the volalile acid in beer. It combines with metals and forms salts, which are called "acetates." The most impor- tant nre: "Acetate of Soda," which forms large colorless crystals, read- ily soluble in water. "Acetate of Lead," which is formed by dissolving oxide of lead in acetic acid. This salt generally occurs in a crystalline mass, like loaf-sugar, and from this c and its sweet taste, is called "sugar of lead." Bvtyric Acid is formed by the action of the butyric ferment. It is 3 colorless liquid, having an odor of acetic acid and rancid butter. It is soiuetinics found in beer and old hops. Lactic Acid. This is the characteristic acid of beer, and, not being volatile, is also called the "hxcd acid" of beer. It is produced by the aclion of certain ferments on sugar. It is found in malt and in larger quantities in beer wort. The con- centrated acid is a colorless, syrupy nuld. with an iiite.'iscly sour taste. Tannic Acid is a solid body, readily soluble in water. It is found in many plants, such as hops and trees (oaks and hem- locks). It precipitates the soluble albuminoids when added lo such a solution ("breaking" of the worl). Succinic acid produced in small quantities during the fermentation of sugar by yeast forms small white crystals. FATS AND OILS. Under the name of oil is included a large number of bodies. differing in chemical compostlion and physical properties, pnch as tallow, fats, fluid fi.ted oils, essential oils, and the so-called .hydrocarbons, that is, the solid, fluid or volatile substances found in petroleum or obtained by destructive distillation. The oils may. therefore, be clas5ified as : /. Fixed Oils. a. Essentinl or Volatile Oils. S- Hydrotarbons. Fixed oils, also called fatty oils, are either of animal or vege- table origin. Those of animal origin are generally solid, and called fats, such as tallow and lard ; the vegetable oils are mostly fluid at ordinary temperature, such as cottonseed oil and linseed oil. They are all compounds of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, and may be compared (o the salts of inorganic nature, in which the place of the metal is occupied by a substance called glycerin (see under ".■\lcohol") and the mineral acids are represented by organic acids, called fatly acids. The fatty acids of the oils and fats arc mainly oleic, palmitic and stearic acid, and the combina- tion between these acids and glycerin, generally called olein, palmi- tin and stearin, form, in varying proportions, the natural oils The oleic acid is fluid at ordinary temperature, the ind stearic acids are solid bodies, and such fats as ion) i and fats. chiefly consist of s mullon-sucl, arc. therefore, solid bodies, whereas oil? larger amounts of oleic acid are fluid. If the oils arc treated with an alkali (^ponilii instance, with caustic soda, in the presence of wat decomposed in such a way. that llic fatty ai-ids from the givecrin and coiiil.int «ilh the *.i.h. Tl of soda and fatly acids forms the ordinary soda soap ;" the corresponding soap of potash, being sii "soft soap." The nianufact luring of soap consists of the saponify- ing of UHi or oils with a solution uf caustic alkali. Tin- f.ils c.iii aUo be ..Icc.-nipoMd hy =10111 mvkr a pressure of being fr. , beef and containing tor the oils are cpa rated >r "hard called Th. i.ig ak- hibU' it nd disi .M a u'rally da^.-iticd a; ; ■drying, coniainiiig 11 I'. Dryilift nil?, containing hnnlein. f and hemp oils. T/ic drying nils absorb oxygen irom Uv; uhol. ether, W- iic gravity 'I to 0.93, F almond. iich .IP linseed, poppy and I^ CHEMISTRY. tb^ non- drying oils also undergo changes when exposed tc that part of the fatty acids are set free, this being the c their becoming rancid. The essential or volatile oils are. *ith few exceptions, obtained from plants, in which they are found cither alone or mixed with resins, this mixture being called a balsam. By adding water to the plant, or part of the plant, and distilling, the oil is carried over with the steam. The turbid distillate separates gradually into oil and water. The volatile oils differ in composition from the falty oils. Many of them, as for instance, oil of turpentine, are com- posed of carbon and hydrogen only, while others, like hop-oil and "winlergrcen oil," also contain oxygen. Most of these oils, when pure, are colorless, and usually possess a powerful odor and a burning taste. Exposed to air, some absorb oxygen and change into solid resins, as, for instance, "hop-oil," which when it resinifies, develops valerianic acid, producing the disagree- able odor ebaraeterislic to old hops. The essential oils are nearly all insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, fatly and mineral oils. Most of these oils are thin liquids, but some, such as oil of roses or attar of roses, are solids. Essen- tial oils arc used in perfumery, for flavoring liquors and other beverages. The aroma of spices, lea, coffee, wine, etc., depends greatly on the essential oils they contain. One of the most important of the volatile oils is the "oil of turpentine." which is contained in the bark and other parts of pines and firs, and coniferous trees geni'rally. It is obtained by distillation of crude turpentine, which is a nii.\liire of resin, oil of turpentine and water, exuding from the bark of the trees. Oil of turpentine is a colorkss. mobile li'iuid, with a strong aromatic odor. Being n sulveiit of fi.xtd oil and rc-ins it is largely used for making varnish. 3- HVtJROCAHBONS OR MINERAL OK.S. The hydrocarbons are composed exclusively of carlwii and hydrogen, and are found mainly in crude "petroleum" and coal tar. The mineral oils used for illuminating purposes and as lubricants are chiefly obtained from crude ^itttoltwiv.. C^^^^"^ petrolciiin is n iialiiral oil. found m t'ne ea.x\.\\ a.X. NM-j\T\t *i.'^<>w> in many localities. The chief souTCca are \Qca,\ti vn x'ft^ "Vi'wwift. 408 CHEUISTRY. ,. States and in the Caucasus, on the shore of the Caspian Sn. Crude petroleum is an oily liquid, the specific gravity of whicfi varies from 0.73 to o.g?, of a peculiar odor, and varying in color from straw yellow to brown- black. It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, and mixes in all proportions with ether, bisulphide of carbon and hydrocarbons. It also mixes freely with nearly atl fixed oils. Chemically it is a mixture of a number of various hydrocarbons, some of which are gases at ordinary temperatures, others fluids or solids. The different pro- portions of these various hydrocarbons determine the character of the natural oil, il being more or less limpid, according to the prevalence of light fluids or of the denser constituents. By careful distillation of the natural oil, the different commercial prodtKts are obtained. (For particulars see "Lubricants.") BALSAMS AND RESINS. Balsams are found in many plants, and are mixtures of rosins with volatile oils (essential oils) and some water. Tlic most common is the balsam that Hows from pine-trees, and is generally called turpentine. This is a mixture of oil of turpentine, a little water, and common "rosin" or "colophony." When heated, the oil of turpentine and water are expelled, and the remaining melted mass is the colophony or rosin. Common rosin still coniains some water and volatile oil. This conmion rosin, or colophony, mixed with sonie oil to make it less brittle, is "brewers' pilch." "Shellac" is obtained in a similar way from East India fig- trees. Dissolved in alcohol, it forms common varnish. "Hop-Balsam" or liipulin consists of the volatile oi! of hops and hop-rosin. The oil gives to the beer aroma and flavor, the liop- rosin imparts the bitier taste and helps preserve the beer. Hop-oil is only slightly soluble in water, but freely so in dilute alcohol. Hop-resin is somewhat soluble in water, and more io in a sugar solution. GEL.\TIN AND ISINGLASS- Animal membranes, skin, tendons and bones, if heated with water at a high temperature, dissolve more or less eomplclely, and the soliilions, when cooled, acquire a soft-solid consistency. These substances may be cut and dTicrt. ■y>c\A\'ni \\vu^ ^Vw sub- ■ve Jcnoivn as gelatin, produced by tVic art\on ol XW Vw. >fi%\«x CHEMISTRY. ■ 4O9 on the tissues. The jelly made from calves' feet and common glue are samples of gelatin, in different states of purity. Isinglass is prepared from the swimming bladders of fish, principally the sturgeon, or from the same material as gelatin; bj 1 special treatment. A solution of gelatin, even if very much diluted, gives a pre- cipitate with lannie acid. This precipitate is white, curdy, and incapable of putrefaction, whereas gelatin iiscif, being composed of the same elements as the albuminoids, easily undergoes changes when not in a dry stale. Vegetable gelatin is similar in composition to the dextrins. It does not dissolve in cold water, but swells up and forms a Jelly. It is found in Irish moss. Iceland moss, etc. CARBOHYDRATES. The carbohydrates are substances composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, having an equal ratio of oxygen and hydrogen as water; that is, twice as many atoms of hydrogen as of oxygen. While they are made up of the same elements as the alcohols and acids, their molecules arc much larger. The molecule of Starch, tor instance, has the composition diHuOa, or contains 63 atoms; maltose is G=Hi,0,„ glucose C.H,.0., etc. They arc, therefore, easily split up into simpler molecules, and give rise to such substances as carbonic acid, different kinds of organic acids, and alcohol. Upon being heated with dilute ai,ids, such as hydro- chloric or sulphuric, they are all changed into that type of sugar which is generally called grape sugar or dextrose. CELLULOSE. The walls of all plant cells are composed of cellulose, and a large portion of the solid parts of all plants is built out of this substance. Pure cellulose is tasteless and insoluble in water and alcohol. Even boiling dilute acids and alkalies have but little effect on cellulose. Upon being boiled for some time with strong acids it is transformed completely into grape-sugar. The husic of the malt is mainly composed of cellulose which senses lo strain the wort when it is run off (brewers' grains). Cellulose is not coV wed blue by iodine. 4IO ' CMEUISTRY. ^ STARCH. DEXTRIN AND SUGARS. Starch is a most important vegetable product, and pracDt, to a greater or less extent, in every plant, especially in the Kcdt. It is insoluble in cold water and alcohol ; it is tasteless and odorlcw. The relative nmounls of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen it con- tains are the same as in' cellulose. To the naked eye it appears as a soft, white, glistening powder: under the microscope it i* seen to be made up of small rounded bodies. These starch gran- ules vary both in form and siie in the different varietiei of If a mixture of starch and water is heated, the starch granules burst and disappear at a certain temperature, and a transparent paste is produced. This change takes place at different tempera- tures in the different types. Starch consists of two parts evenly distributed through the granule. One phrt. which may be said to be the skeleton of the granule, is called starch-cellulose, the other, starch-granulose. If starch in water is heated for some time with dilute acids or a solution of diastase, the granulose is converted into sugar and dextrin, but the starL-h-cellulose is left unchanged. The percent- age of St 3 rch- Cellulose is very small. If n soliitii'ii of iodine in iodide of potassium is admixed to starch paste, a deep blue compound results. Tht presence of nn- converled smrcli in a mash or wort can. t!jcrcfi)re, be delected by mean.J of the iodine solution. Tlw starch solution must, how- tver. W c-Id. as heat dispels the bliic o'l.-r. G/.v I ■',:,".■': '.'r anltn,-,! siarcli is fiu'id in \]w livert i>f ni.itnnials. It lorris a paste with colil water r.nd di?Mivei when heated. Etoiling Ticidj change it to grape-fugar. Iodine solution gives it a reddish-brown color. If a st:irch-p,i^te i= hcati'd tor some time under prcr^sure with a snuill quaiuily ni a diiuie acid, for iiiiiance, sulphuric or hydro- chlorii.-, . the starch paste will srain lose its cnn.=ist<,ni:y and turn thin. There has ta'^i-n place a modiricatitm 01 the March into a siilisiance called dextrin, which is a gum-like mass, soluble in ii.v.'ir ;)fiJ has an eqir.il perccTiliige ni catWn. fi-xv?.^<^ wvA \\fdro- sen. a.* starch. J CHEMISTRY. 4I 1 The time required for this change depends on the amount of acid. If the mass be kept at a boil for a considerable time, the dextrin is gradually changed to grape-sugar, or dextrose. Catluiii, which may be compared to malto-dextrin, is also formed. Diastase effects a similar change in a starch paste, splitting the starch- molecule into simpler molecules of difFcrent kinds of dex- trins and sugars. About the number and composition of these split- products of starch, the opinions of the chemists disagree, which is explained by the difficulty of producing the various decomposition -products in a pure state. According to Brown and Morris the starch is gradually changed into several varieties of dextrin, such as : 1. Ainylo-dexirin, which in its properties shows close re- lationship to starch and is colored blue or violet-blue by iodine; 2. ErytkTO-dexIrin, which is colored red by iodine; 3. Achroo-dcxlrin, which is not colored by iodine; 4. Malla-dexiriii; 5. Maltose. The three first-named dextrins are supposed to be unfermcnt- able, malto-dextrin and maltose fermentable. Maltose ferments rapidly during the principal fermentation, malto-dextrin slowly during aftcr-femienlalion. and the more completely, the nearer the composition of the malto-dextrin comes to that of mahose. Another theory of the ilecoiiiposiiion of starch by diastase is proposed by Lintncr and Dull. According to their view the starch is transformed into four dextrins. viz. : Amylo-dcxirin. Erythro-dextrin, Acliroo-drxtrin I, Achroo-dextHn U, and two sugars, isomaUose and maltose. Prior claims that the achroo-dextrin HI, found by him. is the dextrin that remains in the beer. As to the two different theories the most generally accepted one is that of Brown and Morris. Later experiments by Ling and Baker. Brown and Morris, Jalowelz and Ost show that isomaUose is not homogeneous, but a mixture of maltose and de.iJ.^\ii.^, ii'w\ iJiaf niallose is the only sugar formed \>y ftvc ac'C\Mi ci^ SviWi^^i of carbonic acid gas I2 (1 j -i- 2 X 16) =88]. Hence, ioo parts of sugar produce 51.1 pans of alcohol and 48.9 parts of carbonic acid. The ainoums of alcohol and carbonic acid are not quite up to these figure? for the n-ason thai small quan- tities oF glycerin and succinic aciJ arc f>..rmcil by the action of the yeast on thf sugar. This sugar, also called levulo-ic. is found in iiiost =wect fruits mixed with an vqual amount of grape- suc.ir. It i^ supposed to be formed by the breaking up of the cane sugar of (he plant into S-r.ipc-siig.-tr anil fruit-sugar, the mixture oi vW \-Kn\ic\i\?. ^^^A fnrcrt sugar. Fruit-sugar is also toui\d in maW w Wi^W ^laskr t CHEUISTRY. 413 titles. It closely resembles grape-sugar, but crystallizes only with difliculty from cold absolute alcohol, and is slightly more solu- ble in water, and ferments more slowly than grape-sugar. GALACTOSE. This sugar is formed together with grape-sugar when lactose or milk sugar is treated with dilute acids. It ferments slowly (Koumiss). SACCHAROSE, OH CANE-SUGAR. This sugar is found in the juice of the sugar cane, in the stems of sorghum, in the sugar beet, in the sap of trees, as the maple, and in many other plants and fruits. It is a product of a chem- ical change in the starch of the plants. If a solution of cane-sugar in water is slowly evaporated, the sugar crystallizes in large, trans- parent crystals (rock candy). If a hot concentrated sugar solu- tion is cooled, it changes into a solid mass of fine crystals (loaf- sugar). Cane-sugar is very soluble in water; the concentrated solutions are called syrups. A concentrated solution at ordi- nary temperature holds over 66 per cent of cane-sugar. Cane- sugar melts at a temperature of (about) 320° F. At a Still higher temperature it takes a brown color, and in that state is used for coloring liquors ("Sugar Color." "Caramel"). Cane-sugar is not directly fermentable, but, when boiled with dilute acids, changes into a fermentable f Jgar called invert sugar, which is a mixture of grape-sugar and fruit sugar. A ferment contained in yeast and called "invertnsc" also has the power to change cane-sugar into invert sugar. UALTOSE. If ground malt is mixed with water and kept at 3 temperature of 100° F. to 167° F., the diastase of the malt slowly changes the starch into dextrin, and a kind of sugar called maltose. When freed from the dextrin it can be crystallized in white needles. It resembles grape-sugar in many respects, but is not directly fermentable. A substance contained in the yeast, and called malt- are, changes it into grape-sugar. Maltose is also changed into grape-sugar by heating with dilute acids. LACTOSK, OR MlLK-StTGAR, This sugar is /blind in milk, the nutrilwc Na.Wt o\ ■»iV\^'« 414 CHEMISTRY. V are not very soluble in water, nor very sweet. It is DOt fer- mented by yeast, but under the action of lactic bacteria it is chained into lactic-acid (souring of milk). Dilute adds change lactose into grape-sugar and galactose. Milk sugar is used iu pharmaceutical preparations. RAFFINOSE, OS HELITOSE. This sugar is found in rather large quantities in Anitralian manna, in the sugar beet, the flour of coitoii seeds, and in barley and wheat during germination. Being more soluble than cane sugar, it accumulates in the molasses. Dilute acids split it up into grape-sugar, fruit-sugar and galactose. Yeast is also able to produce this change and ton sequent ly raffinose is fermentable. This sugar is a member of the group called pen la -glucoses or pentoses, because their molecules contain only five carbon atoms. Thus the formula of ar.ibinosc is QH„0.,. Arabinosc crj-stalli«s in shining prisms, is slifrhily soluble in cfld water, and has a sweet taste, though less than thai of cane- pitpar. Il is tint fermented by yeast. PECTIN Sl'BST.-\NCES. These suli-^inncr^ are closely relaii'il to ihc carbohydrates, though of much less iniportanci'. They are found, for instance, in apple and pear-juice. The iuii-e is boiled and filtered from coagulated albumen; to liie clear fihrate is added a mi.'^turc "f alcohol and hydrochlnric atid, which causes a jelly-like prccipitaie of pectin. Similar !'.-..|ies .ire alio found in barky, malt aii.l Wkt. the viscos- ity. p:il,T.c-fii!iit.s-i ;iiid fo.im-hiililiiig capacity i.f whwh was for- merly larRiiy as.-rilitd to tbc-e ?iili^ta!iC'\e. .md s.->inc ainhiirs still claim that i-;oi'^"> i:rpair ihe=i'' v,i!iiaMe propenifs ct Kvr in aciimil of the rcn:ov.al of -.Ik-sc pectin? TORRHF.\CTIttN' OR RiW.STlN'ti TKi iiUCTS. Carbohydrates and. stil: n;cri\ albuminoid; are characterized by ihoir l.iree anil complicated miilecules which ari' tardily decom- poifil, Th.il ,1 liisi: t.'i'.inrature wi'l prMdiice ch.mgcs in these .-ii/i.-r.i/icir' /s. Ihcrct.Tc. r.> 111' v\pcirliii. li\ ihv vresei'.oo of mois- rirre llu-fe ch^iiecs begin al a Tinich 1>iwct ic.Ti^eTMWTc xVaiv wv Ae .t/zscnfc nf fii..F-,-(urc, i. c ii the caT\>o\««\iTi\';=- ^iv\ *^»a- J CHEMISTRY. " 415 VfUoida are previously dried almost completely at a low tem- ' perature. If malt with a certain amount of mtHsture is heated to from [40° F. to 160° F., it begins to emit a peculiar. a((reeable aroma and, at the same lime, the starch-body acquires a darker color. In order to produce a 6ne aroma the malt must, however, have grown enough, i. e., it must have a sufficient amount of diastatic power, which produces sugars in the presence of moisture at cer- tain temperatures. Without these sugars even a higher temper- ature will not produce an agreeable flavor. The bodies produced from sugars (especially from malto-dex- trin) at higher temperatures, are generally called caramel. If the temperature goes higher, the carame! gives rise to a substance called attamar, which has a bitter taste. At a still higher tem- perature the sugar, and, finally, the starch itself, begins to char. Another body that has been isolated from caramelized malt is mallol which, with ferric chloride solution, gives a purple color similar to that produced by salicylic acid in a ferric chloride solu- tion. If cane-sugar is heated to 320° F. it melts, and if the tempera- lure is raised to 390° F., it changes to a brown syrupy mass, solu- ble in water, but not cryslallizable. It contains caramel and as- samar, and has no sweet taste. It finds application in coloring fluids called "Sugar Color," or "Beer Color," NITROGENOUS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.— ALBUMIN- OIDS. The .illnniiinoids (so-called from albumen, the while of egg), which are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and a sm.-ill amount of sulphur, are the principal constitutents of the animal organism. They are produced, however, exclusively by the plants, and found chiefly in their seeds. When absorbed into Ihe animal organism, the albuminoids undergo a very slight modification, so that animal albuminoids have very much the same composition as vegelable. They possess a very complex constitution, the molecule of albumen, according to Licbcrkiihn. bi'ing Ct.HiiiN.hCS. Hence, their molecules readily fall into simpler molecules. This process, when broMs^V aViiAVj 'wa.o.ti^w.. is accompanied by the generation of gases, WVe twV3T\\t ^'^^^i- ammonia. and sulphuretted hydrogen, and '« twrnei v'*\Tt\-a.tv:\o^- 4l6 CHEMISTRY. V Of the vegetable albuminoids some are soInUe in- water, othm are insoluble. ' The insoluble and soluble albuminoids of the grain hne been - the subject of many researches with very discordant resnlti. Of the different varieties of insoluble albuminoids may be mentioned gluten- casein, gluten- fibrin, gliadin and mucedin. The albuminoids of the malted grain, which are the inoit im- portant and most ■ interesting to the brewer, are extracted from the crushed malted cereal during the mashing procesi. Simnltane- ously with ihe solvent action of the water an enzyme called pcp- lase contained in the malt acts upon the albuminoids. gndnallT changing (hem in a manner somewhat similar to (he action of diastase upon Eta re h. The products of the action of peplase upon the albumiooids of malted grain are generally referred to four distinct groups, with different properties. The first group is called proieids. The proieids include nil >uch soluble nllnniiiiioids as become insoluble or. as i; is called, coagulate. ,it n lomperature above l6;° F. An example of ibis is sofn in the "break" of the wort during iKiiling. The proieids which remained in solution at the lower leniptraturc of the w.af^h. ^ctllc ■■r ei',iKulaic .is flahes in the IvOtllc al boiling leniperalurc. and are, therefore, almost complclcly removed from ihe wort. A very low (cmperatnrc also cau.tes ihe protcids lo become insoluble. They nre insoluble in alcohol, am! laimic acid prtcipit.ites ihem from a solution. The second group of soluble -ilbuminoidf is cilleil alhumoses. They are formed by the action •■i pcplasc upni! the albuminoids dnriufc the iierminatlnn and mashing processes. The albumoses arc not C'lagulateil by hc.iting iheir S'llution and, consequently. r.main in the wort, and as ihcy are not fcrmemcd by ihe yeast, ]'»•=? over into the finished beer. Like the prolrid*. ihey .ire pre- cipitated by I.innic acid, and nre insoiuMe in alcohol. The third group of soluble albuminoids i^ cillcd peptones. T/icy .ire proiliiclf o/ (lie continued decwnvf'^il.i'^i^ o^ ^^"^ rfiVni- inittoids of mailed grain, tinder the inftucncc ol v^^"**- "^^^i CHEMISTRY, 417 are not eosgulated by heat and are therefore present in the 'finished wort. During fermentation they are, to a small extent, fermented by the yeast, but the greater part of the peptones enter into the finished beer. They are precipitated by tannic acid and insoluble in alcohol. AUIDES. The fourth group of soluble albuminoids is called amides. They are of much simpler composition than the albumoses and peptones. They arc not coagulated by heat, nor can they be precipitated by tannic acid or alcohol. The amides are to some extent taken up by the yeast and, therefore, partly withdrawn from the beer. The albumoses, peptones and amides are of the greatest value for the beer. Not only do they serve as a nourishment, but the palate- fulness and foam-holding capacity of the beer, as was first conclusively shown by the exhaustive investigations of Wahl, de- pend mainly on these bodies. The proteids, on the other hand, are ve'ry undesirable constituents of beer, impairing, when present even in small quantities, the brilliancy and durability of beers. ENZYMES, OR SOLUBLE FERMENTS. A large number of substances are found, both in the animal and in the vegelable kingdom, which possess the remarkable prop- erty of changing complicated organic combinations in the pres- ence of water into simpler ones without undergoing any appreci- able change themselves. Such substances are designated by the name of enzymes. In chemical composition they are similar to the albuminoids, of which they appear to be slight modifications. They are easily soluble in water. All of them have certain limits of temperature, outside which they do not act. A temperature of 167° F. destroys them, when in solution, the heat causing them to coagulate. In a perfectly dry slate they may be heated to 218° F. and above, without losing their power. Alcohol precipi- tates Ihem from their solutions. The most important enzymes are the following: DIASTASE. This peculiar substance, which consists ot cm\»'[\, V-ji^wfit^, oiygra and nitrogen, occurs in germinating s«e4s. M v«v (iwi\v«% ra contact with starch at a temperature oi \oo° ¥, Wi \^'' "8-% ■*■ 4l8 CHBUISTRY. « quickly changes the starch into dextria and sugar. It is iHi change of the starch into products soluble in water that con- ' slitntes th; conversion of the starch in the mashing proccM. The change of the starch is brought about without any change in the diastase, so thai a small quantity of diastase is capable of dung- ing a large amount of starch. By its mere presence, diastase causes the starch of malt to take up water, whereupon the starch molecule is split up into dextrin and a sugar called maltose. The chemical formnia for this change is : C«H.O» + H,0 = C„H=Ou + C.H»0,. Starch + Water = Maltose + Dextrin. Heating lo 167' F. destroys the diastase. This enzyme was found by Kj'eldahl in ungerminated barley. It differs from diastase in its aclron on starch in two respects. It acts only on soluble starch, whereas diastase will act on starch paste and make it fluid ; and secondly, the sugar formed by gly- case is de.\(rose and not maltose. This eniyme has the power of dissolving the cellulose of the cell-walls of ihe starch granulfs and thus liberating the starch and furnishing nulrilivc material fnr Ihe yi^ung plant. It is extracted with cold water from green malt. Raw oats contain it in still larger quantities. It is more sensitive to heat than diastase, being destroyed at a temperaliire of 140° F. lo 150° F. This is the best known en;jme of the yeast. Il can be extracted from dried yeast wilh water, precipitated with alcohol, and dried over snlphuric acid. Thus made it is a white powder. It has llic power of changing ihc imfermentabie cane-sugar into ferment- able dcNlrose and fructose, the mixture of which is called invert- sugar. Invcrlase does not act upon maltose. // iraj lon/f supposed that maltose was a A^etvVv Uixweurilite sugar. Later investigations by Lintnct hav« ¥X0'Jt4,\w'«««,ft«. J CHEMISTRY. 4ig lite maltose molecule is split up into two molecules of dexiroM br an enzyme contained in yeast, and to which the name maltase or glucase has been given. It is extracted by water from air- dried yeast. High attenuating types of yeast are claimed by some anthorities to contain an enzyme (glucase), which is not present in low attenuating types. This glucase is supposed to have the power of invertinK malto-dextrin to maltose or dextrose, hence the higher fermenting power of such yeasts. ZYUASE. This entyme has only lately been found in yeast by Buchner, and has the property of producing alcoholic fermentation, i. e., decomposing sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, independently of the yeast cells. Its action is not inhibited by many substances, for instance, chloroform, wliich prevent fermentation by yeast itself. On the other hand, such by-products as glycerin and suc- cinic acid, which are produced during fermentation by yeast, do not seem lo accompany fermentation by zymase. A solution of zymase in water begins to coagulate when heated to 95° F. to 100° F,, and after separating the coagulum, the ex- tract has no further fermentative power. This enzyme which is contained in malt has not yet been isolated. It ads upon the albuminoids of malted grain, chang- ing them into soluble protcids, peptones and amides. Its action is promoted by the presence of a small amount of lactic acid. Ac- cording to Wahl and Nilson, it is most active at a temperature of 100° F. to 130° F., and is destroyed at 156° F. rrvALiN. liva of animals and may be iden- This enzyme was found as early as 1836 by Schwann in gastric juice, and he also demonstrated its capacity of changing indiffusi- ble albuminoids into simpler forms, capable of passing through the animal membranes. The enzyme is contained in glands of the mucous ifttwAn^ivt of the stomach of !hc vertebrate aniina\s, atvi \& a\so IomtAvcv 'Cn.t blood, muscles, and urine of the higher amma\s. Ye^^vt^'^* ^.O^vi' 420 CHEMISTRY. i. only in the presence of x small amount of hydrochloric acid, wbA this acid is found in gxslric juice to an amount of o.a to 0.5 per cent Heating to 130° F. to 135° F. destroys pepsin. The p^ttii of oommcrce is a crude product. TKYPSIN. This enzjine is found in the pancreatic secretion of the higher aninuls. Its action does not depend on the presence of an add; 00 the contrary, it acts best in aa alkaline solution, for instance; in the presence of carbonate of soda. It decomposes the albn- minoidi farther than pepsin, changing them even so far as to produce crystallizable amides. EUULSIH. This enzyme is found in the hitler almond. It acta upon a group of bodic^i called glucosidcs which arc esters of sugars with organic acids. Under the inducnce of eniulsin they arc split up into simpler substances among which dextrose is always fbnnd. DIAST.\SE .AND ST.-VRCH. Previous to i860 it was supposed ih.il dextrin was the first product resulting from the action of diastase on gelatinised starch, and that dextrin wns then converleil im.i siifiar. the starch mole- cule uniting with a molecule of water according in the following formula : C. H,. O. -t- H, O = Olii.O. Starch. Walcr. Sugar. The process of laking up water is Icriiiod '"hydraliiiii," The prod- ucts of hydration wi-igli more than the siibstaiitcs forming tlieni. Ninety (larls of starch, fur iiiMance. will iiirnish 100 parts of sugar (dextrose). Ill tW6o Mustdus .I'ivano.l the theory (.\i.ri.-ilen .kr Chemic und Phy.sik. 55. page 203) that dexirin im not an intcmiciliary product lielivocn Plarth and sns^r. hut thai ik-xlrii! and sugar are produced from plarch simuhani'oti-ly. either (hroiigh the action of acids or diastase. Thi? theory foimd general acceptance .imong chemi'ls. In /f<7» Schttart^er found (Journal fur Practische Chemie) that f/ie rcriipcraliirc .it hIijcIi inversion of sVaic\\ \w\i- ^\\?,a,T Wkcs place is of confi'dcrablc itilhiencc in diitermwi\ift \\ie T';\a\^wt fo- J* CHEMISTRY. 421 :pot1iOD of sugar and dextrin produced, and that consequently the dKmical process of inversion did not always proceed as Musculus (appcMcd, according to the formula : 3C. H,. O, + 2H, O ^ zG H„ O. + C H„ O. Starch. Water. Sugar. Dextrin. In 1871 Griessmayer discovered that among the products of hydration of starch are present two kinds of dextrin. A yrar later Brucker named one of these variations of dextrins "erythro- dextrin" (red dextrin), and the other "achroo-dextrin" (colorless dextrin), the first having the property of being colored red by iodine, while Ihe second remains colorless. In 1872, O'SuUivan, while engaged in the study of the action of fresh malt extract on the dextrins just mentioned, found that the sugar formed is not dextrose, as iiad been supposed up to that time, but another sugar, isolated first by De Saussure, as early as 1819, from the products of hydration of starch, but named "maltose" by Duhrunfaunt only in 1847. O'Sullivan was the first who informed us of the influence of temperature, time and concentration on the relative amounts of maltose and dextrin re- sulting from the action of malt extract on starch. According to O'Sullivan's investigation the relative proportion of maltose to dextrin is much higher in case inversion takes place at*a tem- perature below 145° F., than at about IS5° F. In 1878 Musculus and Gruber expressed the opinion that the Starch molecule is disintegrated by the action of diastase in suc- cessive stages. First a molecule of maltose and a molecule of a dextrin arc formed, having a molecular weight nearly as high as starch. This dextrin is in its turn split up into maltose and dex- trin of lower molecular weight, until a dextrin is formed on which diastase does not act imdcr usual conditions. In 1879 Brown and Heron made valuable contributions lo our knowledge of llie action of diastase on starch. They found, first, that diastase has no effect on unruptured potato starch; sec- ondly, that when starch was ground in a mortar with quartz, sand, etc., it was slowly transformed by diastase into maltose and dextrin at a low temperature; thirdly, that gelatinized starch is quickly liquefied in the cold, and slowly transformed into maltose and dextrin ; fourthly, that the action oj maW tulta.'A, a.\\.ct Ve-i\- mg, was materially changed as to its power ol \ivi«t=.\o^,'^'o-'^ ■wA as to its power of /iqiicfying starcli; fiUWy, \.W\. VV«. x*.**:^-*' 423 CHEICISTRY. amoonts of maltose and dextrin formed below 140* F. wen about the same, while at temperatures above 140* F. the relative amount of maltose decreased and that of dextrin increased; sixthly, that at higher temperatures, dexirins are formed that are, as far as their molecular structure is concerned (erythro-dex- trin), closer to starch than those formed at lower temperatures (achroo-dextrins) ; seventhly, that the action of diastase is much retarded in alltaline solutions, while ery thro- dextrin is foimed at the same time. The experiments of Brown and Fleron, besides being of great practical interest, enabled them to formulate a theory which coin- cided with that expressed by hfusculus and Gruber. They regard soluble starch as a conipkx of 10 groups of Ci> H» Oi«. By the action of diastase one of these groups unites uiti) water, forming maltose, while the remaining nine are left as erylhro-dexirin. This, in turn, loses one of Its Cn H» O'lt groups by combination with water, forming maltose and leaving a dextrin with eight Cii Hs 0^< groups, etc. Brown and Heron assume, therefore, the existence of nine ditlerent dextrins. which goes to illustrate the exceedingly complex nature of the process of the breaking down of the starch molecules. In 1879 Hertzfeld (Inaugural Dissertation. Halle) found in the products of starch hydration a body which he described as being intermediate between achroo- dextrin and m.iltose. and which he termed mallo-dextrin. He assumed that it w.i; composed of two molecules of dextrin aud one of dextrose. The results of a number of experiments made by Brown and Morris, and communicated in 1S85 (Journal Chemical Society, 1885. page 52;), and later (Trans. Lab, Club HI, 4, i8ga Brewing Trade Review, 1895) led them to enunciate the so- called malto-dexirin or amykiin theory of the hydration of starch by diastase. They view the starch molecule as composed of five dextrin molecules, four of which are grouped an'mid a central dextrin molecule. When acted upon by diasln'e llic four groups are readily split off and hydrated, yieldini; be-iiles maltose a number of niallo-dcxtrinf:. that is. bodies containing dextrin and niallosc in varying proportions, while ihc centrally grouped mole- ca)e oi de.vlrin is st.ible, that is, it undergoes hydration only with extreme difficulty. The clieinical equation ioi i.\\\^ ^lotes^ U the ^//on-ing': CHEMISTRY. 423 5 {C« H- 0„)- = (C„ H, 0,.)» + 4 iQ^ 4^4 CHEMISTRY. while isoinallosc and the achroo-dexlrins I and II remain prac- tically intact during the principal fermenlation, but are graditallr hydrated, changed to dextrose, and fermented during the second- ary fermentation, achroo-dextrin III alone resisting the attack of the yeast. A similar view was also expressed by Krieger about ■imultancously tviih Prior. The theories of Brown and Morris and Lintner have not as yet become reconciled, and iherc are observers, basing their views on original work, who dispute the validity of both, for instance, Schcibler and Mittelmaier (Berichte dcr deutschen Chem. Gesell- schaft, i8Q3, page 2,93a), and Ost (Chemikerztg., 1895, page 1,501). Be this as it may, practical brewing operations may be understood and explained by either hypothesis, although as far as top- fermenting beverages, like stock ale and stout, are concerned, it ■ecms as if the phenomena and the results of the methods of . mashing, as well as of those of the subsequent treatment of beer, called for the existence of malto-dcxirins in explanation. PEPTASE AND ALBUMEN. The inquiry into the interaction between peplase and the albu- men of barley or mall has not yet furnished so satisfactory re- sults as that relative to diastase and starch. This interaction seems to be of a still more complex naltire than in the case of diastase, a large number of diflffrcnt products resulting, most of which still awail characlerizalion. On account of the difficulty of their isolation and their evanescent nature these products have not received the allenlion of observers in the science of brew- ing that their importance as desirable or undesirable constituents of the beer seems lo merit. There consequently still remains much diversity of opinion regarding proteolytic action, as the hydration of albumen by eniymcs is termed, while some investiga- tors have gone so far as altogether 10 dispute the very existence of any proteolytic enzyme (peptase) in barley or malt. Since pcpiase has aft yd been isolated, the process of hydra- tion or peptonization by peptase must still be regarded as an hypo- thetical one. So many products are known lo be formed, however, during the germination and mashing processes, that are very similar to. if not idcnlkal with, those w\vic\\ tei^uU Uom the Jct/o„ of the enzymes like pepsin and ttjpsvn on awwwA iHmi- CHEMISTRY. 425 mm nndcr similar conditions, that the existence of a vegetable catjme in barley and malt has all along been considered inost pndMblc. The nomenclature adopted for the animal albumens and the products obtained by the action of the animal enzymes, pepsin sod trypsin, on them, has, on account of this general similarity, been extended to the vegetable albumens and the products of the action of the hypothetical vegetable enzyme — peptase. Thus we have animal and vegetable albumen, animal and vegetable proteida, animal and vegetable atbumoscs or proteoses (as albumoses are also called), animal and vegetable peptones, animal and vegetable amides. That the vegetable albuminoids (this term comprises albumen and all nitrogenous bodies derived therefrom) must in every particular be identical nith those of animal origin is. how- ever, improbable, considering their very complex nature. So we need not be surprised to lintl some of the reactions thai character- itc animal nitrogenous bodies fail when applied to the vegetable substances, as has been shown to be the case of late by Lascynski and H. I^e, who found that certain tests which are used to de- tect the presence of animal peptones, when applied to wort, give negative results. Thai conclusions in this field of research should be made only nith great caution is proved by the fact that soon after these observers had expressed the view based upon their investigations, that peptase did not exist, Windisch proved con- clusively that germinating barley does develop a proteolytic en- zyme (peplasc), although he has tip lo this writing not yet made communication of its isolation. Until it has been isolated and its action upon vegetable albumen studied, we can only infer what the process may be like, by study- ing the known action of the animal enzymes, pepsin and trypsin. If an egg is boiled hard, ihc white of it cut up in small parts and grated through a sieve and placed in water containing 0.2 per cent of hydrochloric acid and a very small amount of pepsin added, and this mixture kept at 100° F. (30° R.) for a few hours, most of the albumen will be found dissolved, and the hitrale may be heated to 190° F. (70° R,) without producing coagulation. If heated above 190° F. (70° R,) to boiling point, or neutraliired, a coagulate forms which is composed of ayntomtv, cox^e^'^Qtv&Wi prohaWj- lo the brewet's coagulable proteiAs. O^ ftvt aSai\«\\wi\*A remaining in solution, part are precipiUted 'A tVt wAvftl^Qtv 'i'^ t^"^- 426 CHEHISTKY. nraled with ammonium sulphate. The precipitaled anMunimnds are known as proteoses or albumoses, while the substances that remain in solution after saturation with ammonium sulphate arc called peptones. The peptones are not acted upon anj further by pepnn, but yield readily to the influence of another animal enzyme, trypsin, which changes the peptones into amides. Since germinated barley and wort contain large quantities of amides, as the composition of malt and wort shows, this indicates that there is quite an en- ergetic proteolytic enzyme contained in malt which carries the breaking up of the albumen to a farther stage than even pepsin is capable of doing. These various products, like proteids, albu- moses, peptones and amides, are not well defined characteristic bodies like maltose and dextrose, but each name comprises a group of more or less numerous bodies, each group being charac- terized by a similar behavior of each of its members toward reriain reagents and under certain conditions, just as is the case with certain products of starch hydration, like the members of the group dextrin, which are characterised as nn ferment able, or the members of the sugar group, which arc characterized as fermentable. As to the practical importance of these different albuminoids during the process of breiving and as constituents of the finished beer, little was known before the last decade. With the exception of the amides, which were regarded as valuable as furnishing the nitrogenous nutriment required by the yeast, the albuminoids as a body ivcre supposed lo exert a detrimental influence on the properties of beer, impairing its brilliancy and durability, and the English brewing chemists of to-day still bold the opinion that the aini of the brewer fliould be to reduce the amount of albu- minoids of the wort to a minimum. In 1893 (American Brewers' Review, iftlj. Vol. VII. pages 185 and 201) R. Wahl read paper before the United Stales Brcwmasters' Association, to claim attention for the importance of the albuminoids of the beer, showing thai some of them, like proteids (those which are rendered insoluble by high or very low temperatures) may become obnoxious, but others, like the pep- lones. are conducive to palate-fulness and foam-holding capacity, wAz/e /Ac amides had long since been recognvtei as stT-jvo^ as nourisiintent lor the yeast. WahUs claim as lo i\w '"i'**- '='^ ** CHEMISTRY. 427 peptones was based on (he simple experiment of preparing solu- (ioni of dextrin and sus^rs in difFercnt amonnts as well as so1u- tioDS of peptones obtainable in the market, charging these solu- tiotu with carbonic acid gas, cooling and pouring into a glass, when it was found that the solutions containing only 0.5 and 0.3 per cent of peptones had a more creamy head of foam than the lolution with either 5 or 3 per cent of dextrin or sugar, while the (olution of 0.5 per rent of peptone was as full to the taste as the one containing s per cent of dextrin. Thus *as established for the first time the fact that peptones have a much greater effect in gtvinR palate-fniness to the beer than either sugar or dextrin, which latter substance had up to that time been supposed by all observers to be principally concerned in imparting foam-holding capacity and palate-fulness. In 1894 (American Brewers' Review, 1894, Vol. Vll, page S19>, Wahl and Nilson published the results of elaborate researches regarding the nature and importance of the albuminoids of beer. In this investigation the current division of the albuminoids into proteids, peptones and amides was accepted, the peptones includ- ing the albumoscs. By proteids were meant those albuminoids which arc easily precipitated in wort or beer by such processes as boiling, storage at low temperature and pasteurization, and can be analytically determined by precipitation with cupric hy- droxide or acetate of lead. The peptones include those substances which are not prccipitable by cupric hydroxide, but are pre- cipitated by phosphoro-tungstic acid or tannin, the remaining nitrogenous bodies being classed as amides. The following results were obtained (American Brewers' Re- view. Vol. VII, page s8o) : 1. In different malt mashes held for an hour and a half at 68, 77, 86. 100, 104, 113, 131, 149, 158. 167° F. (16, zo, 24, 30, 32. 36, 44. 52, 56, 60° R.) it Mas found that the largest amount of total nitrogenous bodies passed into solution at 113° F. (36° R.),.but was very nearly the same for all temperatures between 100° and 149° (30-52° R.). while above 149° the amount decreased rapidly with this temperature, 2. It these temperatures were maintained for a longer period (three hours), the amount of tolal nitroRewiMS 'itAw'!. ™««.-i>5**i. 31 temperatures below 149° F. (65° R.") , \ivrt ntA tf«v; Albumen 0,467 0.323 Proteids 0.056 Peptones 0.129 0.179 Amides 0.283 0,043 Proteids in per cent of to- tal Albumen 12.2 Peptones 27,4 80,6 Amides 60,4 19.4 Taking the albuminoids found after misiiiR malt with boiling water to represent those pre-exlstent in the malt, ibe result shows that the wort contains about double the amount when mashed at as low a temperature as 77° F, (20° R.) and nearly three times the amount when mashed at the temperature most favorable to the action of peptase. The soluble albuminoids pre-existcnt in the malt consist, for the gre.itcr part, of peptones, while those found in the wort formed during mashing are mostly amides, 5. The concentration of the m.ish docs not exert any appreciable influence upon the amount of the albuminoids contained in the resulting wort within the ratios of malt to water of i to S and i to 2V4. (American Brewers' Review. Vol. VIII, page 641,) 6. The proportion of amides to the total amount of nitrogenous substances rem.iins unchanged for difTcreul concentrations and tcnipcrniiiref, 7- The nmount o! nitrogenous bodies ta\;eTi liom vVt ■«qi\ 4>m- I'ng fermentation by the yeast (American Btev;water. Artesian water. Well water. Lake water. River water. Rain water as usually collected. The amount of organic matter is the less, the deeper the water is taken from the ground, and, on the other hand, the greater, the longer it remains in contact with putrefying substances on the surface of the soil. "Degrees of Hardness." For the purpose of comparing the hardness of different waters certain standards are in use, which are as follows: I German degree of hardness: i part lime, calculated on calcium oxide, in 100,000 parts water. I French degree of hardness: i part carbonate of lime in 100,000 parts water. I British degree of hardness: i grain carbonate of lime in I British gallon of water. The amounts of the various constituents of a water arc staled in parts per 100,000, or per million parts of water. In the United States they are mostly stated in grains per United States gallon. ACTION OF CONSTITUENTS HELD IN SOLUTION. If the substances enumerated occur in the water in consid- erable quantities, their action is felt in the following manner: 1. Organic matters and microorganisms promote putrefac- tion and mold. 2. Ammonia, while harmless in itself, indicates the presence of putrefying matter and bacteria of putrefaction. 3. Nitrous acid hinders saccharification, is a strong yeast poi- son, may cause disturbances in fermentation, and, being a product of ammonia oxidation, indicates the presence of products of putrefaction. In fermentations at high temperatures (top-fer- mentation) the beer may acquire an oflFensivc odor, as of chlorine (Windisch). 4. Nitric acid is injurious only if present in quantities by impeding steeping and the beginning of germination, hindering the development of the radicle. In the presence of de-nitrifying (reducing) bacteria, nitric acid may be transformed into nitrous acid, which will then exercise its pcrmcious \u^\\led with a simultaneous large amount of ammonia, makes a water suspicious, as it suggests the possibility of infection by drainage, particularly sewage, animal or human excre- ments and bacteria. The chlorine compounds have the following action: Sodium chloride delays steeping of the barley and the begin- ning of germination, impedes the development of the rootlets, and promotes the growth of the acrospire. Magnesium, or calcium chloride, has a similar action in malting, and is particularly detrimental in boiler feed water since it has a powerful corrosive action on the boiler shell. 6. Lime. a. Sulphate of lime is desirable for malting and brewing, par. ticularly for producing pale beers. It extracts from the barley less of the valuable constituents, precipitates albuminoids in boil- ing more completely and in more coarsely flocculent form, while extracting less of the coarse and rank matters from hops. It 18 undesirable for boiler feeding, as it forms very hard scale. b. Carbonate of lime. On the whole, rather unimportant, un- desirable for boiler feeding, if in large quantities, as it forms scale ; desirable constituent for the production of extra pale beers. c. Calcium chloride. See under Chlorine. 7. Magnesia. A moderate amoimt is desirable. Larger quan- tities often cause diarrhoea, magnesia having a strong laxative action. For magnesium chloride, see under Chlorine. 8. Sodium. According to researches in the laboratory of Wahl & Hcnius, bicarbonate of soda, making a water alkaline, is undesirable, even in small quantities. In malting it hinders the growth of the acrospire, in brewing it weakens the diastase, and thereby delays saccharification of the mash. Gives dark colored beers, stubborn of clarification. Neutralizes the lactic acid of the wort, and hence the beer is more expostd to ihc action of microorganisms, increasing the liability to bacterial turbidity. In boiler feed water it is apt to cause foaming. For sodium chloride see under Chlorine, 9. Iron, in larger quantities, produces an off-colored, gray malt, darkens the wort in mashing by uniting with the hop tannin to tannate of iron (ink), which imparls to l\v^ \>^^x ;ixv wnVj v-a.'t^.^ Colors yeast dark. 440 BREWING MATERIALS. FBOPERTIES OF BREWING WATER. The fitness of a water is judged by the purpose for which it is to be used. Thus : 1. For malting: Pure, moderately hard water, with gypsum, poor in nitrates, iron and chlorine compounds, practically free from decaying organic matter, microorganisms (molds, bacteria of putrefaction), ammonia. Excessively soft water extracts too much mineral matter from the barley, which is required for yeast food. The temperature of the water should be uniform, for cold water delays the steeping process, warm water accel- erates it, but also promotes noxious mold growth. Fluctuating temperatures produce irregular steeping. 2. For Brewing. Moderately hard water, with a certain amount of sulphate of lime and common salt, poor in sodt and iron; for very pale beers, poor in carbonates. The purity of the water is of less moment in this respect, as long as the water remains without odor or taste, since microorganisms are ren- dered innocuous by boiling the wort. 3. For Washing Tanks, Bottles, Barrels, etc. Water should be without any considerable amount of decaying matter. 4. For Watering Yeast. Moderately hard, pure water from springs or shallow wells. Condensed water is best, after hard- ening, by adding plaster of Paris. 5. For Dissolving Finings. . Soft water of good purity. 6. For Steam Boiler. The softest water that can be had, par- ticularly free from sulphate of lime, sodium carbonate, chlorides of calcium and magnesium and organic matter. 7. For Cooling. Water should be free from acids and without too great temporary hardness, since the precipitated carbonates would, in the course of time, stop up the pipes. 8. For Watering Horses. Moderately hard, pure water. IMPROVING WATER. If a water does not come up to all requirements, it may in many cases be improved by a variety* of means. Purifying from suspended matter and bacteria. Impure water with an excess of substances in suspension or of micro-organisms is purified by filtration through sand or other filterinpf devices, and the number of bacteria materially diminished. The con- struction of a sand filter, easy of preparation, may be seen from the accompanying s/cetch. '* BREWING MATERIALS. 44I XiaU OF TYPICAL AHEMCAN WATEKS (laBORATORV OF WAHL A UBNIUS, CHICAGO). Mineral const ilue no. (re Kiven in Rniu pci Kalian. 1 1 3' 5 1 a 1 i 1 1 f WaMr wlib larRe Alhkllne walvT AlkalliH: water rJo'iint of Gl»*ii- 11 ■ts B7.4 1:S 31.1 it n P lis U.I 13.3 14 t' 7.4 o"i »,i ill 10.0 I2J WO Nfotrul Alkallnf Alkaline KeHlm Kuuiru Keutrol Nciilral Neulral *7.1i »l.4 8,2 Tn«e O.B TtWM S.» t.o »,T US ■'i',! True 2.4 Hediiim soti wuLer 0,1 4.« 1.0 ST.S Bifl i:S Walvr ot tempo- WaiuT ut umtm- raryl.iirdcics«.... Waiir o( perms 1 1 ".... '11 .... ™,s tj.i An excess of organic matters, ill-snielling gases and iron may be diminished or removed by artificial aeration, the air blown through oxidizing the organic matters, carrying off the gases, and transforming the iron into insoluble iron oxidf . whicb. settles on the boilom. The water may be aeT-o.\e4\>'j \^\■Ev"L\\■^^^■i»^ ivater over the sarface cooler, Over bviT>4\e& oi V«v%^ V^j^-^Sw- 442 BREWING MATERIALS. werk), by a sprinkling rose, or forcing-in air. A suitable terat- ing device may be constructed with the aid of an old storage tank according to the accompanying sketch. Water may also be im- proved by boiling. Hardening waters that arc loo soft (Burionizing). An addi- tion of plaster of Paris, sulphate of magnesia, or common sail, preferably in a powder in the hot water lank, will make soft water more suitable, particularly for very pale beers. The s of these sails to be applied are governed by the prop- ' water in question. BREWING MATERIALS. 443 Making Injurious Constituents Indifferent. If a water contains an excess of alkaline carbonates (soda), it is improved by an addition of a suitable amount of calcium chloride. This salt will neutralize the alkaline carbonates, but the quantities to be added must be accurately calculated. The chlorides of magnesium and calcium are modified into the harmless carbonates of magnesium and calcium .by an ad- dition of carbonate of sodium. Sulphate of sodium is changed into sulphate of lime and common salt by an addition of calcium chloride. Softening hard water, particularly for boiler feeding: 1. By boiling. This is useful for temporary hardness only. If a water of temporary hardness is boiled for half an hour and allowed to settle or filtered before using, the bicarbonate of calcium and magnesia will be eliminated and the water soft- ened. 2. By chemicals. Feed-water may be softened either before , or after it enters the boiler, the latter course being preferable. It is best done (see Boiler Compounds) by adding: Precipitates : Soda lye (caustic soda). Sodium carbonate (crystal- lized or washing soda). Trisodium phosphate. Sodium fluoride. Milk of lime (only outside of the boiler). Bicarbonate of lime and magnesia. Sulphate of lime. Sulphate of lime and bicar- bonate of lime and magnesia. Sulphate of lime and bicar- bonate of lime and magnesia. Bicarbonate of lime and magnesia. It is indispensable to have the water analyzed before treatment. Where the above remedies are used, the minerals that cause the temporary or permanent hardness are eliminated not in the form of a solid crust, but in a powder-like, muddy condition, and can be ejected by blowing off, if the boiler compound was added in the boiler, after the boiler has cooled down, otherwise the pre- cipitated powder will harden into solid pieces. In using caustic soda, sodium carbonate, trisodium phosphate, and sodium fluoride in the boiler, the requisite amount, which has been previously accurately calculated, is either pumped into the boiler in the form of a concenlralcd so\v\V\ow, o\/\vv "Ocv^ ^30.^ o/the drst two articles, the requisite amouivX. f.^^^ vvoV \>^ vlAox- 444 BREWING MATERIALS. lated in advance, but the concentrated solution is kept running into the boiler until a sample of the water will color red litmus paper slightly blue. From time to time this test is re- peated and more concentrated solution added if necessary. The four above articles may also be used outside of the boiler; also milk of lime, which is efficient only for temporary hardness. In using mWk of lime for temporary hardness, first note the parts per million of carbonate of lime contained in the vrater, multiply the figures by 0014 and the product will give the nifnber of pounds of burnt lime to be taken per 100 barrels of vtatcr, slake the lime in a little water, stir it to a thin milk of lime, and add to the water, which should be in a tank provided with exhaust steam. Stir well, heat to a boil, and boil for 15 minutes, let settle, and after two hours draw off the clear water. Sodium carbonate, often called soda, is used sometimes to- gether with substances containing tannic acid, as extracts from the bark of trees. If inferior material is employed in making this compound a peculiar odor may be imparted to the steam,, precluding its use in the mash-tub or cooker, in fact, wherever live steam is used. ENGLISH BREWING WATERS. Sykes treats at length on the requirements of brewing waters in England. The following quotation is from his book, "Prin- ciples and Practice of Brewing," 1897. pp. 375 to 377. Waters Adapted for Producing Pale Ales. — The waters most suitable for the production of pale ales are those which contain calcium sulphate in fairly large quantity. Of these the Burton waters may be taken as typical examples. The following are the results of an analysis of the water from a deep well situated in that town: (All analyses of English waters are given in Eng- lish weights and measures.) Grains per gallon. Silica 0.49 Alumina 0.49 Iron oxide trace Lime . , 3^-33 Magnesia 10.15 Soda 7.25 Potash 0.86 Chlorine 2.yj Su/phun'c acid 5^-29 -Citric acid. "1.25 Grains per gallon. Sodium chloride 3.90 Potassium sulphate 1.59 Sodium nitrate 1.97 Sodium sulphate 10.21 Calcium sulphate 77.87 Calcium carbonate 7.62 Magnesium carbonate... 21.31 Silica and alumina 0.98 445 la this and similar waters the unotuit of calciimi sulphate is exceeding]]' high, whilst a fair amount of calcium and magnesium carbonates, which are precipitated on boiling, are also present; tbe chlorides are very small in quantity. The amount of calcium sulphate in this particular water is undoubtedly very large, and moU probably all the passible beneficial effect to be derived itotn the presence of calcium sulphate in a brewing water may be obtained with from 40 to 50 grains per gallon of that salt Waters Suitablt for Black Beers.^Aa a contrast to this class of waters, an analysis of one of the Dublin well waters is ap- pended: Grains per gallon. Silica 0.26 Iron oxide and alumina, . 0.34 Lime 9.79 Magnesia 0.43 Soda 0.97 Chlor' sper gallor Sodium chloride. . Calcium sulphate 4.45 Calcium carbonate 14^1 Magnesium carbonate — 0.90 Iron oxide and alumina. . o^ Silica 0.26 Sulphuric acid.. Waters of this class are distinguished by the small quantity of calcium sulphate and all the other constituents, with the excep:ion of calcium carbonate, which they contain. This l^st salt is almost entirely removed on boiling such a water. Waters Pitted for Mild Ales, — The following Is the analysis of a water adapted for the production of mild ales : Grains per Sodiu chlor all"™. 35-14 Calcium chloride 3.88 Calcium sulphate 6.23 Calcium carbonate 16,37 Magnesium carbonate, .,, 4.01 Iron oxide and alumina, a.24 Silica o,aa gallon. Iron oxide and alumina. 0.24 Lime 13.13 Magnesia i.gi Soda 18,62 Chlorine 23.81 Sulphuric acid 3,67 The essential characteristic of this class of waters is the high amount of chlorides and the comparatively small amount of cal- cium sulphate which they contain. ARTIFICIAL TREATMENT OF BREWING WATERS. From the above generalizations of the inotarnvt tciTv^\!\\.-'j.'A'SR ti\ those waters which have been found bj cx^m'wtvcc. \(i^«.*w,''^^^ fitted tor the production of the difietcnl c\as«ft ol s^**- '*■ ■" 446 BREWING MATERIALS. obvious that no single water possesses the qnalifications necessary for producing every class of beer. Fortunately, the knowledge acquired during the past few jrears has shown that it is possible so to modify the inorganic constitution of many waters that this important result may be attained. Some waters do not lend them- selves so readily to this treatment, and there still remain others which it is absolutely impossible to convert into good brewing waters. As an example of the first of these may be adduced the waters from the chalk, which are very frequently met with, and which are highly valued for brewing purposes. The following is the analysis of one of these : Grains per gallon. Calcium chloride 0.21 Sodium chloride a84 Grains per gallon. Calcium carbonate 17.92 Magnesium carbonate 0.49 Calcium sulphate 0.07 Potassium sulphate 0.56 Magnesium nitrate 1.05 Silica 1.12 Such a water as this, without any other treatment than boiling. is eminently fitted for the production of black beers, since, when boiled, the carbonates are almost completely precipitated, and very little solid matter of any kind remains in solution. To convert such a water into one suitable for the production of pale ales, an addition of those salts in which the water is deficient must be made, and its inorganic constitution brought more into agreement with that of a water of Type I., of which an analysis has just been given. Thatcher says that the majority of methods suggested from time to time for the artificial treatment of brewing waters or liquors have proved more or less unsatisfactory. He recommends • to make a solution of all the salts, and then add in the liquor tank prior to heating for mashing. He gives the table printed on the next page for the treatment of waters (Brewing and Malting Practically Considered, 1898, pp. 10 to 11). (If any brewing waters possess saline or alkaline substances dif- ferent to those given in the table, they should, where possible, be so altered in character as to bring them to this standard. If pres- ent in excess of the figures in the table, the addition of more will be unneccssarv*. but when a water is deficient in these inorganic substances, they shou\(l be added as directed.) [.\i.e.&ifiL3, lUUE FOR TBS TXEATySNT OF SOFT WATEK TOS rABXOUS B -Mine or AUaltno SMIb 11 II 1 I r' 3S Is 3||S m ■^s,,""""" 90 40 « " - - tb% "SST-""-" Id Ifi - - - M» CUdiimcblorLdB. U> JS - - - - NX 10 ^ - • » - (ii.c:i) ISiw*^ ~ 30 ~ ~ % ass Sodl'im carbonate HajCO, - - - - " - a% Tmfl]|,Tiilii8,'vri:iill>iT, ao (^ -.u w 45 as — GERMAN BREWING WATERS. Thausing gives a number of analyses of brewing waters used in Germany and Austria, which are condensed in the following table: Ii 1 1 II II 1 1 i 1 a" a 1 1= (iallon. brill.. Munlcb, ,, „. ,. 11. Total mttdiio o.u 's"i J;Sf li.oe si il 11 o'.u 9.4< II ill 31. » 18.71 ss.so 12, OS "aier sn.ss T.W liitU 10. « "i'-ih Din 0.18 !:!? If&'Sdr:;; lllt'o m""-"* oVs" .67 O.*' o.'aa' .... FS'S-«S-» Bardnea. In Oat- »..U.. ffilSft ■ma A. -\. 44^ BREWIKG MATERIALS. EXTRACT-YIELDING BREWING MATERIALS. From the materials which yield the extract, the wort receives, in a general way, the following constituents: 1. Sugar. 2. Dextrin. 3. Albuminoids. 4. Mineral substances. 5. Lactic acid. The starch-containing materials give all of these substances, the sugars only sugar or dextrin. Sugar and dextrin are products of starch inversion. The albuminoids are modifications of the insoluble albuminoids of various materials All the constituents extracted from the materials by water, largely with the aid of enzymes, are comprehcndetl under the term "extract." On the whole, a material is the more valuable the more extract it will supply. If it is desired to use other materials besides malt, their value is estimated by 1. The amount of extract they will yield in the mash. 2. The composition of such extract. As a general proposition, the malt adjuncts contain insijjnifi- cant amounts of desirable albuminoids, lactic acid and mineral substances, consisting very largely of starch (except the sugars). STARCH-CONTAINING BREWING MATERLVLS. The starch-containing materials arc the principal ones, in point of quantity, that are used in brewing. Some arc used in a malted condition as barley and wheat malt, others arc used un- malted and are called raw cereals, among which the main ones are corn, rice, prepared corn, also rolled wheat. Although other materials may be used, they must remain adjuncts, the greater amount of barley malt being indispensable. The value of starch material is governed by 1. The amount of starch. 2. The readiness with which this starch can be opened up or made available. 3. The composition of the extract obtained. BRBWING Uaterials. 449 j BARLEY. J/ji/ory.— The history ot barley culture In the western states o! the Union may be dated from the settlement of German pioneers in the territory which ia now the state ot Ohio. It is not known from what seed the Ohio fall barley, which, until 1888, was the only kind used (or malting; in Ohio, was derived. The time when brewing barley from the western states began to be a factor in the markets of the Union may be fixed about 1875-1880. In the eastern statea only local or Canadian barley was used u;> to that time, although at present they are the principal markets lor western barley and malt. It was difficult to convince the brewers that the continual improvement of western barley owing to its closer relation to the soil was really worthy of considera- tion. Wisconsin and Iowa at that time were growing a barley which was called Scotch and adapted itself most completely to the soil. Minnesota and Nebraska were raising a Canadian variety. All of them stuck to the original seed, with few varia- tions. The climate proving mifavorable there, Nebraska has ceased to occupy an important place among ihe barley growing QUALITIES OF BARLEYS OF OIFFEBEHT STATES. Some western states, principally the Dakotas, grow a barley which is steadily improving. It was derived from the European Saalc barley. The Pacific Coast and Montana raise a fine barley, called Chevalier and Bay Brewing, which is derived from Saale, Manna and Moravian barley. This product is, for the most part, marketed on the Pacific Coast and in Europe. Numerous tests have shown (hat the barleys of the middle West are best suited for the preparation ot American malt and American beer. The soil of Ihe States of Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa is peculiarly fitted for growing barley, being largely made up of eak:ircous clay and rather sandy. Often, however, the barley suffers from sudden changes in temperature. The chinch bug has been gradually forcing the barley fields further north, and extensive regions in Southern Wisconsin have given up barley growing altogether on account of the bug. Taking an average, Iowa barley comes first in color, form, and mealiness of the berries. Wisconsin gives a bi^?,fi Vt-^-^-i "A medium and often pale color with an incVmalKcm Vo-w^^i ^ii.=,^\'Ml^^ Minnesota barley Is smaller. Dakota barU-^ w ^eX.'i'cv^ '^e-VJ 450 BREWING MATERIALS. from year to year, but will have to undergo a more ext^sive test before its character can be considered settled. Wiscbnsin and Minnesota have a soil peculiarly suited for barley groWing, whereas the climate is better in the latter state and Iowa. Ohio and Indiana play no great part as barley growers. Northern Illinois may be taken into consideration, but is losing gnmod fast in favor of more northerly regions on account of the cbinch bug. InAuence of Feriiiisers on the Quality of Barley.— In rasing barley farmers are apt to make a mistake in using fresh manure and too much of it This promotes the growth of straw and thick husks, and augments the quantity of albuminoids at the ex- pense of the starch. Proper manuring, uniform seeding, 4ccp plowing and good aeration of the soil are highly important re- quirements to grow good brewing barley. In order to aroid vitreous corns the grain ought not to be cut before it is quite ripe, as is quite generally done. VARIATION OF BARLEY OWING TO THE CLIMATE. American barley differs from European in that it has no such firmly established character as to permit of adopting any rule that could be applied with any degree of certainty to its treat- ment. The reason is to be looked for in the frequent siiduen changes of weather and temperature. STORAGE OF BARLEY. Barley should be put in storage perfectly dry and well cleaned. It requires careful watching, especially in the summer time, to avoid heating. After remaining in storage through the summer until fall it is very desirable for malting until the new crop has fully matured. But there will be a loss of five to ten per cent of the germinating capacity at the end of the first j-ear. SUPERIORITY OF SIX-ROW BARLEY OVER TWO-ROW VARIETIES FOR AMERICAN BEER. We distinguish, in the main, two different varieties o\ barley, viz., the two-row or Chevalier barley, used mainly in Germany and Austria, and the six-row barley, employed almost exclusively /or malting in the United States. 1^ BREWING MATERIALS. 45I Aside from the readily apparent differences in size of berry and amount of starch and busk, the two-row barley being larger, CDfilaining in proportion more starch and less husk, there is, from the standpoint of American brewing, a decided ad- vantage to be gained by employing the six-row barley. Ac- cording to researches made in Ihc laboratory of Wahl & He.TO.vw.' Scientific Station for Brewing, ihe maU^ Vtowv wiOtv ivi.-^'ys hirley arc richer in diastatic and pepVOTttiTOR v^"*""- ^'^ '^''"^ ' 453 BBBWIH^ MATEBXAU. niisIlJilB there fs QOt ontf no difficulty encpuntered in thf in- verHOU of the «tarch conli^ined.- in the malt, but Urge aniin uitnvltcd cerea|s can he taken care of very re^Iiljr, tFrom Lehrbui while the resulting nons are, at the same time, richer in il ahle albuminoids — amides, peptones, and albumoses — and proieids (ormed, on the other hand, are much more readily precip- itaUd by boiling or by subsequent cooling than in worls pro- duced from malts from tno-row barleys. \k BREWING MATERIALS. 454 BREWING MATERIALS. Hence, the six-row barley as it is grown in Wisconsin, Hin- nesota and Iowa is superior to the two-row barley as gibwn in Dakota, Montana, Utah and the Coast, lor fight-colored bee«, in the production of which large proportioos of unmalted cerealslike com or rice are used. Such beers are^ at the same time, aore durable on account of the decreased amount of proteids ihey contain while the palatefulness and foam-holding capacity nay be fully up to the standard of the German beers, unless too nnch raw cereal is used, since these two properties are mainly de- pendent on the amounts of amides, peptones, and albumises yielded by the malt. These great advantages are supplemented by the deciled facility with which the processes of steeping, growing, and Idln- drying can be carried out, the barley absorbing water more readily on account of its smaller diameter, growing quicker on account of the larger amount of diastase and peptase developed, and admitting of proper kiln-drying more readily on account of the easier escape of the moisture out of the smaller kernel. ANATOMICAL SIBUCTURE OF THE BARLEYCORN. Along one side of the barleycorn there runs a depression Dr furrow the whole length of the berry. A section of a corn made lengthwise through this furrow will show the interior as in tke accompanying sketch. The following principal parts are distinguished in the barley- corn: 1. Husk, consisting of spelt (epidermis) or exterior husk, and testa, the latter being subdivided into the pericarp and the seed integument. 2. The mealy part, called the endosperm. 3. The rudimentary germ, called the embryo. 4. The basal bristle, which serves to catch moisture from the air and conduct it to the berry. The husk and the endosperm are separated by the alcurone layer. CONSTITUENTS OF BARLEYCORN. The husk, which serves the purpose of protecting the barley- corn, consists in the main of cellulose and contains some pig- ment The endosperm constitutes the greater put\ o\ \\\t W\x>- ;i.ud -on tains the starch granules, which in turn ^te lu^vde vi\> o\ %\tvtOcv BREWING MATERIALS. 455 ghitulose, or starch proper, and starch cellulose, {orming the Otthr cover of the starch granule. Ihe germ, located at the lower end of the berry, is a rudi- nteiCary plant, pre-formed in all parts, including leaves, stem and roots. The germ contains most of the (at present in the Krain. The aleurone layer is rich in albuminous bodies, which, how- ever, are also found scattered throughout the berry. besides, the berry contains mineral matters, as silicic acid and phosphates, particularly those of lime, magnesia and potassium; alsD small amounts ot sulphates and a little iron. Wisconsin eul UWh3-row.... Iowa cholc« • . row& obolce.. , s.n The constituents of barley besides moisture may be grouped according to their chemical classification, as follows: I. Carbohydrates, the most important of which are: a. Starch, which forms the mass of the endosperm and makes up 60 to 80 per cent of the weight of the b. Celhilose, to the amount of 2.5 to 8.5 per cent, which makes up the chief ing^redient of the husk and is also found in the endosperm enveloping the alarcK i^^'o.- ules. c Sugars in small qtuntities, mamXT *MrftvMw.t, i^^R* former. 4Sfi[ BREWING. MATSRIALS. d Gtunoqr snl»t«ioet» odled anqrtiiies^ fomid by CI livan, seem to diiffer..femi;1te.gidactcxx3rlan of ner and- Doll (Zdtachrift f. angewandte On 1891, p. 538), tbq agflan of Stone and Tollinis (i nales de Chemie., a^ p. 227), and the laevosink Tanret (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1891,91. 77). Besides these there are the pectin hodies of Ullik (Zeitschj f. d. ges. Brauwaen, 1886^ p. 3Q3)» which the latter fonndj beer and grains, and to the presence of which in beer pal fulness is ascribed by some. 1 2. Nttrogenons bodies. Aniotmt-8 to 14 per cent, average a1 II per cent, of which -aboot fonr-fifths is insoluble in wat|rt composed of jgluten-caseine and gluten-fibrine. The one-fi|h solaUe in water is composed of: Mucedin, little soluble in odd water, not coagulable by boiling; albnmen or protein, readily soluble in cold water, coagulating when solution is heated ; albf- mose; peptones; amides, readily soluble, not coagulable; and niir- ute quantities of amido-adds. ammonia and nitric acid. Aa enzyme glycase, also a nitrogenous substance, was found by KjeV dahl in barley. (See Chemistry.) 3. Fat is contained in the barley to the amount of about 2.5 per cent 4. Adds. Prior made an elaborate inquiry as to the amount and nature of the acids contained in barley and malt in all its stages. He found that the acidity of barley is due in the main to the presence of primary phosphates and less to the presence of volatile and fixed organic acids. For neutralization of the acids in 100 grams of dry barley he used the following amounts of decinormal alkali solution: Bavarian barley. Bohemian. Volatile organic acids 7-52 6.07 Fixed organic acids 6.65 5.50 Primary phosphates 32.67 27.45 This result, says Prior (Chemie. u. Physiologic d. Maizes, 1896, p. 41), is of importance in malting and brewing inasmuch as the primary phosphates combine with certain albuminoids of the malt, and the amount of primary phosphates presumably bears a rela- tion to the amount of the soluble nitrogenouA soLVsfi\axict* of the A^€fr. {See also "Mzlting Operations.") BREWING MATERIALS. 457 5. Mneral Substances. The amoant of uh in barley variea from dMut 2.35 to 3 per cent, of which about one-fifth is potash, one-third phosphoric acid, one-quarter silicic acid, and one-tenth m^nesia, besides small quantities of oxide of caldum, oxide of ,sodian, cMorine and sulphuric acid. VALUING BAKLEV BY BXTEKNAL UAKK3. Will reapect to its value for brewing purposes, barley is choset by external marks, or with the aid of simple devices and metbcds of examination. In the choice of barley the following characteristics require attention: 1. Fonn and Size of Berry. The berries should be of uniform siie, ]lump and short. A hollow end where the germ is situated indicates that the grain has been damaged; a hollow, shriveled tip at the opposite end betrays exposure to frost or harvesting before maturity. Small grains contain less starch and more albuninoids, cellulose and ash. Barley of irregular size will gemrinate and grow irregularly. 2. Condition of Husk. The husks (ipelts) should be thin and delicate, and make up as little as possible of the' total weight of the grain, or thick as io six-row barleys, which offers advantages for American methods. It should be smooth or have fine cross 3. Hundred-Corn Weight. The weight of a hundred corns is CI to 0.1s 07.., or 3 to 4-5 %■, averaging 0.106 oz. (Scientific Station of Chicago). Barleys weighing less than o.i oz. are as a rule not fit for brewing. 4. Color and Luster. The corns should be of uniform color and have a certain luster. For pale beers, barley must be of a pale or light straw-yellow. A greenish tint indicates unripe- ness. Darker, reddish or lead color coupled with red, brown or black tips forecasts irregular steeping and growth, mold and deficient germinating capacity. A gray tint may also be caused by a transparent speckled barley. If the color is brown and the germ clearly visible through ihe husk, it is certain the barley has been exposed to rain and become heated in the stack, which seriously impairs the germinating capacity. With increasing age, the color deepens and the luster fades. 5. (idor. It should be simply a straw odor. W \i^Q^\>^fa.'W\tvi on a hsndlul of barley a musty, heavy odor anse^, >S\wc«^«^'^'''^ to /car moM and impaired capacity oi gcvmViva^TO^. V^ *■ \>'a'«^* 458 BREWING MATERIALS. is filled half full of barley and allowed to stand for half anliour, the odor will appear more clearly upon opening the bottle^f the barley is not sound. i 6. Condition of Endosperm. If a grain of barley is cut h two it will show a white to gray mealy fracture in many shade If . the grains are largely mealy, the barley contains more tarch and will give a more mellow or friable malt. Speckled or ^assy corns have less starch and more proteids. Glassy barlej will give an equal yield of extract with proper steeping, but refiircs more time in the steep, slower malting, gfrows irregular!^ and gives worts with high nitrogen content, 7. Purity. Barley should be as free as possible from oust, corns damaged by mechanical means or by vermin, grails of oats or seeds of weeds. Barley ought not to be mixed, thit is, EXAMINATIONS OF BARLEY (LABORATORY OF WAHL ft HEflUS, CHICAGO) . Averaja of 36 Anuyses. Weight of 100 corns. . . . Ungcrminatcd corns. . . Mealy Half-glassy Glassy Bushel weight Water Extract Extract in dry matter Maximum. i Minimum. 4.23 K : 2-60 S 70 T. 1 1' at) % 1 - '^' 78 '.' ' .» ,^' 70 %' 1 4 -r. 5-15 \\\ 4n.5 lb. 14.20- 10.25-^ (M.VH. .>4.68.' 72.41 rtM2'' 3.17g 7.'Gf 16.6 ( 32 i 4)^.6 t>. 12..'i9; .tO.41 . 67. '.«s grains of diflferent seasons or origin, or from different elevators should be kept strictly separate. 8. ''Germinating Capacity" and "Germinating Energy." The germinating capacity is indicated by the number of grains that germinate at all. In a good barley the germinating capacity is not less than 95 per cent. Germinating energy means the power of barley to germinate within two days at ordinary temperature. The germinating energy should be at least 70 per cent. The germinating capacity remains undeveloped in barley fresh from the harvest if it has not been in storage. It is weakened or destroyed in barley where the germ end is hollow, or the tip brown, if the barley has become heated or moldy. 9. Bushel Weight. A barley from which a large amount of extract can be obtained will, as a rule, possess a high weight per bushel, /luctuatinf! between 45 and 5?, powwds, and averaging ^^ pounds (Scientific Station, Wah\ & Hemus, C\v\ca®i^. ^cyw- BREWING MATERIALS. 459 ever, a glassy, stubborn barley or one where the tips have been brokci, a Btrongty albuminous barley, or one c<»itaining unusual QDUittiea of water, any of these may weigh much more per bushel than I good, mealy and dry barley. 10, Dryness. Barley should be dry enough. It should raise dust when transferred into another vessel or when a bag is cmptiid. To the hand it should feel like dry sand. VALUING BARLEY BY CHEUICAL A Th: chemical analysis of barley has to do mainly with asccr- (ainiig the percentage of moisture, starch, albuminoids, minerai substances and sulphur. Mi M i 'A |5 t '{h|iri)mta 40 Hi m' m" si" lire lo.ar s.ts B.9S 10. S3 )1.7) 1 6.K s:o; 2.n a. Si 71 iS Average For ilniiod STaiet. . 1o:m |o:w|i.^j i^y^j ^:^ Tyrlcal American barley. apjiroilraaleiy 10 as IMW i% i.U etiih Moislurc. — Barley contains an average of 12 — 13 per cent of water. The ratio changes in accordance with the ripeness of the barley, the conditions of the harvest, the manner of storage. A high percentage of moisture may cause barley to become heated in the stack, which destroys the vitality and furthermore entaih a loss of dry matter and yield ot extract. 2. Starch. A high percentage of starch means a high yield of 3, Albuminoids. Good barley should conVavn. "Aw.\^xt^«x ■^iis.- ticabJe amount of albuminoids that viiU be i\s5,o\st4\w ■Opkt wa^x- ing process. The average amount ia about 1.0 ^t ess*.- ^^ '^^" 460 BREWING MATERIAI^. tain amoniit of albiunai is rcqaired for derdoping the virfoni enzymes and the albumen derivatives to be produced faf the pepta«c in germiiMtuig and nmhing, as protdds, albni|DSCS, peptones and amides. I 4. Mineral Substances. The amount is about 3 — 3 perjccut. For their composition see "Cbnstitutcnts of Barleycorn." ■ 5, Sulphur. Sometimes barley is sulphured. This is no- spire dtiring the growth of the barley and serving as a liltding maicrial in Ihe mash-iub. 2. Barley malt contains less undesirable alboniinoids (of the prolcid type) than wheat malt, rye malt or oat malt; wh;at oalt and r>-e malt are without husk. Mai» malt does not enter into this consideration on account of the large percentage of oil it contains and the glassy condilbn of the cornstarch, which is opened up very incompletely during germination. In judging the quality of a malt, both external marks aid chemical analysis are employed. Molt during its growth and after kiln-drying contains the fol- lowing substances: I. Carbohydrates, among which are: a. Starch, to the amount of about 60 to 80 per cent. b. Cellulose, to the amount of 3 to 8 per cent, c. Sugars, according to O'Sullivan. saccharose 2.8 10 6 per cent, maltose 1.3 to s per cent, dexirose 1,5 to 3.5 per cent, levulose 0.7 to I.S per cent. d. Gummy substances, the same as in barley. Dull was unable to find dextrin which is generally .supposed to be contained in mall (Chemiker-Zcitutig. 1893. p. 67). -^ Nitro^enovs bodies. 8 to [4 per cent, of which about one-half i/issohes in the washing process, the other ^vaM rema\i\\i\^ \i\ Oj« sraifj. Of the amount dissolved during mas^mft a^w^t ^^t^-^''*'* SKEWING MATERIALS. 4OI Is db^olved by eUzymatic actioil (peptise) while two-fiftbi is ireadf formed in die malt. These soluble altramitioids utt protrids, allMstDses, peptones and amides. The amides include hypoxanthin, gtntat. and veniin, all three found by- Ullil^ whereas the pres- tiice tf xanthin.is problematical, and asparagin was found only in the germs. Betain and cholin were found by £. Schuize and S. E^inkfurt in the germs of barley and wheat malt (Ber. d. dent, chem Ges., 1893,, p. 2151). Besides these there are small quantt- U ALT ANALYSIS, FBOU 1,741 HALTS EXAUINSD AT TBS LABORATORY ov WAHL a HEtriiia, caicAca Maximum. Minimum. Average. W«e* 11-50 3.25 6.37 Exlnct 74-78 60.32 68 24 Extrict in dry matter 79.6° 64-92 73-Sl MALTS (I.741) EXAMINED DUKING ONE YEAR, BY MONTHS. i 1 ».„™... mm™,™. AveraiiP. 1 & 1 i! • i 3.TS BI.OS ta.n i 1 MM e A if i 1 l!-!f 78.(6 II ; a m SrE-E'E::.. i£--:::-::::::-: .iLiy/.v.v ."■.■,:;;:■.■.■.;:: III TgBS ties oi other nitrogenous bodies, as ammonia and amido-actds, nniong which are leucin and tyrosin. 3. Fat lo the amount of about 2 per cent. : 4. Acids : Such as volatile nnd li.\ed organic acids and primary phosphates. (See Barley.) 5. Mineral sutKtarees. (See Barley.) 6. Moisture, the amount varying from about 45 per cent in steeped barley to about I per cent in a hig\\ \t.\\TV-At\t4 t^v^'i.. ?. Entymes, such as diastase, peptase, cy\a.9e, i£iMca.^- 4fi2 BREWING MATERIALS. 8. Besides these, the kihi>dried malt contains caramel jirhidi is formed on the kiln, probably oat of levnlose, and hig$dried mahs contain assamar, also formed from sugar, which |ias a bitter taste. Ehrich (Der Bierbrauer, 1893, p. 46s), and Mjnache (Wochenschrift f. Brauerei, 1893, p. 739), discovered i sub- stance in a caramel malt that gives a similar reaction to sMcylic add, which later received the name of maltol from prand (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Branweaen, 1893, P- 3^3)- i CHARACTBRISnCS OF A GOOD MALT. | 1. Uniform size and shape. 2. Light color of hnsk and endosperm. 3. Purity, that is, absence of damaged corns, oats andbther seeds, or germs, and other foreign matter. There should >e no mold. 4. Sweet aromatic odor. By breathing upon a handful of malt the odor is brought out stronger. There should be no ilusty odor. 5. Uniform g^rowth of the acrospire. In about 90 per cent of the corns the acrospire should be three-quarters the lenurh of the corn. A strong growth of acrospire causes uniform melow- ness and high diastatic power. 6. Proper condition of endosperm. The corns should be mel'ow, that is, not hard, the latter state indicating a condition of glassiness or half-glassiness. They should be easily cut with the finger nails, leave the husk readily and crack when bitten. The interior should be a fine white and have an aromatic taste. Glassy corns arc caused by insufficient dissolution of the mealy pirt or by hasty raising of the temperature in the kiln with a high moisture percentage in the g^'ain. A properly dissolved, mellow, malt will float in water. The undissolved glassy corns will sink and lie flat on the bottom, those insufficiently dissolved and half glassy will stand upright on the bottom. 7. High percentage of extract. The laboratory yield aver- ages 68 per cent, but in practical brewing operations it is from i to 4 per cent less. The percentage of extract depends upon the type of barley used, the degree of dissolution, the kiln- ing and the water percentage. (A comparison of yield of extract of different malts is possible only by expressing the extract as dry niRtter.) A good, mellow malt will yield a high percentage of extract. An excessive growth of the acro3V>\T^ ^w^ T^d\cVt u\- BREWING MATERIALS. 463 volvn a loss of extract; also an excessively high finishing tempcature in the dry-kiln. & SilBcient diastatic strength. If the diastatic strength of a malt i. deficient, slow saccharification in the mash will follow, and aarch turbidity may result. Malt with high diastatic strei^li will saccharify quickly and worts produced from such malts will consequently contain too much sugar. American malt, •■ a rile, is much stronger in diastase than German tnalt. Pale malts will saccharify quicker than dark ones. The time of sac- cbarifcation of American malts ia laboratory tests is about four tninot;! after the mash has reached the final temperature. (Sci- emifW Station, Wahl & Henius, Chicago.) g, 7he percentage of water should not be too high. A damp malt is apt to acquire a musty odor when in the bin and to Iransmit it to the wort. Damp malt-should, therefore, be used as speedily as possible. Also, the higher the water percentage, the kss the yield of extract. The water in a mall fresh from the kiln is 2.5 — 4.5 per ccut, according to the final temperature. It increases while in storage and alter two months reaches about S— 6 per cent. 10. Bushel weight. This is dependent upon the nature of the barley, the degree of its dissolution, the percentage of water. A well dissolved malt in general has a small bushel weight. A high water percentage increases the bushel weight. In buying anil selling malt the bushel weight is taken at 34 pounds with sprouts and 33 without sprouts. WHEAT, WHEAT MALT AND ROLLED WHEAT. There are varieties and subvarielies of wheat, which are dis- tinguished chiefly by the color of the grain. As distinguished from barley, the wheat corn is bare, that is, unprotected by de- tachable spelts. In estimating wheat the considerations are similar to those tor barley. The grain should be uniform, with a fine husk, light yellow, not brown or reddish, free from admixtures, and with plenty of meal. If on biting the berry, the fracture appears clear and horny, the corn contains too much albumen and a low per- centage of starch, and is not suitable for the v^oiwctuKi (A ■*. ^wi^ 464 BREWING MATERIALS. USES or WHEAT IN BSEWINa In brewing; wheat is used to a very limited extent' in the malted condition for the preparation of weiss beer and in rare cases for lager beer. The reason why so little of it is ised is the high percentage of deleterious albuminoids it cintains which make it impossible to prepare from it a brilliant an).. . \'i.37 V2.nl i.TU '2.ri0.1.7^> 6H oi Samples from northeast and middle German V (90) 14 01 lO.iW I f» 2 12 IW W.OI Samples spring wheat (81) 14. 7S ll.i*^ 2.o;i 2.26 2 ;VJ flK.tU Samjfles from s<^iith and west Germany (52) 1:1. 1^ 12 21) l.Tl 2 >2 1 XS t.T.W Samples spring wheat 4 30) i:i >h» liwr> i..V» .... 2 r.» rr, wi Samples from Austrla-HiinRnry (1K> .... 11. T2 12 6*5 l.W .T 3s> 1 ::> 'VJ.KI SamjiN'^i from KuH>ia—sprin;; wheat (;ft*). 12. 1 .v .... 1 iV) rrvT4 Kncland (22) i:MI 10. W IW 2 in* \ *u •v.).2l Scotland (16 j Il.;f7 10. .V 1 73 .... 1 nfi 72. 77 France I TO t I5.2l» 12.61 I 41 2. 1.6«> «>.« Denmark (4) lH.t« 9.:« 2 :« 2.19 1.:m Tl.40 Spain (9) iMr: 12 4'> i.'.»2 .... 1^) Africa (»1) II. sO \\.\> I.8:i \.k2 176 70.04 .Vsia (H) 12 57 11. iM 2.10 I.IM 1.16 70. M Australia (4) 13 :C 10 16 i.:t» North America (5iM) w.v»2 11 W 2.07 1.70 1.7s» ♦W.74 North Amvrlca-sprinjf (»<»).... .^..j^^.. i».»* 12. '.>2 2 1.'^ 1_72 1 .>k' 67 W COMPDSITION OF WHEAT M.\LT. (LABORATORY OF WAHL & HENIUS.) Water 7.44 per cent. Extract 74 21 per cent. Extract in dry matter .%o,\\ ^i ^^xvl. BREWING MATERIALS. 465 COUPSmoN OF WHEAT nAKIS. (LABOKATOKY or WAHL k HIMIUl). Averagt of Nitteteen Analyses. Water 11.16 pei' cent. Oil 1.83 per cent. Extract 72.50 per cent. Extract in dry matter 81.63 per cent RYE. EYE MALT, RYE FLAKES. Ttc use of rye In the malted or rotted form for brewing is stilt less i^xlensive ttian ttiat of wlieat. Rye malt is used exCensivsly in dstitling, and pressed yeast manufacture. The objections to rye nalt and rye flakes are tfie same as those to wheat. COUFOSITION OF RYE (kOBNIG). i |i ii i i i| lllfr-pnanBoiiB HT3) SpnnKRye(ll) 11. IS iroi IS.OI I'.T) i.efl 873 2oe BBJI COMPOSITION OF BVE MALT. (UIBOBATORV OF WAHL A HENIUS.) Average of Three Analyses. Water 7.12 per cent. Extract 70.25 per cent. Extract in dry matter Sz.oS per cent. OATS. Oats are used both raw and mstted, but only to an insignificant extent, in the preparation of certain beers of local vogue in Ger- many. The use of oals (or brewing is quite unknown in tlic United Sutes. Oats have spelts like bartey, but the husk is coarser, con'.tiu- ing more cellulose. The husk contains matters of an offensive (asie, which must be eliminated by steeping. The large amount of spelts making oats a good filtering 111a- teriat, they may be successfnlty used under some circnmstuni- n as an admixture to the mash, in case the wort dtavfti ^ift ^ci(>\\-i . To lliis end the oals arc first steeped itv waVM awi >^^.',\^ f«\>:»'' before going into the mash. 466 BBEWING MATERIALS. Worts made from oats foam a good deal and are lurbidfrom the high percentage of albuiiiiimds hard of elimination. , The same is true of the been made therefrom. Fermentatfe is ttonny. ooumsnunr or oats (xoBHia). 1 S i It 5e M HlUCllaimua (377) Bll 12 45 Is 10. « ia.te 11. M 4M» B.RI 10 u \^ f% Bouihoni and SoDthwfslera Oervsn; Dntted Sutm (S) CORN AND RICE. The extract of the wort and consequently of Ihe beer baiv^ derived principally from Ihe starch of the goods ustJ in Iht mash, it readily suggested itself to use, besides barley malt, otler materials which contained larger quantities of this importint ingredient. Owing to its exceptionally high percentage of stardi. which is greater Ihan in any other cereal, rice seemed peculiaily suitable for brewing and was so employed at an early dale. Corn and rice are not malted like barley. Rice is used in i-.s original form as a raw cereal, having only been stripped of the outside husk and broken up, while corn is degerminaled. Both cereals differ from barley malt not only by their high starch per- centage, but also by containing a much smaller quantity of albu- minoids, and by their white color, for which reasons they are peculiarly suitable for the preparation of pale, sparkling and stable beers. Corn and rice must never be used without a certain percentage of malt, and furthermore, require special treatment before getting into the mash for the following reasons : Having tailed to go through the process of germination they lack those en;ymes which are necessary for modifying starch and albuminoids, of which enzymes, on the other hand. n;all contains such an cxcoMive ■ jnjount Ih.it it is enabled to ruiidify a considerable quantity of additional starch. Moreover, the mealy body o( Tite aud corn, kA contains the starch granules has a m«c\v fiinwi sXT^icX-a^t BREWING UATERIALS. , 467 tbaiiMrley malt, which haa been loosened by genninatioii, and for tat reason is not subject to modification by thf malt diastase intoioluble bodies, as dextrin and sugar. It is necessary to eocddhe rice and corn for some time before taldng them into the mtsl in order to gelatinize the starch and make it accessible to diaslse. ff OF BICE, Ti be suitable for brewing, rice should jnsnrer the following reqifements: It should have a white color, a pure taste and odor free from rancidness or mustiness, and contain but little oil. An abnormally high percentage of oil generally betrays adaeration with corn, which is easily detected. The moisture shoid not be high, i. e., not exceed 13 per cent, a higher per- cerage of moisture naturally implying a diminished yield of exlact, besides making the goods more liable to spoiling by bei.'ing in the sack, or by mold, etc. The yield of extract should be as high as possible. COIPOSITIOM OF BREWING BICE (LABORATORY WAHL A HBNIUS). Averagt of thirty sampUt. Witer. Oil. Comne. Gtouna. »:xtr«:.. Eitrmct In B.,n.>. f:i tract In drymsttor. H.5« o.»it oisHt /versRo ''n.vi%" '"nxi" io.ijbi " ■■«:«*" CORN AND CORN PRODUCTS. Maize, Indian corn, or "corn," for short, which is lar richer in starch than barley, though not in the same degree as rice, was first used for brewing after being put through a process c( germination, i. c, in a malted condition. When it was found, however, that beer prepared from it possessed a disagreeable, coarse, scraping taste, the use of corn for brewing was given up until means were found to eliminate the disagreeable taste. At the present time corn, or products prepared therefrom, is used extensively in brewing, particularly in the United Slates. The cause of the coarse taste referred lo vjaa \Q\iV\i \.o\it '<^ high percentage of oil contained ii\ uTvpvt^Mci CQttv, t^i^-j "*'*-'^^ 468 BREWING MATERIALS. of whidi was reniavcd bgr germiiuitioiL This oil, of whiclraw com cootains 4—5 per cent» is stored principally in the ;enn and the cells lying close under the husk. With the remo^ of term and husk, therefore, the oil is for ^e greater^art removed from the com. The oil by itself is of yellow colotLnd upon exposure to the air is extremely liable to turn rancidac- quiring an offensive odor and taste. The oil is removed in specially designed machines, when by means of revolving knives the germs and husks are ^- rated from the grain and carried off by blowers from the nialy hodjj which is broken up into lumps and is then liominy.** tlie hominy is ground up and put on the market in various degees of fineness, being called respectively coarse grits, fine grits, real or flour. The only variety of corn suitable for brewing is the white one, known as flint corn, both because of its light c4or and the low percentage of undesirable albuminoids, as conipacd with other varieties of corn which are more or less highly colored. On the whole, the coarser products, as coarse grits, have a Us percentage of oil than the finer ones, as meal, and also yield ni-• U.' £8 i> x: a c '^ 2 Se. ^ r :/ Water 14.2IK| 12.00:.. VZ.hO oil 4.81X OToT; I.IM Starch and other oarbohv-< I drates 06.19'^ TK.42 ; 77.11 Albuinen 9..M' .w\ 2.hO' 12.50 12 ;H»' M.hu I An 1 .92 ■ 3.(M 9.11) 7.11 7.=i.79'' 72.. Vv .vryo 7.1(1 7.N»' s.:t.» (» •.»7 O.tSV r.r.J •.>! :{.iM» \ :v: 1 .V4 •:.»v:^ 10 I-: Ash i.oo.:.| o.\h"„ Coarse fl lwr 3.70 ; 0.78 The higher percentage of oil in the finer products is ex- plained by the fact that in the separation of the different gra-rt—.. I AVERAGE COMFOSinOM OF QUTS« MEALS AMD ILAXES^ ACOOUm^ 10 WAHL AMD HEKIUS. i GBiTS— Average of 50 analyses. . MEALr- Average of 25 analyses. . FLAKES— Average of 25 analyses. . Moisture. 12.70% 13.12% 11.07% OIL 0.05% 1.00% 1.04% Extract. 82.03% Extract In ky Substand ft2.2i:t analyses of maize (indian corn), rice^ wheat, rye and o.ts average). KkAIZE-( Indian Corn). Average, United States. .. Typical American (-om, approximately BICE- Ijnpollshed (foreign) Polished ( foreign V Polished (domestic) Typical hulled uni>ol- ished. approximately . . . Typical polished, ap- proximately WUEAT- Averagc, Cnited States... Typical .\merlcan, l»ej«i quality, approximately. O VTS- I Average. Tnited States.. . j Typical American, ap- 'proxlmalely RYE- Averape. Tnlted States... Tj-plcal American, ap- proximately 58 60 40 57 5? 13.75 13.40 I 0.87 i 0.76 0.67 0.?8 0.78 , i 1.36 1.35 j 1 03 I 1.06 ! 0.88 0.88 10.83; 9.88 1.17 10.75; 10.00 4.25 11.88 12.35 12.30! i 12.00 I 12. 4o; I 10.82: 10.60; 10.061 10.0l»' 10.62. \0.50 8.02 1.96 7.00.0.27 9.45 0.10 8.002.00' I 7.5<»0.4O 13.28 1.77 12.25:1.7.5 12 15 4.33 12.00 4. ."iO 12.13 1.65 1.71 1.36 1.75 l.ijO (».«< \ \h 0.4(».0.46 0.40 0.3:1 71. « 71.75 7r) (15 7' »..=>! 77 52 i.avi.oo 7 0.40 0.51^ I I 2.36.1.82 I 2.40 1.75, 12.07 8.46 12.lX»3.50 2.09 1.92' I /6.0U 78. K) 71.18 71.t» 57.98 .58.iX> 71.37 71.23 BREWING MATERIALS. 471 STARCH. Sirch occurs very commonly in nature, being a constituent of near all plants, more especially the seeds, bulbs, roots, etc. Comerciai starch is obtained chiefly from cereals and potatoes, riceind corn being especially rich in this substance. Strch consists of granules which assume various shapes in the di ercnt plants from which the starch Is derived, and are round, eingated or rod-shaped, the form being characteristic of the sev- eiil kinds of starch. (For barley starch see "Barley" and ■Malt.") CORN f The same considerations that led to the introduction of rice and corn or corn products in brewing also caused the atiempt to be made to use starch pure and simple. The attempts were not successful lo a sufficient degree to sllow starch to become a brewing: material in general use. Of late, however, a starch, which is distinguished by great purity, has b?(rn put on the market which must be considered in every way suitable for brewing, especially for pale, stable beers, according to a method elaborated in the Experimental Brewery of Wahl & HetviM^, CVv cago, A sample was analyzed with the i(AVo'wm« ttwiS-Xil ^■i* ^'^ 473 BKBWING MATHUALS. Mcdstnre tojoj per cent. Albnminoida ai6 per cent. Mineral robatances ais per cent. Oil 0x13 per cent. Cellulose aao per cent. Starch 89.36 per cent This an&lysis shows the starch to contain scarcely any o «1 ■n and only an insignificant snwnnt of iKiitiBCO. It giv m. Starches -I Krom Lehrbucli d. Bierbraucici- Carl Mirhel.) high yield of extract. These three points are the decisive one in estimating the value of a material tor brewing. Althoagh it offers comparatively little resistance to the actioi of diastase it is necessary, nevertheless, to gelatinize this siarcl by cooking hefore adding it to the mash. A much shorter tiiui is required for cooking, however, than is the case with other corn products. BREWING SUGARS. The necessity of cooking the most common corn prodvu-ls. grits and meal, in special vessels before mashing, which draw- back is elsewhere pointed out, led to the preparation nnd intro- duction of other articles that require no preliminary opening up and do not even need to undergo any modifications in the nwMi, They represent, as it were, a concentrated wort extract, without the albuminoids, lactic acid, mineral substances, and coloring mat- ters. These articles are the brewing sugars of various composi- tions. The principle on which brewing sugars of all varieties are prepared is the same in all cases. It rests upon the fact that starch when heated in the presence of acids undergoes a s\n«\iT modifica- fian as whea exposed to the action oi diastase \tv ft»e tomV vAi. *»/ /* it ia conrerted into dextrin and augat. BREWING MATERIALS. 'lo jiiudu ot preparatioa. in general outline, is as (ollows: Coi Starch — poUIo Starch is used extensively in Germany — li hited under pressure in the presence of some acid, the mixture Uqtfying gradually, and the liquefied starch belBg converted into ^rin and sugar. The desired degree of conversion having been rohed, the acid is neutralized and removed. The liquid is de- corized by suitable means, it necessary, and evaporated to the GOiistency of a syrup. Tf it contains little or no dextrin in pro- poion lo the sugar formed — which ratio can be regulated by beting longer or shorter periods of time with acid — this syrnp W. crystallize when cooling and form the so-called "crystallized U:ydrous grape sugar." If some dextrin remains, ordinary grpe sugar or climax with approximately lo per cent of dextrin igibtained. In the event of a large quantity of dextrin remain- ill the liquid cannot be crystallized and is put on the market in tfc form of glucose syrup or Brewers' Extract. The difference in composition of the different types of sugar mII appear from the following analyses made in the Laboratory It Wahl & Henius, Chicago : COMPOSITION OFBREWI HG3UGABS. K«tT»Cl. DeitroBe Deitrln, Water, 63,S8t KB. 10?. BB.TO't 60 00:6 SOTTS 79 Wi. ,!:SS BO.OOS lill 10.IW« 10.30:^ ai.oo^ Sundard (;llm« CrjKlaUlscd Antiydroua Qrapi- USE OF BREWING SUGARS. The various sugars, with the exception of "climax," are es- pecially adapted for the preparation of very pale, stable beers, on account of their light color, or rather lack of color, and the lotal absence ot albuminoids. Climax is ui^cd particularly in brewing ale and porter. Anhydrous grape sugar, besides the use already referred lo, is, according to tests by the Scientific Station for Brewing of Chicago, especiallj suiWA \.q \Vt. v'^V^" ration of tugar kracusen. 474 BREWING MATERIALS. f VALUING BBXWING SUGARS. The characteristics of a good sugar are the following : \a far as the solid sugars are concerned— except Gimax — ty should have a white color, the liquid ones should be withit color (glucose synip, brewers* extract). They should giva clear solution in water and possess no constituents that cdd cause beer turbidity, such as imperfectly converted starch, id should be free from iron. HOPS. Hops as they are used in the brewery are cone-shaped forft- tions, representing clusters of blossoms of the female hop plat From 40 to 60 flowers are grouped together on a central spine, which is zig-zag shaped, forming a so-called hop cone or le umbel of the hop. The blossoms are protected externally j bracts, to the lower end of which in a slight fold are nttaclid the blossoms proper and later the fruit or seeds. Male ad female blossoms arc distributed on separate plants. Only le female hop is cultivated, the growth of malo hops beinjr. wii rare exceptions, avoided in order to prevent seed prodiiciifj. The plant is propagated by cuttings. At the time of maturity, the seed of the hops and the wh.-l lower and inner parts of the bracts arc covered with a tnic li^ii yellow dust consisting of minute granules. It is called hoj meal or lupuline. The fruit or seeds are scarce in irood hop>. small, .shninkiii and sterile, that is. incapable of propagatincr the plant. In the coarser kinds of hops the reverse is true. HISTORY OF HOP CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Up to 1808 hop culture remained confined to thnc Xew England states, Massachusetts, Vermont and Maine. The soil of New England, however, being poor and iin^^uitcd to hop irr<»\v- ing, the effort was speedily abandoned after a beginning was made in Madison County, in the state of New York. The hops froin New York state were not only superior i-i (luality. but three times as prolific. As a result, from 1850 to i86^ a small p.i'-i of the state of New York, known as the hop rep^ion. lyintc -?(^Mth of the New York Central Railroad between Albany an 1 Rochester, hnd n monopoly of hop raising \\\ vVve \J\\\\cd St.at«e^. About i860 small patches were planted lo \\ops \tv V^V^cor^sxxv BREWING MATERIALS. 475 aniMichigan, and in 1866, when the New York crop was wholly deToycd by vermin, the hop growers of Wisconsin got famine prfcs for their excellent product. The hop louse reached Wis- GOtin a short time after, and for the last twen^ yeart Wisconnn fa03 are no longer cjuoted in the market reports. luring the decade 1870-1880 New York once more enjoyed a ronopoly of hop growing. But by that time fresh competition be^ to derelop on the Pacific Coast. Russia River hops from Cafornia were a revelation; "tine as sitk" in texture, bright gclcn in color, "clean picked," and second only to the best Gi'j^~&v>'*. 476 BREWING MATERIALS. ; Washington (Territory then), obtained halt a bu;her of op roots from the above meiiiioned Charlfs Wood, who had prn- ised to buy the hops to encourage the enterprise. These r«ts were set out in the spring of 1866, and in the £all of that yearfK first crop was sold to Wood at 8$ cents per pound or over Iga . (or a single bale of hops. It is no wonder that the culture of 1^ developed rapidly in the Puyallap and White River valley^ Washington and spread from there into Oregon. It seemed for the first twenty-five years, or up to about ifa, as if in Washington and Oregon was to b« the ft*e hop growing industry of the llnited States with plenty to site for export. The hops were excellent in quality, and the rich, tw soil produced enormous crops, in one or two well attested 1- stanceB reaching the almost incredible yield of 4,000 pounds 1" acre, and with an average yield per acre of more than twice t' of New York stale. Then in 1882 hops went lo one dollar and more per pound, and again in 1S86 the entire crop of New Voi k stale was cut off by lice while the Pacific Coast crop wa< vinin- jured and brought a good price. Not a hop louse had as yei been discovered on the Pacific Coast, and some good jufJges held that no hop louse could live in that climate. But in i8<^2 the insect made its appearance in that part of the country, and al- though the growers in Washington [ought the lice vigorously, the product of Washington has gone down from 40.000 to 10,000 bales within the past ten years. It is safe to say that now the whole lerrilory of the Uniitd Slates has been tested for hop growing, and the culture of hops has settled down at last into New York slate in the East, and Oregon, California and Washington on l^t 'PatAc. Coa?,l. The BREWING MATERIALS. 477 pre:nt acreage of New York state will produce with a (air crop ooteas than 150,000 bales. With but little larger acreage it has ofti in past years baled more than that. The Pacific Coast ' is capable o[ producing on its present acreage also 150.000 A normal crop of East and West combined is therefore 300,000 bales— average per bale formerly about 180 pouflds, to-day about 190 pounds net hops— 01 somt \cojKn \i-*«s. '^t^ >ear more than the hops required ior cov\s\i\ft9\\o'R \^\ '^^'^ «:'3~-'>">'^ try with a beer production of say ^,000,000 ^»I^Aa, NlV&v v w: 478 BREWING MATERIALS. i tnal export to Eiifl^d of 50,000 bales per year there is Bl left a surplus in this country of SOfiOO bales per year provide^ the hop sections produce each year a fair crop. COMPOSITION OF HOPS. Hops contain hop oil, hop resins, acids, particularly hop pr nin, hop bitter, hop wax, nitrogenous bodies, carbohydrates M mineral substances. An enzyme (diastase) which is of sp^ importance in ale brewing has also been found in hops, le oil content of hops varies between 0.2 and 08 per cent Thejil is highly volatile with water vapors ; 600 parts of water are |h pable of dissolving one part of oil. If exposed to the air, ie x>il turns to resin, passing into valerianic acid. Hence, the ched- like odor of old hops. Hayduck distinguisHed three resins in hops: 1. The a.resin, a soft resin of thickly fluid consistency a4 pale reddish brown color. It possesses a very intense and lastif bitter taste, but practically no odor. 2. /3-resin, quite similar to the L-resin, thickly fluid, wiB strong hop odor. 3- 7-resin, a solid body, brittle, dark brown, not bitter anc quite without odor. The last named resin is therefore of no ap- parent value for brewing purposes. The soft resins, according to Hayduck, are formed from two bitter acids contained in the hops, whereas the hard resin is a product of the hop oil. The soft resins are gradually trans- formed into hard ones when hops are kept in store. i^Briant and Meacham, in Transactions Inst. Brg., VII., 4). In fresh hops was found 17.9S4 per cent of ether extract, of which 4-734 per cent a-resin. 8.065 per cent ^^^esin. 5. 191 per cent *> -resin. The tannic substances of hops are stored chiefly in the leaves of the cone. According to R. Wagner (Dingler's Poly tech. Jour- nal, 154, p. 365) hops contain 3.17 to 5.1 per cent of tannic acid which differs from the tannic acid of gall-nuts, \\hereas Hayduck iound 2.88, 2.40 and 2.65 per cent of tannic acid in the dry sub- stancc of three hops. This tannin is a pa\e biowiv ^moTvVvo\» Aowder soluble in iUcohol diluted with water. TVie aqjieoxi* v>V\- BREWING MATERIALS, 479 tionlisplays an intense color without a precipitate, upon an addi- tiDiof iron chloride. HOP BinCB AODS. piyduck, starting from the two soft hop- resins, obtained cryaliine precipitates of different forms, suggesting the jtrob- abity that hops contain two crystallizable hop Utter'acids, from wh h the ■ and B-resins seem to be gradually formed. /nong the nitrogenous bodies contained in hops, according to Pcsonne, we have gluten ; Griessmayer and Behrens detected triiethylamin in hops. The latter showed that (his sub- stcice is generated when hops become heated spontaneously. In thi process a bacillus seems to play a part which Behrens called baillus lupuliperda. In the presence of sugar this bacillus pro- dees butyric acid. The total amount of nitrogen in hops was found by Hayduck to b; from 3 up to nearly 4 per cent, the soluble part being'o.7S to 16 per cent, or calculated as albumen la to 24 per cent total ilbunien and 4.6 to 10 per cent of soluble albumen. (Wochcn- ichrift f. Brauerei, 1894, p. 734). The enzyme found in bops by Brown and Morris, which is probably identical with diastase, is accumulated chiefly in the Griessmayer found 3 7 per cent of dextrose in hops, and Brown and Morris found 1,55 per cent of dextrose and 2.10 of levulose. The wax contained in hops is similar to beeswax and is of no importance. According to Thausing, hops contain 5.3 to 15.3 per cent, and an average of 7.54 per cent, of ash, as derived from 26 analyses. about one-third being made up of potash and one-sixth of phos-. phoric acid, J. Brand detected boric acid in the ash of the leaves, stems and twigs of the hop plant, as well as of the cone. This iicid passes into the beer (Zeitschrift f. d ges. Brauwosen, 1892, p. 4a6). ACTIVE CONSTITl'ENTS OF HOPS. The active constituents of the ho]) plant are slorrrl uv .UvvA's In the lupulin. Hence the value of hops tor \itf«TOt ^ji-tyi^*.-! ig largely dependent upon the auiowiit auii ^nnv^ixV^ '■'■^ '■■'^■^■^ lapulbi. These active constituents are ; 480 BREWING MATERIALS. » 1. Hop oil, which carries the aroma. The aromatic oil of l|>s is only slightly soluble in water, and very volatile with \ter vapors. In saccharine solutions — f. i.» wort — it dissolves t a somewhat greater extent than in water pure and simple, lis readi^ soluble in alcohol aiid petroleum ether. 2. Hop resin, which imparts the bitter taste, and by virtuof its germicidal action contributes to the stability of beer. Ttre are three hop resins, two soft and one hard. The soft rcns only possess the valuable properties. If hops are kept st(Sd away, especially if the conditions are unfavorable, the valu^c resins are apt, under the influence of the air, to be transforrtd into the worthless hard resins. Hop resin is not readily soliie in water, more readily in saccharine solutions, as beer wet. If the sugar of the wort is consumed in fermentation, the hp resin is gradually precipitated, the fluid being no longer ableio keep all of it in solution. 3. Hop tannin, which like all kinds of tannin, causes ce- tain albuminoids to be precipitated and thus promotes the coagiiU tion of the albuminoids when the wort is boiled with hops. Th tannic acid is contained chiefly in the bracts. VALUATION OF HOPS. The valuation of hops is based almost wholly on externa marks, the following ones being decisive : I. Luster and Color. Fine hops possess a silky luster which is absent in inferior grades. The color is a greenish voIIua. varj'ing with the origin of the hops and being charactori.sli.; 1 -r the same. Thus, New York hops show a somewhat palor c<'l..: of a stronger greenish shade, whereas Pacifies have a more cK cidedly yellowish color. A reddish tint iray indicate liiai ih hops were left on the poles too lonj]^ before being picked, or that they became heated in the packape, which is far worse. a>i it implies a darker coloration of the lupulin and deterioration of the aroma, which means a general deterinratinn of (jiialiiy. Inas- much as this discoloration begins in the middle of the bale, all hop samples ought to be taken from that part. Occasional red spots indicate exposure of the plant to hail and do not detract from the value of the hops. 2, Form and she of the cones. These features also are char- act eristic of the origin of the hops. On l\'vc \\\v"^\v. swvaU cvu- arc preferable to the big ones, as they average VugVw vcv \^\vv^:\w. BREWING MATERIALS. 481 The bracts ought to lap over one another and hold firmly to- gether, whereby the lupulin is kept better. Hops with few and small seeds are preferred. 3. Odor. Hops should possess a strong, fine aroma, free from any off-smell, as odors of fruit, garlic, etc. 4. Clean Picking. There should be a minimum amount of stems, foliage, mold or stripped cones. Stems and leaves give a coarse taste to the beer. 5. Lupulin. There should be a maximiun of this body. In fresh hops it has a light yellow color, the granules appearinij smooth, shining and full under the microscope. With increasing age the lupulin takes on a deeper color, and the granules shrink To find the lupulin, a few cones should be torn. When drawn over a piece of paper the broken cones ought tu leave behind a greasy, greenish yellow line. The weaker and drier this line, the less lupulin is present. HOP PREPARATIONS. LUPULIN (commercial). The chief active constituents of hops being collected in the lupulin, it is practicable to use the latter substance for brewing instead of the whole cone. As a rule, however, only part of the hops are replaced by lupulin. The amount of tannic acid in lupulin being small — since this substance is contained chiefiy in the bracts — but little influence is exerted upon the "break" of the wort. Hence the necessity of using some whole hops with the lupuline. The valuation of lupulin is based on: 1. Appearance. It should be a pale yellow, the granules be shining, smooth and full, not shrunken, in order to show that it came from fresh hops and is well preserved. 2. Aroma. It should be strong and fragrant, to show the lup- ulin to come from high-grade hops. 3. Ash. While perfectly pure lupulin contains about 5 per cent of ash the commercial article shows a considerably higher amount, about 12 to 15 per cent, caused by sand which, with the lupulin, falls from the hops during the drying process. A higher percentage indicates that sand was added purposely, in order to increase the weight fraudulently. The amount of sand may also be shown microscopically. 4. Aduherations. Besides the aduUex^XAOtv >n\\\v ^'mA> Vaxsxvx^ SI 482 BREWING MATERIALS. acid is sometimes added, which may be easily shown by chemieal analysis. HOP EXTRACT. The oil and resins can be easily extracted by petroleum ether or naphtha without undergoing any material changes. Not so the tannin, which is insoluble in the solvent mentioned. The petro- leum ether extract is concentrated to a syrupy consistency, high temperatures being avoided on account of their deleterious influ- ences upon the various constituents. This article is the hop extract of the trade. It has the advantage over whole hops of containing the most important constituents of the latter in a concentrated form, taking up very little room, and, if packed in air-tight vessels, retaining its properties indefinitely without undergoing any change. Only a portion of the hops should be replaced by extract. The composition of hop extract appears from the iollowinp analysis, made at the Laboratory of Wahl & Hcnius. Chicago. COMPOSITION OF HOP EXTRACT. Volatile oil and loss by drying .'vW", Soft resin S4.36 Hard resin 4.44 Wax 1 83 Tannic acid Trace Nitrogenous m alter None Insoluble in ether and alcohol (cellulose, etc.) 3.43 . COLOR.^NTS. For preparing a beer of dark color a malt may be used which has been subjected to special treatment in the kiln so as to acquire a dark color. In a great majority of cases, however, certain materials arc used, which possess high coloring power. enabling their use in small quantities, along with the usual ma- terials. Such matters are used both in a solid and in a liquid state. Those used in a solid state are: CARAMEL MALT. This is a malt prepared according to a special process. The husk of this malt is yellowish brown, while the endosperm has a decided brown color. In its preparation, ordinary malt of good quality is steeped for a while, so as to take up a certain amount of moisture. It is then dried, and heated in suitable vessels, first /n a comparntivcly low temperature \n order Vo \>^rv\wc>vo\Vm^ vao^V n\v^^ ^^"^^ 484 BREWING MATERIALS. not interfere with the "breaking^' of the wort. When added tb finished beer they must not impair its brilliancy or give any burnt taste The coloring power should be as great as possible. COMPOSITION OF COLORANTS. The composition of the three types of fluid coloring materials is given in the following table (Laboratory of Wahl & Henius) : Water Extract Sugar as Dextrose. Sugar as Maltose . . , Sugar Color. 27.40% 72.«a% 37 65% Malt I olor. I. 43.75% 50.S>% 10.52% II 4! 03t 58.97,t 6.90t in. 30.75 9.M Portcr- Ine. 27.44% 72.56% 41 12% VARNISH. Wooden vessels in the brewery are varnished for the purpose of preventing any extractive matters that may remain in the wood getting into the beer. At the same time the varnish prevents the beer from penetrating into the pores of the wood. where it would sour and become a source of infecii«'n tha* would subsequently attack the beer run into tlie vessel. (Sec also "Varnishing.") COMTOSITION OF VARNISH. Varnish, in general, is a solution of pure orange shellac ir. pure alcohol, and should contain about 3.5 to 4 pounds of shellac per gallon of alcohol. An average of 32 analyses at the labora tory of Wahl & Henius, Chicago, shows 41.36 per cent of shellac. Varnishes containing more than 3.5 — 4 pounds of shellac to the gallon of alcohol should be diluted by the addition of alcohol. Formerly grain alcohol only was looked upon as the proper solvent for the shellac, wood alcohol being regarded as an adulterant, and very properly so, since it was never free from impurities, which arc mostly of a poisonous nature. Recent efforts have succeeded in producing a perfectly pure wood alcohol, which is put on the market by the name of Columbian Spirits, which yield a varnish that meets requirements. Since, however, the vapors even of this highly rectified wood alcohol may have an injurious effect upon the health of the laborers en- trusted with the work of varnishing, spec*\a\ c;xTe must be taken /£? h3ve the vats, etc., provided with good venvW^iVvow. '\\\\% xqviXa- BREWING MATERIALS. 485 fi^ wood alcohol being much lower in price than pure grain alcohol, varnish made from it ought also to be correspondingly che^^r. PROPERTIES OF VARNISH. The properties of a good varnish are the following: 1. It should dry quickly. The coat should be quite hard in about 48 hours. Varnish from wood alcohol dries more quickly than that which is made from grain alcohol. But the shellac also seems to play some part in this matter, some articles made from perfectly pure materials requiring four to five days to dry. 2. The coat of varnish should be smooth, shining, and yielding, i. c., it must be without blisters, and not crack or break off when jarred. 3. The varnish should not turn white. If this does happen, it may be due to one or more of several causes: a. Inferior quality of shellac. b. Resins in the shellac, which is not an uncommon oc- currence. Shellac that is adulterated in this way is gener- ally imported in that state. c. The wood of the vessel may remain green, or not per- fectly dry before varnishing. d. The coats of varnish may be put on in too rapid suc- cession, i. e., the first ones may not. have time to dry per- fectly before the next one is put on. e. The varnish may be either too thick or too thin. f. The old varnish may not have been .removed com- pletely before the fresh coat is put on. g. The vessels may have been filled before the varnish was strictly dry. The three points last mentioned may also cause blisters. PITCH. Trade packages are internally covered with a coat of pitch for similar purposes to those which lead to varnishing storage casks, etc., i. e., to prevent the beer coming into contact with the wood. Brewerb' pitch is the purified resin of certain coniferous trees, as pines, firs, etc. This resin is extracted by cuttvtv%, vcv\a >^^ trees, when it will ooze out like sap. ll \s c^W^^ Vwc-^^tvXvc^s:, "^v.^ is a mixture of colophony, oil of turpentine, N«^\.ex, wv^ ^o^xv^ o-^SsKt 486 BREWING MATERIALS. sobslances not easily ToktiliMd. To giin pitch from At crude resin, it is melted and fac«ted, whereby the water and oil of turpentine are volatilized, while the impurities, as pieces of wood, sand, etc, either gather at the surface or settle on the bottom. Upon cooling, the mast congeals, showing a yel- lowish-brown to dark-brown color. This is ordinary pitch. By continued heating all the volatile substances can be driven off, and the remaining matter is called colophony. By melting together colophony with a certain amount of resin oil, the latter being a product of destructive distillation of colophony, or else colophony and linseed oil, brewers' pitch* is produced. In many cases, especially where the modem pitching machines are used, brewers prepare their own pitch in that manner. Resin oil is preferable in such cases. Cottonseed-oil has been of late used to soften colophony to advantage. It is cheaper. (See also "Pitching.") VALUATION OF BREWERS* PTICH. The valuation of pitch proceeds upon the following viewpoints: I. Temperature of softening. The heat at which pitch will become soft fluctuates in very wide limits. According to 83 analyses made in the laboratory of Wahl & Henius, the ex- treme points are' 65** F. (14.5*' R.) and 103* F. (31.5'' R) ; average 84** F. (23** R.). Colophony softens at about 132" F. (45* R.3. A pitch that softens at temperatures up to yy"" F. (20" R.) is decidedly soft, and may cause trouble. If the empty packages are exposed to the sun, which is not an uncommon thing, the pitch may run down. It should be remembered that the point of softening gradually rises as the pitch is kept hot, owing to the evaporation or decomposition of volatile substances. The point of softening rises rapidly if pitch is heated in open vessels. more slowly if in closed vessels. It is therefore impossible to give any hard and fast standard for the softening point a good pitch ought to have, since the problem is always moditied by considerations of whether or not the pitch is heated before pitch- ing proper begins, and if so, for how long, to what degree of heat — the higher the temperature, the more quickly does the point of softening rise — whether in an open kettle or a closed boiler, what is the construction of the pitching machine, if one IS used, how long pitching is kepi up \)e\oTt \t^^\v \>\\s.Vv IS added, whether pitch runs in continuousVy or xvov, tvc. BREWING MATERIALS. 487 ^ -V^here pitching machines of modem constmction are tised in which oil is allowed to flow into the pitch, it is imperative to use a so-called high temperature pitch, i. c., one which will soften at a high degree of temperature. A high temperature pitch does not soften, in its original state, below 100° F. (30'' R.)- 2. Taste of Pitch. When chewed, pitch should not have an offensive taste, since such taste might be communicated to the beer, although those constituents which cause the offensive taste are driven off, for the most part, by heating. 3. Influence on Taste of Beer. Pitch that has been heated for some time and broken into small parts when added to beer should not affect the taste of the same. A taste of pure pitch is permissible, under certain conditions, where, owing to the requirements of the market, a slight pitch taste is wanted in the beer. 4. Purity. Pitch should be as free as possible from impuri- ties, as wood fiber, sand, etc. This may be tested by treatment with strong grain alcohol, which will dissolve the pitch, whereas the impurities or fraudulent admixtures remain undis- solved. If wood alcohol is used instead of grain alcohol, it will leave resin oil, tallow and animal fats undissolved, if any such should be present. 5. If diluted alcohol containing about 4 per cent of alcohol is added to a small amount of pitch, the alcohol, after 24 hours, should have no offensive odor or taste, and not affect litmus paper. CLARIFIERS. At the expiration of the storage period, the beer still remains more or less turbid, owing to the presence, in suspension, of dead or weakened yeast cells, albuminoids and other substances, which must be removed in order to obtain a brilliant and stable product. This clarifying is done by adding substances that act in a purely mechanical way. The two following methods are used for clarifying: CLARIFYING CHIPS. They consist of strips of wood of varying length, width, and thickness, that are cut by suitable machinery from wood which is easily split. Beech and maple are the woods used almost exclusively for this purpose. The \^tv^^ ci\ ^^cv^ Ocvxv't^ varies between 6 and 12 inches, the iVvicVtv^s?. Wvcv^ •3^:iO>a^ o^^- twelfth of an inch on an average. CVvKps ^\^o ^^^ ^"^ Ko^^kv i|88 BREWING MATERIALS. There are smooth chips and corrugated chip^, the latter shoimc either a ttniforin wave shape or a pronounced Anted surface. Some brewers prefer smooth, straight and thick chips, while others think the thinner corrugated chips are better. Of late, metal chips, particularly aluminum ones, have been introduced. In view of the fact, however, that certain metals are known to be capable of causing turbidity, caution must be observed in using metal chips. Only well seasoned wood should be used for preparing beer chips. ACTION OF CHIPS. The clarifying action of chips is a purely mechanical one. They act by superficial attraction, that is, their wide surface attracts the little suspended particles, which remain adhering to it It has been claimed that the chips exercise a chemical action upon the beer, also, the oxygen of the air being condensed at the surface of the chips and, passing into the beer, exercising its effect upon the yeast cells, causing them to settle more rap- idly, and thereby accelerating clarification. FININGS. In order to clarify the beer more thoroughly a solution of animal gelatin in water is added, which is called finings. The animal gelatin, which is called isinglass, is derived from two sources, the two following kinds being distinguished : ISINGLASS FROM FISH SOUNDS. The swimming bladder, or sounds of various fishes, consists of glue substance, or gelatin, in more or less pure form. These swimming bladders are used in the preparation of isinglass, as it is used in brewing. The sounds used in the various formulae of the manufactur- ers, at the present time, besides the American Hake, arc known as the Bombay Cake, the Maracaibo, the Russian Promislovy, Saliensky and Persian. Each kind has its pecularity, and each manufacturer a formula of his own for combining two or more kinds to meet the requirements of his own particular trade. Not all kinds of fish produce the sound adapted to the pur- pose, and only one. the Hake, is found on our shores. The fVeaMs/t might also be mentioned, but the quantity is so in- considerable as practicaUy to be omiUed. TVvt soww\^ o\ \\v^ BREWIKG MATERIALS. 489 a only about 30 per -cent of gdatin, and furnishes a product of inferior quality. FUEPARATIOIf OP ISINGLASS. • The crude stock, which is purchased dry, can be made into isinglass only in cold weather, from December ist to April 1st, The first process, after careFully culling and washing every sound, is that of soaking and tempering, which requires from 48 to 72 hours. Only cold water is used in soaking. The sotmds are then macerated and run through a series of rollers, until drawn out in continuous length they form a ribbon 8 or 9 inches in width, in a moist condition. The rollers are hollow, and ice water is continuously passed through them. In order to facilitate the process of rolling, the first set of rollers was, in former years, sprinkled with starch, but there being a strong prejudice against it, and the starch being easily detected, the practice has been discontinued almost entirely. The isinglass is subsequently dried, folded, and packed in cases, from 100 to 125 pounds. The products which come into the market in the form of shreds or leaves, vary in color from a deep yellow to almost wliitc. ' ISINGLASS. If properly stored, isinglass will keep for several years, but it will deteriorate in a damp storage room. If kept in a dry room, it becomes harder after the first year, dissolves less rap- idly, and in time loses its strength. Skins of animals contain large quantities of gelatinous mailer. although not in such large amounts as the swimming bladders of the fish mentioned above. This gelatinous matter is utilized in the preparation of isinglass by Wahl's process, from calves' skins. Naturally, the process is more complicated than in the preparation of isinglass from sounds. The carefully washed pieces of calf's hide are soaked for about a week in a strong solution of sulphurous acid in which they swell to about twice to three times their original siie, and become quite soft. Then the stock is shredded, the acid washed out, and gelatinous matter extracted by warm water. The resulting jelly on wjoVvcv^^^ ^"^V dried, and the pieces of gelatin ctuaVvei, WIi3t n'as said above about storaje a^ijWcs \\wt ».■!. •w*^- 490 BREWING MATERIALS. "k V • A solution of isinglass being added to beer which is cold. It will coagulate into a floccnlent mass, which will be finer if the original solution was thin, and coarser if the original solution was in a more concentrated form. This coagulated mass, being evenly distributed throughout the whole body of the beer, forms, as it were, a network which envelops the substances held in sus- pension in the beer. Then, having a greater specific gravity than beer, it gradually settles on the bottom, carrying down with it all the substances that made the beer turbid. ANTISEPTICS. (See also "Treatment and Protection of Surfaces.") The dangerous enemies of the brewer, as molds and bac- teria, are exceedingly resistent to injurious influences. There is, however, a number of substances, comparatively small amounts of which are capable of making microorganisms harm- less. Many of these substances were in general use before it was known what part was played by the microorganisms in brewing operations. Following are the ones most generally used : 1. Milk of Lime. If burnt lime (caustic lime, calcium oxide) is mixed with water, it will split up to a powder, called slaked or slack lime (hydrate of lime or hydrated calcium oxide) accom- panied by the production of considerable heat. This slack lime, which is not easily soluble in water, is mixed with water, to form milk of lime. The burnt lime of the trade is not chemically pure. In esti- mating the value of it for preparing milk of lime account should be taken of the percentage of caustic lime, which is found by chemical means. There should be but small admix- tures of sand or other impurities. 2. Soda. The soda used mostly for cleaning is carbonate of sodium, and it is put upon the market in a more or less pure state in the form of finely developed crystals. It is called crystallized washing soda. It should have the highest possible content of effective sodium carbonate. In chemically pure crystallized soda it amounts to a little over 37 per cent. 3. Caustic Soda. This is used extensively in about 5 per cent solution for cleaning out pipe conduits, etc. Sold in lumps. The commercial article cont^inB about 90 per cent ol efttcVVit ^o^vam Aydrate. Caustic sod^ is strongly hygroscopkaV. \\. mcVis v«ts>j BREWING MATERIALS. 49I gradually in the air, from which, it talces up carbonic acid at lh« Vame time, thereby losing in effective strength. It should always be kept in tightly closed receptacles. 4. Cliloride of Lime. This article possesses a strong, ptmgent odor of chlorine, which is easily taken up by wort and par- ticularly by beer. For this reason it ought to be used only in such places as afford no opportunity for this deleterious influ- ence to make itself felt. The quality of the product is esti- mated by the percentage of chlorine, to be determined by chem< ical analysis, which, in a good article, amounts to some 30 per cent. The action is intense, and enables the use of chlorine for the destruction not only of microorganisms, but also of insects, as weevils. 5. Sulphurous Acid and Sulphites. Sulphurous add possesses very powerful germicidal qualities. Sulphuring (or the purpose of disinfection and preservation has been practiced for a long time, f. i., in (he cases of wine casks, hops, etc. In brewing operations no use was made of sulphurous acid, either by itself or in a watery solution. But of late liquefied sulphurous acid has been introduced in brewing operations, being contained in iron cylinders like liquid ammonia. By conducing sulphurous acid into water the brewer is enabled always to have a fresh solution of great antiseptic power. This is not in general use. however, the sulphites being used instead, which possess anti- septic properties in a less degree. For cleaning purposes the only salt of this class used is: Bisnlpliiie ci" Lime, This article is put upon the market only in a solution containing an average of about 6 per cent of sul- phurous acid.. The content of this acid is decisive for the qual- ity of the article. It seldom reaches 8 per cent. The solu- tion loses its power by degrees, owing to the conversion of the sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, which is of no value for purposes of disinfection. The odor of pulphurous acid which marks the solution is due to a slow decomposition of the bi- sulphite of lime, by which sulphurous acid is liberated. For cleaning yeast, sulphites like sulphite of soda and K, M. S. may be used. 6. Acid Fluoride of Ammonia, also called Antise^'.vi ?i(!iv. The strong germicidal action oi the ftaoiKiM, cstw "va -j"-! i]iliiie solutions, procured a rapid acceptance o^ \.\\*.vtv\yj \«^*,^* and the above compound enjoys a pecwViat pov'^^*^'*^^ ■ QMivc^t 493 SKEWING MATERIALS. Qte large p crewrtige of effioeot L j diofliiorie add, whkh b to 34 to 35 per cent On ■cconnt of the powerfnl effects of the ' solution on glass and metala, it ibonld be prepared onl7 in wooden or hard-mbber veaiela. For cleaning purposes dis- ■oItc I pound of the salt in 40 sanona of water. The aalt has this advantage, that a fresh loliition can be prepared at any time, on short notice. This solution ma; also be used in steep water. 7. Antinonniae. This is the potash compound of a derivative of creosote, tlie antiseptic action of which is well known. It is put upon the marLet in the form of a paste and gives a yellow Eolution in water. The solution gives o& no odor. Antinonnine is used for drying damp walls and damp wood, preventing and destroying mold on the walls, and stopping musty odors. To preserve walla from crumbling it is recom- mended to add 5 per cent of antinonnine to the mortar. For the other purposes mentioned a i per cent solution is sufficient. To obtain the best results this solution should be heated to 144 to 156° F. and two coats put on the surface to be prolL-cleJ, the second coat being applied two days after (be first. Antinonnine must never be applied to any implements that come into direct conUct wilti wort or beer. To clean Ihe hands, that may have become yellow in handling the solution, wash ihem in water containing z lo 5 per cent muriatic acid. 8. Formaline is a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde in water, and is a powerful germicide. For washing vessels a solution of t part formaline in 1.000 pans water is sufficient. which perceiUagc is obtained by mixing one lablcspoonful of formaline in 4. gallons water. For disinfecting walls sprinkle them with this solution. 9. Benzoic Acid. A derivative of carbolic acid; forms deli- cate crystals and has an aromatic, characteristic odor. Used in alcoholic solution the same as: 10. Salicylic Acid. Related to benzoic acid, but odorless. Good for washing ceilings. PREPARING AND PACKING SAMPLES FOR EXAM- INATION. Attention was directed at the beginning of this chapter to the necasity of using only fauWcs* ma*.enaU m Vm. J>r^>aration of beer. In order lo torm a correct < BREWING MATERIALS. 493 ^em it is necessary, in many cases, to submit them to a close chemical or microscopical examination, such as can but rarely be performed by the brewer himself. In such cases it becomes necessary to send samples to a proper Uboratoiy. Furthermore, in order to control brewing operations continuously, which is the only safe method to meet competition successfully, exam- ination should not be confined to raw materials, but the products prepared from them, as well as all the articles that arc employed in the brewery, the properties of which may exert an influence for good or bad on the finished beer, should also be sub- jected 10 analytical control. In order to obtain reliable results from such examinations it is necessary not only to employ a station or analyst who is quali- fied and capable of meeting the requirements, but the brewery aly>, in sending its samples must do its share to enable the exami- nations to be made without unnecessary expenditure of time and trouble, reliably and promptly. It this is done, the principal beneficiary will be the brewery, since in most cases of disturb- ances in brewery operations severe losses can be prevented only by prompt and vigorous action. The help which the brewery can and always should give to the station or the chemist charged with the examination, in its own interest, is a proper manner of taking samples, and a most complete, but brief, information about the samples and in what direction they arc to be examined. It is often difficult and la- borious to take samples in the proper way, but it is, nevertheless, indispensable, if there is a desire to secure really reliable results, without which the examination would be worse than useless. It is furthermore essential, in case of disturbances in operation, that a detailed description of the conditions prevailing arc fur- nished so as to facilitate detection of the causes leading to (he trouble. Time and money are always saved by the heady co- operation of the brewer. Inasmuch as many brewers are not familiar with the manner of taking samples, the most important considerations that should be observed may be briefly described. Barley, Mall, Corn Products, Rice, Sugar. — Samples from dif- ferent bags of the same lot, and often samples from the snme bag, do not agree strictly. Samples sVio\>\4, \.\\«e\n\v^'^3\0v^ 0.^^\"^ and the cover of the bottle quite free irom d\t\. \\ \s \w^^^^^^^ "^^ 496 BREWING MATERIALS. place the cover on a dean sheet of paper. Leave the bottle standing open for an hour, close carefully and ship at once. Water. — For chemical examination send a gallon in a clean jug or in five quart bottles that have been cleaned in the same way as for wort Only fresh corks should be used. In sending such a sample, the origin of the water, whether from a well, river, lake, cistern, pump or hydrant, should always be indi- cated, and in the case of well water, the depth of the well. For microscopical examination of water sterilized bottles should be used, the same as for air, which, likewise, must be treated with 'the greatest care to avoid infection. Before taking the sample the water should be kept running for some considerable time. After being closed tight the sample should be packed in ice, if possible, and shipped at once. But, even if all precautions are observed, the examination will not afford a true idea of the number of bacteria contained in the water, since they multiply in transit even if the bottle is packed in ice. Yeast. — For the ordinary examination of yeast as to purity, sterilized bottles are supplied, wliich must be treated with equal care as in taking samples of air. If a complete examina- tion of the yeast is to be made, a pint bottle should bo ii>0(l. after being cleaned with the greatest care and treated in the same manner as for wort, rinsing it out in conclusion with hot water, so as to kill any germs that may remain in it. The bottle should, of course, be cooled down before the sample is introduced. The bottle should be filled with yea>t about i^nc eighth, and not to exL^eed one-fourth, and. if possible, espocialiy where it is sent a long distance, packed in ice in order to av<>ivl the yeast cells from becoming weakened or dying in transit. In taking the yeast sample, attention should be given to the follow- ing: The yeast having been run off from the fernienter in the usual manner, after removing the cover, it is allowed to settle in the yeast tub for some little time, then the beer standing over it is drained off. the yeast mixe^vcs.^\^> '-^ particular statement of all the circumsVatve^s \^ vcv^vs^^^^'^'^^^' MICRO-ORQANISMS. (See tables pages 509, 512, 520, 521, 522.) Micro-organisms are living beings of the simplest structure, many of which possess general practical and scientific interest by their capacity as generators of fermentation, putrefaction and in- fectious diseases. By their morphological properties, i. e., their structure and gfrowth, and their biological properties, i. e., manifestations and conditions of life, they belong to the vegetable kingdom and are classed among the fungi. The lower fungi arc divided into three classes: 1. Filamentous, or mold fungi. — Hyphomycetes. 2. Budding, or yeast fungi. — Blastomycetes. 3. Fission fungp, or bacteria. — Schizomycetes (Schizophytes). GENERAL BIOLOGY. Many of these consist of single cells and in that case are called unicellular. A "cell" is a bit of protoplasm, enveloped by a cell wall or membrane consisting of cellulose, similar to, but not identical with, the common cellulose of plants. PROTOPLASM. "Protoplasm" is a more or less viscous, tough, elastic, trans- parent, often granular substance. Chemically it is classed as albuminous in its nature. It is the most primitive substance yet discovered that possesses the peculiarities of animate or living as distinguished from inanimate or lifeless matter, and as far as scientific knowledge goes it is the ultimate basis or unit of all organic life. It is nature's agent for carrying on chemical de- composition and reconstruction of the most intricate character on which depends, to a very great extent, the metabolism or cir- culatlon and modification of matter which makes the activities of ///xvs\vt^\ #> ^ CP « ^ ^ fi 513 H1CKO-ORGAN15US. «l = 1 iE d = '-^c iill * ll IJ : l| tL "-^ ^ = =:|l!5..i i=l i i!i L 1 s ■si e ill -t-l 5i'S£ 1 |li S|£ 5-=l S S.<4S UUi '^v\t>"^ 514 UICBO-ORCANISHS. which is brought about by special whip-like organs icalled "flagella." These slender threads become visible under the microscope only by staining. Of bacteria the number in naiure is without end. A great many of them have been examined and described, but those which are met with in brewing operations are few. Passing by the methodical classification of bacteria in general, those which concern the brewer may be reduced lo three classes: 1. Bacteria of putrefaction: Termobacteria, hay bacillus. 2. Bacteria of fermentation: Lactic, butyric and acetic acid 3. Bacteria which produce pigments: Sarcina. TCBHOBACmUA. A considerable number of varietieG of termobacteria have been found and described. They are minute rods, showing a tight constriction in the middle. They never form chains, but are exceedingly motile. Some have been shown lo raise spores. But few of ihem occur in the brewery, mostly in ihe wort, which in that case sends up a peculiar odor as of cillery. If a wort that is infected with termobacteria is pitched with a vigorous yeast, the bacteria will die rapidly. They arc seldom fjb Q- found in the finished beer, readily nnd quickly in yeasi On the other hand, ihey develop while in a resting condition, (See The bay bacillus (bacillMS jubliiisl. ■w\v\c\\ is teiiiarkable for ^ (Ae extraordinary resistance ot its apoT^s, v^ ^.tiQftvw \>i^\w\>i.ia MICRO-ORGANISMS. 5"5 of pt^trclaclion. Il was formerly asserted that this bacillus was met with in wort and beer. It has been shown by recent ex- periments that it is incapable of development in hopped wort, particularly in the presence of appreciable amounts of free acid. mi2M ^a^o' I (H. BACTERIA OF FERMENTATION. The following fermentations are caused by bacteria: 1. Lactic acid fermentation. 2. Butyric acid fermentation. 3. Acetic acid fermentation. 4. Viscous fermentation (of beer). .ACTIC ACID BACTERIA. hose activity milk is soured consist of 5ds, which are often joined in groups of ss no means of locomotion. Many of them some reproduce themselves by means J some without. Several varieties are met operations, principally in top-fermentation r toslc of their product depending mainly The bactefia by short, thick, plump two or three and pos: have been isolated, of sporulaiion, and breweries, tlic upon these bacteria. (For certain pediococcus types that ; active in producing this result see "Sarcina.") In bottom-fer- 1 beers they are able to produce turbidity and a sour I) lactic baclciia, i\\ci^«.\ VaK.- terium of this class is jafrJiarobocillus tiQSto''"^'^'*^'*^- '^^'^'^ organism is able to grow both m WQiX atvi \itw. "V^ **^ '*^'' 5l6 MICRO-ORGANISMS. crates lactic acid. It is not motile. It is responsible for the turning of beer, and is capable of fermenting such sugars as maltose, saccharose, and dextrose. No spores have yet been found in this bacillus. (See illustration, page 505.) BUTYRIC ACID BACTERIA. These also are of many varieties. Often they are fairly long rods, although shorter forms are also met with. They move slowly, and some of them at times reproduce themselves by spores. With few exceptions they arc "anaerobic/* i. e., they develop more rapidly, and in some cases exclusively, in the absence of air. Those types which occur in brewing operations are liable to impart a disagreeable taste, rancid odor, and haziness to the beer. They are very sensitive to the bactericidal action of hops. (See illustration, page 505.) ACETIC ACID BACTERIA. Of the four varieties known but one has been f()und in breweries, viz., bacterium aceti. They are short rods, slightly constricted in the middle, and often forming long chain?. In old cultures long, irregularly swollen forms are seen on\ uluiion forms). Sacchaioiiiycfs p;tNiorianu> II • H.iiix-u) :f»>ii:i. The pro7 The acetic bacteria require an abundant supply of air. At higher temperatures they form a viscous film or pellicle on the surface of beer — mother of vinegar — within a few days, which is always a ready means of identification. They give to beer Saccharoniyces pastorinnus III (Hansen) igoo:i. a vinegar-like odor, and are more resistant to the antiseptic action of the hops than the lactic bacte»"ia. When treated with iodine solution the jelly-like mass by which they are enveloped is stained yellow. The most common varieties outside of the brewery are bacterium /^astcurianuni and bacterium Knetziugianum. They dif- fer from bacterium aceti in the circumstance that iodine solution will give a blv.e color to them, or rather to the viscous substance enveloping? them, while the iodine itself docs not take any dif- ferent color. The acetic bacteria possess no motion and do not form spores. (See illustration, page 5c6.) nACTERI.\ OF VISCOUS KERMKNTATION. The organisms nf this species arc rather bhort, ^lond^.'r r-.ds. Two varieties have been described, viz.. bacillus viscosus I and //, both having been found in beer. They are not motile, and the spores arc produced at the ends. In 24 hours after infccti(.»n these bacilli induve viscidity ("ropiucss'') in beer, a.i\d \\\ a^^Vv^x^^s the wort is converted into a Uiasx as eo\\CTe\\\. tv.s wXxW'i ^>\ ^vj,"^- The viscous condition is produced \\\osV t;vv\^\n v\^ ^^ ^' S-8 MICRO-ORGANISMS. the action ceases above 107* F. and below 44* F. No action is obsen'ed if the infection ol the beer occurs after the principal fermenlation. The viscous bacteria appear more parlicuUrly in top- fermentation beers. (See illustration, page 507.) The most common bacteria in 'bottom-fermentation breweries are sarcinx. They consist of minute spherules, almost invariably 2. 4, 8 or more clinging together in a packet. They may be di- vided into two groups, ptdioeoccus and sarcina proper. The former grow in one plane, that is, in two directions, the latter in all three directions. The former appear colorless on gelatin, the latter give a variety of colors. All of them produce acid, chiefly lactic, in varying quantities. While they may be found in almost every botlom-fermentation yeast, they induce comparatively rare diseases in beer. Some beers, especially dark ones, are more subject lo sarcina disease. Under certain conditions, not yel fully understood, and in cer- . tliey appear almost epidemically. They are aerobic, i. e., they require air for their development. but only in small (jtiantilies. IJberal additions of hops ; certain acids ivill inhibit llieir growth and niultiplicaiiun. Sardnj dca itol form spores and (iQV,e«e^.s. vicwWAwij 1 "on. Xo Uagclla have been found on ihcm. l^S^e \\\vi'.\ia "^^e SoS.) MICRO-ORCANISHS. 5I9 BUDDING FUNGI, OR YEASTS.— BL A STOMYCETES. The soft, ni'ishy mass, known to the brewer as yeail, consists of countless cells of round or oval shape, either lying single or joined into groups. Their length varies from 3 to 10 raicromilli- meters. Each of these cells is an individual yeast plant of the unicellular kind, belonging to the class of the "budding" fungi 00 of proto- (blastomycetes) ajid like those of the molds, c plasm, enveloped in a cell wall of cellulose. The 1 tributioR of the contents of the cell causes the appearance of specks, like little bubbles, which are called "vacuoles." Some yeast types have been definitely shown to contain a "nucleus" in the cell. It appears liker a small, round body, and seems to be controlling the activities of the ceil in a way as yet not fully ex- plained. The protcq>lasm which fills the cells varies in appearance with the age and vigor of the plant. In young, strong cells it is foamy, almost transparent, becoming more granular as the yeast grows older. The nucleus is ordinarily invisible. Weak cells contain more vacuoles than strong ones. Living protoplasm does not take up a staining agent, such as indigo or methylene blue solution, whereas dead protoplasm at- tracts many dyes. If yeast is mixed with a drop of a dilute staining fluid, like methylene blue, the dead yeast cells C3.n he readily detected by the blue coiot ftie^ ; MICRO-ORGANISMS. MICRO-OKGANISMS 1 Pi- IMS til ^ liliul iSIL i s X lllft pfflll III 14 llill '„..,,.... 1 V. 1 , ^,5 ~ t> «iJ5s m 1 ji«T. 'l~ _^„ S -lawL > 'illl ir ^1 . iol ST E:^ U . o s »n II f _ ^4' i 1 ;lf 'i tiili.; _. i\m si - 1 s-| — = ' ^ -1 . . c. , E .-=1 sj 2 !^ ?!S *« ' !i nil i' "^lii'^lfl" ?i lyi III MS 1?? ■5-1 l1 i=tii =1 lESI m\ U ICRO-ORGANISUS. 1 < : s . ! c i = ,i 1 i 1 ^ ° 1 1 i 1 ii' ii-i 8«S is » i i P 11^ 1 mm s 1 i 1 ill nil \~r J f. PI P IPI jj Isfl = i^ilH ft 1i 1 a" e=t2 : P. jiii Hi |lll 5 |l| £ iirr MICRO-ORGANISMS. 523 REPRODUCTION. Reproduction proceeds by "budding." At some point in the cell-wall a protuberance rises, which speedily grows to nearly the size and shape of the parent cell. A partition forms between the bud and the parent cell. The new cell is not always de- tached from the old one at once, but many cells sometimes remain clinging together for a time, forming clusters. The budding fungi do not exhibit that completely systematic form of growth seen in the molds, finishing with the fruit Under normal conditions, i. e., such as arc favorable for their growth, these organisms multiply by continued budding. Under certain conditions, however, some varieties will develop spores, which constitute the resting form of the yeast cells. Many scientists, among whom Brefeld was first, have sought to show that the yeast fungi are not an itidependent species, but merely developmental forms of the molds. The principal point of similarity is that some molds are capable of reproduction by budding. Emil Clir. Hansen showed repeatedly that the yeasts arc a species by itself, and it was chiefly by utilizing sporulation as a Saccharomyces apiculatus (Hansen) 1000:1. The larKer cells are sacch. cerevisiae. feature of distinction that he succeeded in establishing different types of yeast. In this respect the most important elements to be considered are the limits of temperature and time in which spores are produced. Some types of yeast have been observed to produce a mycelium, slender, oblong cells being formed, vf\\\c\\, \vovj^n^\, \<:k tss>x\c^kv- lacc. 524 MICRO-ORGANISMS. A genuine mycelium is found only in isolated types and, like the films (or spurious mycelia) which occur wiih most yeaats under certain conditions, is of great diagnostic importance. CLASSIFICATION. All those yeasts which produce spores belong to the species saeeharomycrs. which includes the two large divisions of yeasts called cultivated (culture) or beer yeasts, and wild yeasts. Ihe latter division comprising all those yeasis which form spores, but are not cultivated. These are found in nature generally in great abundance on the skins of ripe fruits, are carried by the air frotn place to place, and thus find their way into the brewery where they are unwelcome guests under circumstances giving rise to beer diseases. Among these are Saccharotnyces Fastoriaims 1. II and HI. Saccharomyccs fliipsoidetis I and II. By an in- accuracy the ycaSt called "apiculatus" bears the m charoniyccs," It docs not form spores, but becomes i account of a detailed and instructive dcscripiion of Hansen. (See illusiration, pastnrianus 515. 5i(i, 5L7; 1 518. Jig; apiculatus 523.) Those yeasts which do not form ,=(iore« are di mycodi-niia. which wilh grcil rapidily form :\ cii him on WTt nr beer, and Ijrula. coniisling of mini spherical yonst cells, which, however, do not inrluc. SrORULATlOK. The ,.,->.( im[»^r(n, It mark of diviji nclion nf culliva froTU wild vea^t is s porulalioii, which aff.irds the onh fi-sf ivIiciIht n ic.rsi is .1 cullnrc yeas 1 or .101. .\ Ui.- culture of a ciilliire Ji ?asl nn a gypfHu 1 \.\oc\t M -rr V . spores riiiicli irinrc s, lowly tlian l\ic otWr ^acc\\a^w MICRO-ORGANISMS. c3^ isH i0^^ I'ii) Sa6 MICBO-OBGANISMS. wild yeasts. As a mle, sporulation wOl «ot begin for three or four days, whereas the wild yeasts will evince a manifest disposi- tion for sporulation within 40 hours at \ht same temperature. Only in a few cases a temperature of 59* F. is preferable, in which case sporulation will take a correspondingly longer time. Under certain conditions most of the saccharomycetes can be made to produce films. But the film develops very slowly, and often only in patches or detached pieces, which hardly cover the sur£aice. (An exception is sacch. membranaefaciens and some others.) This feature is of scientific interest merely. Another distinguishing mark of the two groups is the ap- pearance of the spores. The young sp6re of the cultivated yeast has a cell-wall plainly distinguishable, and the contents of the spore are not uniform but granular and dotted with vacuoles. The wild-yeast spore, on the other hand, most frequently shows an indistinct cell-wall, and its contents are more refractive and uniform. (See also "Yeast and Fermentation/' "Pure Yeast Culttire" and "The Brewer's Microscopical Laboratory.") YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. HISTORICAL AND EXPLANATORY. It is beyond the scope of this book to treat the development of the science of fermentation elaborately, but it may be desir- able to review quite briefly the history of the theory of fer- mentation. At different periods the theories of Liebig, Pasteur, Traube, Naegeli and Buchner have served successively to explain the various phenomena attending the process of alcoholic fermenta- tion. The process of fermentation was undoubtedly practiced in pre- historic times. It was not, however, until the middle of the eighteenth century that science had advanced sufficiently to recog- nize the gas escaping from fermentation as identical with that produced by the combustion of charcoal, which is now known as carbonic acid gas. Lavoisier, in 1789, was the first to recognize that fermentation was essentially a process of splitting up sugar into two portions, viz., alcohol and carbonic acid, in about equal quantities, "which, if it was possible to reunite, ought to form sugar," while it remained for Pasteur to show that glycerin and succinic acid were regular products of fermentation. Appert, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, was the first to produce evidence that yeast was necessary for the fer- mentation of sugar. He preserved beer wort unfermented by simply excluding air from contact with boiled and cooled wort, whereas, if yeast was introduced in such cooled wort fermenta- tion soon set in. though air was excluded. Appert founded a method of preserving perishable articles of food on the principle of heating and excluding air, and thus bec^^tv^ \.V\fc ^xv^vk^^^^ ^^ what is now generally termed the pxQC^^^ o\ ^^'sX^'vi^x'L'^^^'^- 5^7 5^8 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. The true nature of yeast was not scientifically demonstratea. however, until Cagniard de la Tour and simultaneously Sch\vnnn in 1838 described yeast as consisting of numberless living organ- isms, which multiplied rapidly by budding, and the. presence of which in a solution of sugar was absolutely necessary to cause fermentation. Stahl was the first to formulate a theory which was afterward adopted by Lavoisier for the breaking up of sugar. Long before the nature of yeast was known he advanced the proposition that the ferment communicated its own internal motion to the sugar with the eflfect of reducing it to new substances. ''As chemistry advanced," says Huxley, **facts came to light which put a new phase upon Stahl's hypothesis and gave it a safer foundation than it previously possessed. The general nature of these phenomena may be thus stated: A body A, without giving to. or taking from, another body B. any material particles, causes B to decompose into other substances, C, D. E, the sum of the weights of which is equal to the weight of B. which decomposes." Some lime after Stahl. Thenard. in 1803. explained the de- composition of the sugar by assuming that the ferment combines with a portion of the oxygen of the sugar, thus causing the fer- mentation to commence; the equilibrium between the principles of the sugar being disturbed, carbonic acid and alcohol is formed. Thus Stahl becomes the forerunner of Liebig. and Thenard of Pasteur. Schwann undertook his experiments mainly with a view of refuting the doctrine of spontaneous generation, -which assumed that living organisms could develop out of life- less matter without the agency of eggs, germs, seeds, etc. He disposed of that doctrine effectually by showing that air might be admitted in any quantity to soluti«>ii« which had been boiled in flasks without causing fermentation or putrefaction, provided the germs contained in such air were destroyed. Liebig was of opinion that fermentation was not dependent upon the vital activity of the yepst plant, that the splitting up of sugar into alcohol an sugar flnfficiently to bring about decomposition similarly as the invasion of cane-sugar into dextrose in contact with yeast ijl due to its nitrogenous constituent, invertase. Pasteur considered the splitting up of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid a function of the living yeast organism. Fer- mentation was with him the result of a physiological process, which would set in when the yeast was unable to obtain from its surroundings free oxygen necessary to the exercise of its vital activity. In this case it would extract the required oxygen from the sugar contained in the solution in which the yeast is immersed, resulting in the splitting up of the sugar molecule into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. A. J. Brown showed that if two fermentations are conducted under the same conditions and so as to arrest entirely the growth of the yeast, the fermentative energy of the yeast in one liquid will be increased if aerated as compared with the other one which is not aerated, thus refuting Pasteur's theory. Traube, in 1858, explains alcoholic fermentation as being brought about by the influence of ferments (enzymes) contained in the yeast cells, these ferments having a definite chemical <;oniposition and being analogous in their action to such sub- strfsces as diastase, these substances having the power of trans- ferring the oxygen from one group of atoms that constitute a chemical substance, to another group of atoms, thereby causing, as in the case of sugar, a splitting up of complex molecules into simpler ones. Naegeli claims, unlike Pasteur, that the splitting up of sugar takes place outside and not inside the yeast organism, and is effected by vibrations emanating from the molecules com- posing the living protoplasm of the yeast cells. The action of the yeast would thus be a purely physical and not a chemical (Liebig), physiological (Pasteur), or enzymatic one (Traube). Fischer showed that the action of yeasts on sugars is a purely chemical function due to enzymes that the yeast contained ; that of the sugars, dextrose, levulose, galactose, are directly fer- mentable, while other sugars, like saccharose and maltose, are fermentable only in case the yeast contains the corresponding enzymes which, like invertase, changes saccharose to dextrose, or maltase, which changes maltose lo dey^Uos^. "^W \>v^^>*^-^ ^^ yeast to ferment sugar is dependeivl wpotv XW Tv\o\\v\Vi «^^ "^'^^ 34 530 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION; geometrical structure or configuration of the sugar molecirfes with the molecules composing the active agencies or enzymes ol the yeast cell, like the construction of a key must conform to tlie construction of a corresponding lock. The sugars, with a larger molecular weight (saccharose, maltose), are split up or unlocked, yielding sugars with a smaller molecular weight, like dextrose, which then falls apart into alcohol and carbonic acid by the action of yeast. Will showed that dead yeast may cause fermentation phe- nomena, that is, decomposition of sug^r into alcohol and car- ^ bonic acid, and offered in explanation for this and the other fact that watering of yeast lowers its fermentative energy, the suggestion that an enzyme-like substance is contained in yeast which does not lose its power of splitting up sug^r with- the death of the yeast, and which being soluble in water is ex- tracted from the yeast during the watering process. It remained for Buchner to obtain a solution of this enzyme- like substance from the yeast by rupturing the yeast cell by means of grinding pressed yeast with sand and then subjecting the moistened mass to an immense pressure. After filtration, this clear Hquid, when brought together with sugar solutions, induced fermentation just as the living yeast cells would have done. Buchner calls the enzyme contained in this solution from yeast, zymase. Buchner's theory was not permitted to go entirely unchal- lenged. It was claimed that the action of the yeast-juice could be explained by assuming that fermentation was due to the particles of living yeast-plasma contained in the juice, and not necessarily to an enzyme-like substance. This objection was also met by Buchner, who sub- jected yeast-juice to the action of a centrifugal machine. All particles in suspension, including yeast plasma, were thus collected in one part of the liquid and another part obtained free from yeast-plasma, which latter portion showed the same power of fermentation as the liquid containing the plasma. Fermentation would thus, if Buchner's theory is correct, appear to be a process similar to the splitting up of starch into mnltose and dextrin, which, as we know, is effected by the enzyme diastase contained in \\ie vualt. Fermentation, as w'e// as inversion, then would be no\.Vv\T\% vt\o\t v>cv;!i^ ^^x>jvRa.>C\^ / .> YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 53 f J action; and these two interesting phenomena would at last adml^t of a common explanation. ' .Although yeast had been observed under the microscope as early as the beginning of the eighteenth century by Lieuwenhoeck, it was not until Cagniard de la Tour, Schwann and Mitscherlich lOok up the subject more than a hundred years afterward, that yeast was described and its importance in fermentation recog- nized. Kiitzing. about the same time, described the acetic acid ferment, while jt was left to Pasteur to discover, study and de- scribe numerous microbes, capable of inciting fermentation, dif- fering from one another, particularly in their products. Pasteur was thus enabled to point out the characteristics of alcoholic, bu- tyric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid fermentations, and it was due to his investigations that the importance was brought home to the winegrower and later to the brewer of excluding from their re- spective fermentations those microbes, through whose agency the products of wine cellar or brewery are injured. In order to accomplish this end, it was Pasteur's aim, among other pre- cautions, to free the yeasts from undesirable foreign organisms. Although he achieved this object, practically, as far as bacteria were concerned, his methods did not permit of a separation of a mixture of desirable and undesirable types of yeast. This it was left for the master hand of Hansen to accomplish, whose methods are treated elsewhere in detail. (See "Pure Yeast Culture.") Hansen was thus enabled to point out that the yeasts commonly employed in the brewery, besides often containing wild yeasts, were commonly mixtures of different species of cultivated yeast, each of which, when isolated and used as a pure culture, would give a beer with peculiar properties ; that some species of culture yeast found in such mixtures could, under certain circumstances, produce beer diseases. Thus a judicious selection of the type of yeast to be employed become? an all-important factor in brewing. Hansen's methods and results have been of inestfmable value, both for the advancement of purely scientific methods of research and from an economical standpoint. FERMENTATION OTHER THAN ALCOHOLIC. Besides alcoholic fermentation there ;iYs^tn^^^, viV^t^^^-^. microbe life finds proper conditions ioT \Vs ^w^N.^xvaLW^i^, c^?^^^ 1 532 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. S phenomena like souring, decay, putrefaction, all of whicli are due to the action of these microbes. ^ When the substances decomposed in this way are of vege- table origin, like maltose, etc., we call the process fermentation. Thus we speak of alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermenta- tion, butyric acid fermentation, acetic acid fermentation. When the substances decomposed in this way are of animal origin, like the albumen of meat, we call the process putrefaction. This distinction cannot, however, be strictly maintained, since vegetable matter, like vegetable albuminoids, can give rise to putrefaction also. We then may properly -speak of rotten fermenta- tion. (See Micro-organisms.) The term "putrefaction," therefore, is generally applied to the decomposition of substances, whether of vegetable or animal origin, by microbes if it is accompanied by the generation of foul gases, like a mixture of ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid. The term *'fernientalion" is used when such decomposition by microbes is accompanied by the generation of alcohol or acids, like lactic acid, butyric acid, acetic acid, be- sides carbonic acid. Each species of microbe may be considered to generate its own typical fermentation product. Alcohols are produced bv the alcoholic ferment, yeast ; lactic acid, by the lactic acid bacteria ; butyric acid, by the butyric acid bacteria ; acetic acid, by the acetic acid ferments; while some kinds of bacteria, like "bacterium termo," generate in beer wort foul smelling gases. It should be the brewer's most earnest endeavor to keep wort. beer and yea^t free from such microbes as producer undesirablt! fermentations like butyric acid ferment, acetic acid fcrincnt, sar- cina. Besides, these foreign organisms, being much smaller than yeast, cannot be so readily removed from ibc bi-er as yeast- cells, thus giving rise to turbidities and impairing ilie tiurabil- ily of beer. Bacteria may bo called, with Tyndall. "the weeds of the micro- scopic garde'i. which (^ftcp. o\er>ha(lo\v anil choke '.he culture plants." The brewer's aim should be to paraly/e. it he cannot ^' YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 533 / ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. Alcoholic fermentation, then, is the process of splitting up sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, in equal parts, approxi- mately, through the action of the alcoholic ferment, yeast. Glycerin and succinic acid are produced in small quantities by the same process. The industries which are based upon alcoholic fermentation are: Wine Production, utilizing chiefly the wild yeast called "sac- charomyces ellipsoideus." Distilling of Spirits, utilizing the culture yeast of beer, "sac- charomyces cerevisise." Pressed Yeast Manufacture, utilizing distillers' yeast. Brewing. For lager beer, culture yeast of beer, "saccharomy- ses cerev^iae," is used. The same organism is also used for the production of ale, stout, porter and weissbier, but wild yeasts are left to take care of the secondary fermentation in stock beers of top- fermenting type. Lambic and Faro are fermented by wild yeasts and bacteria in both principal and secondary fermentations. BEER YEAST. The most remarkable faculty of the yeast plant, from the prac- tical point of view, is its power of exciting alcoholic fermenta- tion, i. e., of splitting up sugar into alcohol, carbonic acid and some other bodies. Cultivated (culture) or Beer (brewers*) Yeast {saccharomyces cerevisiae) is divided into two great groups: Top-fermentation and bottom-fermentation yeasts. They are two distinct species, since, after many experiments, it has been found impossible by any process of treatment to convert one type into the other. Top- fermentation yeasts have the faculty of forming spores more speedily and readily than bottom-fermentation yeasts. Each of these groups or species embraces many varieties or types, which differ in a number of important marks, as: 1. The degree of attenuation to which they can carry a wort, i. e., that portion out of lOO parts of extract in wort which is fermented by them. Accordingly they fall into "high attenuating" and "low attenuating" yeasts. 2. The time of fermentation, i. e.. "fast att V^ft^ ^^T3?)- 536 VEASTS AND FERMENTATION. *, For yeasts and the carbohydrates of the wort. seen> n> to complete fermenltvlxon «•( the sugars of the Mort. i,nc of the ycnsts would leave a \aT%eT sw^^t xtvww^wx \w\\\^ / YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 537 wort4lifn the other (Wochenschrift f. Brauerei, 1891. page 1131). T]^ high attenuating yeast was called Frohberg, the lower at- rfenuating one Saas. Arminiiis Bau found similar differences in attenuating power of top-fermenting yeasts when subjecting them to favorable con ditions of fermentation (Chemiker-Zeitung, 1892, page 1520). The different behavior of the two types of yeast was explained by the Berlin College of Brewing by assuming that the yeast Frohberg possessed the faculty of fermenting certain malto-dex- trins of the wort, whereas yeast Saaz could not, yeast Frohberg containing an enzyme which enabled it to invert certain malto- dextrins, whereas yeast Saaz being devoid of the enzyme, was incapable of fermenting this particular malto-dextrin. Prior disputed this theory, contending that if the difference in at- tenuation was due to the presence or absence of an enzyme, yeast Saaz would not under any circumstances be capable of fermenting the malto-dextrin in question. (Bayerisches Brauer journal, 1895, pages 193 to 326.) He succeeded, however, in obtaining the same attenuation of wort with yeast Saaz as with yeast Frohberg by fermenting wort under vacuum at higher temperature (30** to 33® C. or 86** to 91° F.) while passing air through the ferment ing liquid at the same time. Yeast Frohberg reached the final attenuation, that is, fermented the malto-dextrin in question., much quicker than yeast Saaz. Prior found, moreover, that a remnant of sugar remains unfermented even under these favorable circumstances, and that this remnant is composed in part of maltose. The conclusion is that under conditions that obtain in practical brewing there always remains a remnant of unfermented maltose as well as of malto-dextrins, which will be the smaller for both sugars, the more favorable the conditions as to tem- perature, aeration, yeast nourishment, etc., and which will differ also with the type and vitality of the yeast. According to E. Fischer, the degree of completeness to which sugar is fermented, depends upon the greater or less conformity of the geometrical structure or configuration of the sugar mole- cule and the active agenr'es or enzymes of the yeast cell. Krieger showed that the constituents of beer undergo a con- stant, although slow, transformation during fermentation and storage. This transformation is characterized Vv^ VV\^ '\w<:.\'^*a.^^ '^^ reduction and decrease of po\arizal'\orv, \\\^.\. \^, V>^ ^^^^ \.\-A.\vi.Vc>"^^>^'5^ 538 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 'i tion of complex carbohydrates into simple sugars under t^^.4||flu- cnce of some enzyme which Krieger thinks may be identical \foh glucase or maltase. This view was confirmed by Fischer, who showed that glucase is present as a normal ingredient of yeast. (American Brewer, 1894, p. 44.) Krieger, in an article about the degree of final attenuation of the yeasts of Saaz and Frohberg types, says : "The yeast of the tjrpc Frohberg contains an enzymt transforming slowly, but constantly, the unfermentable isomaltose into an easily fermentable kind of sugar. The type Saaz contains it in a considerably smaller degree of either activity or quantity.' (American Brewer. 1895, p. 304.) Prior traces the causes leading to the differences in attenuating power of the yeasts Saaz, Frohberg and a third type discovered by Van Laer and called I-ogos, which possesses still higher at- tenuating power than either of the other two, to physical and physiological processes (Malz u. Bier, page 438). The splitting up of the sugar taking place within the ycast ' cell, only so much sugar can ferment as reaches the protoplasni by passing through the cell membrane. Now. the membranes of the yeast cells have different thicknesses and, consequently, do not permit the diffusion or diosmosis of sugars into the yeasi cell with equal facility. Hence, under equal conditions some yeasts will ferment the sugars quicker than others and more com- pletely in the same time. Logos yeast permits the diffusion or diosmosis of certain sugars more readily than Frohberg, the latter, in turn, more readily than Saaz (see also Micro-organisms. Osmoses). Besides, yeasts have different nower of reproduction, different power of resistance toward the products of fermenta tion. and are affected differently by aeration and temperatures, all of which factors may exert an influence on the completeness with which the sugars are fermented by different yeasts under identical circumstances. Diffusion and. hence, fermentation, will also be retarded and a lower attenuation produced where the ycast membrane secretes substances of a slimy nature, which seems to be the case with Saaz yeast more than with Frohberg. Prior examined three different yeasts which displayed marked differences in the rapidity of fermenting saccharose and in their bt^havior towards other sugars contained in wort, as maltose, dextrose, and levulose (Bayerisches BT2LMeT\ovLiTv?\, \^^, '^•a.ss,^ / YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 539 y7A)wtj(^ found that saccharose ferments fastest, next dextrose, th^ levulose, and maltose slowest of all. This shows that differ- _>em sugars pass through the yeast membranes with very unequal facility. FERMENTATIVE ENERGY AND REPRODUCTION. Fermentative energy or fermenting power is measured by the amount of sugar a yeast can ferment in a given time, which meas- urement is taken by weighing the amount of carbonic acid gas generated (see Microscopical Laboratory). Fermenting power is therefore quite distinct from attenuating power, which means the amount of sugar fermented absolutely, irrespective of time. The physiological functions of yeast manifest themselves in two directions, viz., that of the fermentation, that is, of splitting up sugars into alcohol and carbonic acid, and of reproduction, that is, of producing new cells. Different types of yeast show marked differences in the amount of new yeast formed and in the energy of fermentation, that is, the amount of sugar split up in a given time. These yeasts ' which show high reproductive energy generally display less fer- mentative energy, and vice versa. Generally, fermentation and reproduction are carried on by the cell simultaneously, although yeasts can be compelled to multiply without exerting any fermentative energy, as Pasteur showed, if grown in such a nutritive solution as yeast water in the presence of a sugar it cannot ferment, as milk sugar, and, on the other hand, yeast can be caused to ferment without reproduction, as in a pure sugar solution. The substances from which yeast reproduces its body are mainly amides and phosphate of potash. The sugar which it is called upon to split up in a wort, is mainly maltose, besides small quantities of saccharose, dextrose, levulose and malto-dextrin. Reproductive energy, fermentative energy and attenuating power are dependent on the species of yeast in the first place, and secondly, on the physiological condition or vitality of the yeast, which in turn is dependent upon age, composition of the nourishing medium, temperature, aeration, amount of fermenta- tion products like alcohol and carbonic acid, etc. That fermentative energy is also lar^eV>j ^t^^tv^^xv^ ^'cv "^^ species o! yeast employed was s\\o>nt\ \i^ "^tKox, ^\\o ^-^-arccvvcv^^ ' S40 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. k. large number of yeasts in respect to this point, accordini^ib^ the method of Meissl, obtaining the following results, which ^|re calculated for yeast dry matter: , FERMENTATIVE ENERGY OF DIFFERENT YEASTS (PRIOR). Ferments tivt energy. Carlsberg yeast 1 156.40 Carlsberg yeast II 106.13 Saccharomyces pastorianus I T55-48 Saccharomyces pastorianus II 260.72 Saccharomyces pastorianus III 202.20 Saccharomyces ellipsoideus 1 28576 Saccharomyces ellipsoideus II 219 03 Berlin yeast, type Frohberg 170.5? Nuremberg yeast A 200.50 Nuremberg yeast R« 232.95 Nuremberg yeast C* 1 17-79 Nuremberg yeast D» 148.99 Nuremberg yeast K« I33 56 Nuremberg yeast Z« 14519 Nuremberg yeast L* 104.84 Berlin yeast, type Saaz 1 13.07 Vacuolized Nurembt^rg yeast . . . .' 203.09 The ditferences shown by these figures arc accounted for by Prior on the theory that the cell-walls of the different yeast types are of unequal thickness and consequently permit osmose or diffusion with greater or less readiness. Fermentative activity has an influence on reproductive activity. The splitting? up of sugar nui.'^t be considered a normal function of the yeast which is conducive to its well-being and consequently stimulates reproduction. Fermentative activity of one species of yeast has a retarding influence on the reproductive activity of other species and of bacteria. Largo numbers of culture yeasts in a liquid containing proper nourishment, and other conditions, will crowd out smaller numbers of other yeasts or bacteria, even if the other condition*? for growth arc as favorable to those organisms which are in the minority, as for the predominant one. If. however, ihe conditions '7rc more favorable for the smaller numbei, \\\e \;5lU^t tw\\ 5j[5:?,d- YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 54I * uaUjr TJfttain the upper hand and crowd out the more n»«.mcrou8 tsjjc. RESPIRATION. The influence of aeration on the reproductive and fermenta- tive energy of yeast is marked and peculiar. Yeast absorbes oxygen with avidity and gives off a correspond- ing amount of carbonic acid besides the fermentation carbonic acid, as Schiitzenberger showed. The power of absorption of oxygen varies with the temperature. At temperatures where yeast shows the highest fermentative energy it also exhibits the highest power of absorbing oxygen, that is, at about 24** R. (86° F.), while this power gradually diminishes with lower temperatures, but is still appreciable at ordinary bottom-fermentation tempera- tures. Pasteur considered fermentation as the result of a physiologi- cal process that set in if yeast was unable to obtain free oxygen, in which case it would extract the oxygen from* the sugar. According to this theory, reproduction without fermentation would take place in the first stages of fermentation as long as there was free oxygen in the fluid, or at least the presence of free oxygen would result in a diminution of fermentation and an in- crease of reproduction. This, however, is not in conformity with the facts. A. J. Brown showed that if two fermentations are conducted under the same conditions, with the only difference that one is aerated, the other not, fermentative energy will be in- creased in the aerated wort, even if the conditions were such as to check the growth entirely, thus refuting Pasteur's theory. A. J. Brown and later Schiitzenberger found that reproduction does not take place at all if the yeast cells in a nourishing medium exceed a certain number, from which observations it may be inferred that aeration will stimulate the reproductive functions only until this ivaximum is reached. In a sugar solution yeast will cause fermentation but not re- produce itself, and aeration will have no influence on the repro- ductive energy. For reproduction the first essential is, of course, proper nourishment, and in liquids, which contain such nourish- ment, as worts, aeration was found by R. Pedersen (Communica- tions of the Carlsbcrg Laboratory, Nos. i and 2) and F. ScIvn\x^<:KvV (Wochcnschrift f. Brauerci, i^qG, ^^^e. t^\\ \.o Va.^^ -j^ '=K.v«\^'»5^ ing effect on th^ reproductive iui\c\.\OT\?., vVv^X. \^^ vc\ox^ -j^^s.'^n. ^ 543 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. ^ produced while fermentation proceeded more rapidly anIKMcn- nation was higher. ^ TEMPERATURES. Yeasts may show signs of fermentative as well as reproductive activity at as low a temperature as o* R. (32* F.). Growth stops at about 32*" R. (104** F.) and fermentation ceases at about 40** R. {i22* F). At temperatures below 3° R. (39** F.) some var- ieties of bottom- fermentation yeast are incapable of growth or fermentation. The higher the temperature rises up to a certain limit the greater becomes the reproductive and fermentative energy. Pedersen found the most favorable temperature for the rapidity of reproduction of bottom yeast to be between 22° and 27° R. (81* and 93° F.) when cuhivated in unhopped wort, while the amount of new yeast produced was found to be uninfluenced by the temperature. (Mittheilungen aus dem Carlsberger Labora- torium No. i.) The temperature at which yeast shows the greatest fermcnla- tive energy is about 24° R. (86" F.). It differs, however, with different species. Yeasts survive exposure to very low temperatures. Brewers* yeast may be preserved by freezing, without injury, if the inriss is allowed to thaw out gradually. The influence of high temperatures in destroying yeast de- pends on the variety and vitality, whether the yeast is young or old, strong or weak. Hansen found that cells of Saccharomyces cllipsoideus II were killed at one time in five minutes at 44° R. (131° F.), whereas, under other circumstances they survived heating to 48° R. (140° F.) for five minutes. If carefully dried. yeast is able to withstand very high temperatures. Kayser found that moist pale ale yeast was destroyed after keeping it at 48° to 52° R. (140** to 149" F.) for five minutes, whereas, after drying, it was heated to 75° to 84° R. (201° to 221° F.) without injury. (Thausing. Malzbereitung und Bierfabrikation, 1898. page 721). Heating beer to 48'' R. (Mo"" F.) and holding ibis temperature for about 30 minutes effectually destroys all organisms ordinarily con- tajned in beer. (Wahl and Henius.) Some yeasts arc much more active at comparatively low tem- peratures than others. Wild yeast and mvcodeitv\^ ^x^ vioN. O^^cN^fc^ ^ YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 543 by loi^ temperatures to the same degree as cultivated yeasts. Lp^r fermenting temperatures, therefore, favor their growth as against the culture yeast in beer wort. At higher tempera- tures the cultivated yeast is able to suppress the wild yeasts more effectually. NUTRITION. Yeasts can only feed on such substances as are in solution and capable of diffusion, that is, that can penetrate the membrane of the yeast cell. (See also Micro-organisms, and Bottom Yeast). Yeast builds up its protoplasm mainly from albuminoids in the form of amides and from mineral substances, mainly phos- phoric acid and potash. The sugar it splits up probably serves the same purposes as do the carbohydrates in the animal economy, furnishing the heat necessary to supply the energy to carry or. the vital functions (see Micro-organisms, Assimilation). The sugars contained in beer wort are mainly maltose and smaller quantities of saccharose, malto-dextrin, dextrose and levulose Not all yeasts can ferment all of these sugars. (See Yeasts and Sugars). Wahl and Nilson who made exhaustive researches to determine the behavior and importance of the albuminoids in beer produc- tion, found that the amount of albumen taken up by the yeast out of the wort during fermentation under the conditions that obtain in the brewery was independent of the amount of albumen contained in the wort. (American Brewers' Review, Vol. VII, pages 35 to 37). For every 100 parts of sugar fermented, 0.28 to 0.48 parts of nitrogen, averaging 0.40, or 0.4 X 6.25 = 2.5 parts of albuminoids were removed from the wort. The loss of al- buminoids during fermentation was found to be 22 to 55 per cent of the amount contained in the wort, or an average of one-third. While the process of splitting up the sugar is being carried oh by the yeast, the latter shows a strong tendency to develop and increase. Hence, the amount of amides and phosphates should be proportioned to the amount of sugar to be fermented. The higher the percentage of sugar in the wort and the lower the amount of amides and mineral substances — the quicker will the yeast become weakened. If the proper proportions are not ob- served, the cells appear less well developed, they do not unite ia clusters, giving rise to the so-called **V>t^^' oV n>5\^ N^^^-^ V^"^^^ do not settle so promptly or firmV'y, 544 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. *■ A suitable composition of wort for the uses of the yea^ is one containing the ingredients in about the following ratio: ^ Sugar degree 60 — 70 (S : N.-S. =r 100 : 60 — 40). " Amides and peptones over 0.50 per cent. Mineral substances, chiefly phosphate of potassium, over 0.2 per cent. THE PRODUCTS OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. During alcoholic fermentation sugar is split up into alcohol and carbonic acid. Besides, as Pasteur showed, small quantities of succinic acid and glycerin are formed. The presence of crystals of oxalate of lime in the yeast indicates that minute quantities of oxalic acid are regularly formed. Under certain conditions, especially at high fermenting temperatures, so-called fusel oils, among which are counted propylic, butylic and amylic alcohol, may be generated in small quantities. They have a dis- agreeable taste, and seem to be regularly produced in the distillers* fermentation. They can be removed from the spirits by repeated distillation. Under ordinary circumstances and normal condi- tions of fermentation these fusel oils were found by Rayman and Kruis to be absent in beer where pure culture yeasts were em- ployed (Prague. 1891). According to Bechamp and Duclaux acetic acid is always present in wine and beer in small quantities and is to be considered a regular product of alcoholic fermen- tation. According to Pasteur 100 parts of saccharose yield : Alcohol. 51.01 per cent; carbonic acid, 49.12 per cent; glycerin. 2.5 to 3.6 per cent ; succinic acid, 0.5 to 0.7 per cent. Jodlbauer found the following amounts of alcohol and carbonic acid generated (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen. 1888, p. 252) : Alcohol. Carbonic acid. For Saccharose 51. 11 per cent 4O-03 per cent For Maltose (anhydrous).... 51. rw^ per cent 4904 per cent For De.xtrose 48.07 per cent. 46.54 per cent Prior determined the amounts of volatile (other than carbonic) and fixed acids generated during fermentation with 17 ditlerent yeasts (Malz und Bier. 1896. pp. 401 and 402). The results are summarized by Prior as follows: /. Jn the fermentation of pure hopped and aerated mall worts n'/t/j the 77 xcdsis examined volatile and fvxv:d organic acids were produced in com^idcrMe quantities. YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 545 2. The amounts of the acids generated differ for different yeasts, ranging from 4.7 to 10 c.c. decinormal soda solution per 100 c.C. fermented wort. (See table, page 546.) 3. The amounts of fiscd organic acids (succinic?) generated lie between 2,1 and 5.4 c.c, those of the volatile organic acids be* tween 2.1 and 5.8 c.c. decinormal solution for 100 c.c. wort. 4. The percentage of primary potassium phosphate diminishes slightly, corresponding to o.ois to 0.005 g. phosphoric acid (P,0.) per too c,c. ivori. 5. For every 100 c.c. decinormal soda to neutralize the fixed or- ganic acids, there is required to neulraUze the volatile acids: For Nuremberg yeast R" 92.3 c.c. For Nuremberg yeast L" - 88.0 c.c. For sacch. ellipsoideus 1 105.9 c.c. For sacch. ellipsoideus II 131.0 c.c. For sacch. pastorianus 1 180.9 c.c. For sacch. pastorianus II 107.2 c.c. For sacch. pastorianus III 126.0 c.c. For Carlsberg yeast 1 83.3 c.c For Carlsberg yeast II 63.6 c.c For Berlin Saaz yeast 53.4 ex. For Berlin Frohberg yeast 80.0 c.c. For Nuremberg yeast A 58.3 C.C. For Nuremberg yeast vacuolized 84.8 c.c. For Nuremberg yeast C' 73.0 c.c. For Nuremberg yeast D" ii3-3 c.c. For Nuremberg yeast K" 72.2 C.C. For Nuremberg yeast Z" 85.2 c.c. Thus, while the amounts of fixed organic acids exceed those of the volatile acids, except for the cultivated yeast D«. the wild yeasts (sacch. pastorianus and ellipsoideus) exhibit the opposite relation, the volatile acids exceeding the fixed ones, in the case of pastorianus I by a considerable amount. The quantity and nature of the products of alcoholic fermenta- tion vary according to conditions, as temperature, fermenting period, composition and concentration of liquid, vitality of yeast, type of yeast. Besides the above named substances, there are sometimes formed bubslanccs in small quanlilies that become noticeaWe. ttc. -i.ts.rjs^t*, of the peculiar odor they impaTl to \,\\t ^wmvcv^.^^ Xv^'^'^- § YE. 4 ASTS AND 8- - 2= FERUENT ATION. i r ; I 1 i- ;*: i 1 ^ i :;: i «- » -' i i ^ 5s; -OWNA *- ■ == i 1 ^'a «:?^ -i 8- • 2= ^ . ^ 1^5" li^vau - - w8 1 '- ■«i«iqcuj r^2 s -twus B" • a= 1 1 -MIS !5; ini«n«D i ic ■fl -URMD 353 1 q^liiO a* ^ •:= ! ss -1 ■qilJi.T 25! i" ■^i^ S: = =^ s lo ■lil ■!■« ■q««S 2" 'i^ ^ S" ■11 K-d !.S B- * 2= 1 1 ■U3J« :;: II ^iira 11 TiJiiia !5?, ! "■■Sy!? i s -1 wiiiia ::: J K- ^ ti= 1 1 c^s i! ii- • 2= ! f ^mT. iwiiiCb 2- - 2= 1 i ^1 ili 1 s i I m ■m YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 547 Thus sulphuretted hydrogen is produced under certain circum- stj^nces by some types of brewers* yeast even where a pure cul- ture rs used, giving rise to the so-called onion taste of beer. Wild yeasts give a different flavor to beer than culture yeasts and Brefeld remarks that the peculiar aromatic products which give to wine and beer much of their character are developed mainly during after-fermentation when the yeast has reached a condition of low vitality and is at the point of death (Landw. Jahrbuecher, 1875 and 1876). Pure cultures of different yeast types arc known, however, to yield beers that can be plainly distinguished by dif- ferences in aroma (fruit-like) without aging, which is undoubtedly due to the generation of ether-like substances. In the case of a certain yeast type this aroma resembles that; of apples, in another that of pineapples. The onion flavor also t>elongs in this class. In growing and reproducing itself the yeast forms protoplasm and cellulose which, therefore, must also be counted among the products of fermentation. By the splitting up of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, heat is produced. A part of the heat developed during fermenta- tion is caused by the mixing of the alcohol in the measure as it is produced with water. The heat generated is utilized by the yeast in carrying on its vital functions, a part is made latent in the building up of new substance, while a part escapes with the carbonic acid. The remainder goes to heat the liquid. INFLUENCE OF FERMENTATION PRODUCTS AND OTHER AGENCIES ON YEASTS. The products resulting from fermentation by yeast, as alcohol and carbonic acid, and those produced by bacteria fermentation, as lactic and butyric acids, retard fermentation and growth. They act like poisons on the organisms that generated them. ALCOHOL. The greater the quantity of alcohol produced and remaining in the liquid the greater will be its retarding influence until Anally fermentation will be completely checked. The amounts of alcohol necessary to stop fermentation completely vary with different yeasts and with the vitality of the yeast. Dr. Lindner examined different yeasts in this direction, pitching 29 ^^i c^tvX. v^Xv^^nrcv'?^ ^ maltose with different yeasts QMikTOsV;ov\?»0cv^ '^^\x\^%^<3^v^^^'^^ 548 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. page 112). Top-fermentation yeasts were found to yield fram 9 to 15 per cent by volume of alcohol. Yeast Saaz produced a little over 8 per cent, Frohberg not quite 11 per cent Beer worts do not contain enough sugar to yield such high percentages of alcohol, hence fermentation in the brewery doea not receive a complete check from the alcohol produced. In sweet wines, on the other hand, the amount of alcohol produced is sufikient to bring fermentation to a full stop. CASBONIC ACID. Only a small portion of the carbonic acid developed during the fermentation remains in the beer, the bulk of it passing off into the surrounding air. Later, when the beer is bunged, it holds absorbed an amount proportionate to the bunging pressure. Lint- ner found carbonic acid retards fermentation and that an addi- tion of carbonic acid aids in preserving beer. (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1885, page 100). If fermentation is carried on in closed vessels under pressure the growth of yeast and fer- mentation are retarded at the same time. Whether the fer- mentative energy of the individual cell has been decreased cannot however be deduced from this observation. According to Foth. who carried out a series of fermentations under pressure and in vacuo, the carbonic acid exerts a distinct influence on the physiological functions of the yeast, resulting in slower fermen- tation (Wochenschrift f. Brauerci, 1887, page 73) ; whereas, Hansen concluded from the experiments of Foth that the fer- mentative energy of the individual yeast cells is increased under pressure, while only the reproductive energy is decreased. (Cen- tralblatt f. Bakteriologie u. Parasitenkunde, 1887). EFFECT OF ACIDS. — .ANTISEPTICS. Generally speaking, acids retard the growth of all organisms. An exception to this rule is lactic acid, which retards the growth of bacteria, but in the quantities that are contained in beer does not seem to check the g^rowth of yeast or its fermenting power. Maercker found that l^ per cent of lactic acid had a favorable in- fluence on the growth of yeast; i per cent was without injurious influence, but 3'/^ checked it completely ; % per cent of acetic acid wBuenced fermentation perceptibly, while of butyric acid 0.05 per cent was sufficient (Zeilschrlit i. Spiritusindustrie, 1881, , J>ra 7). YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. The, small quantities of lactic acid in wort and beei-^ |., fore, have no retarding influence on the growth of yeast. t teur showed that in neutral nourishing media or sucVi ^ slightly alkaline, the growth of bacteria is favored, while i^i tions slightly or strongly acid, like grape juice, sacch5i,r-c>m will flourish and be better able to suppress bacteria tihan ^ neutral or alkaline solutions. Wahl and Henius found tliat n ^ tral or alkaline beer worts generally yield beers that are nio strongly infected than those derived from normal, that is, slightlv acid worts, showing that in the latter class the lactic acid hinders the growth of bacteria. Alcohol, carbonic acid, lactic acid and the soft hop resins may be called the natural preservatives of wort and beer. Lafar found that of 15 species of yeast, all were able to carry on fermentation in the presence of 0.78 per cent acetic acid, whereas, fermentative and reproductive energy were influenced in different degrees, while in the presence of i per cent of acetic acid fermentation was checked completely with three of the species. Many acids, as tartaric, salicylic, carbolic and fluoric acids affect cultivated yeast more detrimentally than they do wild yeast and Hansen showed that, whereas tartaric acid effectually checked the development of bacteria in impure yeaat, the per- centage of wild yeast increased during fermentation. Similar results were obtained by Joergensen and Holm with fluoric acid (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwcsen, 1893, page 126). The con- clusion seems justified, therefore, that these acids cannot safely be used to purify yeast, except to free it from bacteria. Exhaustive studies were made by Will concerning the in- fluence of various antiseptic bodies on different cultivated yeasts, wild yeasts and bacteria (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1893 and 1894). According to his findings, all yeasts are destroyed by the presence of o.i per cent of sublimate, 0.4 per cent of sul- phurous acid (SOa), 0.2 per cent of chlorine, 5 per cent of alco- holic salicylic acid solution. Very small quantities of antiseptic substances have in sume instances a stimulating effect on the growth of yeast. This applies to salicylic and fluoric acids. Salts of the heavy metals, such as cop^ex, \tot\> x^a^'^^'vx^'3 > ^'^"^^ 550 YEASTS AND FEKUENTATION. and others, have a poisooous effect on yeast Especially d«ei thii seem to be the case with lead. Prior stales that he found fermentation appreciably retarded in a pure yeast apparatus on account of the presence of lead in the tin coating of the interior of the apparatus (Bayerisches Brauerjournal. 1803, p. 2). Concentrated sugar solutions may destroy the reproductive and fermentative eneigy of yeast. In weak sugar solutions fer- mentation remains incomplete (see page 537). Yeast standing at ordinary temperature and ^till more quickly at somewhat higher temperatures (about 25° R. or 88° F.) will generate carbonic acid gas and speedily become weakened Co the point of destruction. Being deprived of sugar, it seems to fer- ment its own substance, chiefly the glycogen, which is inverted into dextrose, and fermented. Dead yeast easily putrefies on account of the large amount of albuminoids it contains which are readily decomposed by bacteria. The substances produced by this putrefaction are similar to those generated from animal matter by analogous processes. Yeast may become putrid it standing under beer or water, in which case it will give off the products of putrefaction to the On account of the readiness with which yc.ist putrefies .ind goes into auto-fermentalion, il can be pre?^ervcd or shipped with- out injury only with great difficulty, the nieihods employed being based on refrigeration, the removal of water, the addition of sub- stances to absorb the water, addition of antiseptics, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION' OF YEAST, Brewers' yeast is composed of countless cells that mechanically enclose between them a large amount of beer or water, some pro- teids, some hop-resin and particles of cellulose from malt husk and hops. The yeast cells ihemseUes. after removing the me- chanically adhering water, still contain about 80 per cent of water as a constituent part of the protoplasm and cell -membrane. Besides water, the I'east cell contains caT\)oh\-dtatcs, nitrogenous substames. fat and mineral substances. YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 55 1 CARBOHYDRATES. CELLULOSE. The cell-membrane is composed mainly of cellulose, which, like other vegetable cellulose, can be changed into sugar by the agency of acids. It does not, however, dissolve in an ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide, which is a characteristic of cellulose derived from the higher plants. The amount of cellulose has been esti- mated as 1 8 to 32 per cent of the weight of the dry yeast sub- stance. YEAST MUCILAGE. Hansen discovered that yeast develops a mucilaginous coating in which the yeast cells become imbedded, causing them to cling together and form bunches. The power of forming this coating undoubtedly corresponds in a measure to the rapidity with which yeast settles, and also gives rise to the phenomena known as "break" or "Bruch" of the beer. This mucilaginous substance is converted into dextrose by acids. YEAST GUM. Yeast gum has been obtained by Lintner by boiling yeast with water (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1890, p. 476). Hessenlund obtained about 6.5 per cent of gum by boiling yeast with lime, and Salkowsky obtained, from distillers' pressed yeast that was free from starch, a white powder soluble in water, very much like gum arabic. (Ber. d. deut. chem. Gesellschaft, 1894, p. 497.). GLYCOGEN. Glycogen may be considered a reserve material for animals and yeast, as starch is for the higher plants. It may accumulate in the yeast as Laurent found, to the amount of 32.6 per cent of the dry substance (Botanische Zeitschrift, No. 48, p. 719). In the absence of sugar, yeast will ferment glycogen alter inverting it to dextrose. This it does when yeast is stored, for instance, where it is kept at higher temperatures, in which case it undergoes auto- fermentation (Cremer, Zeitschrift f. Biologic, No. 31). NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS OF YEAST. Of nitrogenous bodies, yeast contains proteids, albumose, pep- tones, amides, nuclein and enzymes. According to Naegeli and 1-oew lV\e p\3LStt\?L o\ ^ >j^wxv^ ^^•a^'? yields about 75 per cent of proteids and abovW. 2 '^^x '^.^^'^ '^^ ^>'' I 552 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. tones, but if the yeast is dried nearly all of the proteids are changed to peptones (Sitz. d. bayer. Acad., 1878, part II). A yeast containing 8 per cent of nitrogen was analyzed with the following results : Cellulose and yeast mucilage yj P<^r cent (Albumin 36 per cent f Substances resembling gluten-casein.... 9 per cent Peptone (precipitable by acetate of lead) 2 per cent Fat 5 per cent Ash 7 per cent Extractive substances 4 per cent The extractive substances included invertase, leucin. dextrose, glycerin, succinic acid, guanin, xanthin, sarkin, alcohol and prob- ably traces of inosit. In 14 yeasts the amount of nitrogen found varied from 7.00 to 9.91 per cent, equivalent to 43.75 to 61.97 per cent proteid sub- stance figured on a dry basis. (VI Ber. d. Miinch. wiss. Station.) NUCLEIN. Nuclein is a proteid and seems to be a normal constituent of the nuclei of cells. It is a white amorphous powder, containing a much higher percentage of phosphorus than other proteids. A. Stutzer obtained nuclein from yeast by extracting it with alcohol of 95 per cent strength. He found the yeast to contain, figured on a dry basis: Total nitrogen 8.648 Proteids, nitrogen 7773 Nuclein, nitrogen 2.257 As to the amount of nuclein or some other remedial agent in yeast, it may be mentioned that Dr. Baccker of Paris, in a paper read before the International Medical Congress, at Rome. 1899. presented a series of observations on the treatment of certain infectious diseases by means of sterih'zed (pure) yeast cultures. the results having proved extremely favorable. ** *Yeast,' or *barm/' as an* empirical remedy purely," says the Medical Age, "in days gone by, won for itself golden opinions in typhoid, diphtheria, consumption and other maladies." Professor Vaughan of Ann Arbor was the first to make experi- nicnts on animal and man to determme xVve t^ecV ol ^ f yeast, many of which, present in large quantities, were just as dangerous to beer as the bacteria, although in different ways. These yeasts were afterward called wild yeasts. They are able to produce certain beer diseases, as turbidity and offensive odor and taste. Hansen's pure ye.\st. Wild yeasts were first found to be the causes of beer disease by Hansen, who traced turbidity in certain Danish beers to their presence. Hansen set himself to discover means to produce a yeast that should be absolutely free from any admixture of wild yeast, and came to the conclusion that the only way to produce such a yeast with absolute certainty was to develop the yeast from a single coll under conditions that excluded the possibility of infection. This IS what is known as Hansen's pure yeast. (For methods of prepar- ing pure cultures see "The Brewer's Microscopical Laboratory.") For obtaining pure cultures of yeast Hansen's moist chamber method is preferable. Selecting the Tyf^t\ — The peculiar character of a beer yea-^t is due mainly to that variety which preponderates in the yeast, and among the pure cultures obtained from the propagation of a number of individual cells taken from such yeast it is natural that ;? majorjty should have the characteristics of the original yonst. G^c/i pure culture is examined first as lo the degree of attenua- on, whether high or low, next as to c\aT\f\caUoi\, v;\\t\\\^\ \a\:\^ PURE YEAST CULTURE. 559 or slow, and also as to the taste which it imparts to the beer. If among the pure cultures are found several that show the same degree of attenuation and the same clarifying power and taste of beer that was observed in the original yeast, the conclusion will be justified that these are the ones that exert the desired influ- ences, and it will be proper to select one of them for propagation. Propagating the Yeast. — The yeast type that has been thus se- lected is propagated as described in connection with the pure yeast apparatus, until a sufficient quantity has been developed to start a fcrmenter in the brewery with it. Since it is not always certain that the first fermentation will take a strictly satisfactory course, it is advisable to finish the beer from this fermenter and judge the yeast by the character of this beer when finished. If the beer gives satisfaction, the yeast is introduced for permanent use. Before this is done, a standard culture is prepared for future reference. A few drops of the yeast are placed in a vial with a sterilized lo per cent sugar solution, and kept in a dark place. In this way the yeast can be kept unchanged for years. Advantages of Pure Yeast. — The great advantage of pure yeast in brewing operations consists mainly in the fact that the brewer has at all times at his disposal the same identical yeast type. Consequently, he is able, other things being equal, to produce a beer of constant, uniform character. Even if the yeast should become infected or deteriorate from any other cause, a fresh batch of the identical original yeast can be developed in a few weeks from the reserve culture, and a yeast of the same properties as was possessed by the first lot be once more introduced, the reserve culture having been derived from the same original cell as the first lot of pitching yeast. Pure yeast, however, is valuable in other ways also. It is a rule that admits of general application, that micro-organisms of one species will crowd out organisms of another species contained in the same nourishing liquid, the more effectually, the greater their relative number. In the same way, a pure yeast containing no foreign organisms, is much more resistant to disease and in- fection than a common mixed yeast. A pure culture yeast can be infected only by uncleanliness or by germs contained in the air, while common brewers' yeast is in itself a mo^l ^\q>\\S\k.V'c>'Cs^"^^^S^ infection, being frequently contaminaUd y<\x\v ^^"^wa., ^'^^ ^^'^'^ 560 PURE YEAST CULTURE. and mycoderma, which spring into action at slight changes of temperature or composition of yeast food, while a pure yeast will adapt itself more readily to such changed conditions. PURE YEAST APPARATUS. An apparatus for the development of pure culture yeast was de- vised by Hansen. His own description, from "Practical Studies in Fermentation," follows: Hansen's apparatus. As shown in the accompanying illustration, the apparatus con- sists of two main portions and the connecting tubes, namely: The fermenting cylinder C, and the wort cylinder D. Air pump and air holder are not shown in the drawing. The pump A is driven by machinery and draws the air through a filter in order to effect a'preliminary purification. The air-holder B is provided with a pressure-gauge and a safety valve. It is chargfed with air under a pressure of i to 4 atmospheres. The pipes must be fitted with cocks at suitable points for removing the water which collects in them. This is of especial importance in the case of the pipe between the air-holder B and the filters g and m. These are best united by metal tubes with the air pipes. If metal tubes are used, they should naturally possess some degree of elasticity and must be so arranged that the filters can be readily fitted and disconnected. Through the top of the fermenting cylinder C passes a stirrer b, the lower end of which is fitted with two blades, one carrying a sheet of rubber cut in such a way that when rotated it conies into contact with both the bottom and the sides of the cylinder. From the top there passes a doubly bent tube c, and by opening its cock, connection is made with the inside of the cylinder. The lower free end of the tube dips under water in the vessel d. A little below the top is a horizontal tube e provided with a cock, and by means of which the inside of the cylinder is con- nected with the vertical glass tube /. This is connected at its up- per end with the filter g and at its lower end with a second cock and similar horizontal tube h to that described above. The top mark on the glass tube is 31.3 in. from the bottom ol the cylinder, the next 8 in. and the lowest 4 in. from the bot- tom of the cylinder. When filled to the top mark, the cylinder /lolcfs about 1% barrels. The g^as% WiV u ^t^ Vcv^o \V^ ^^^Vi PURG YEAST CULTURE. sens Pure \i-asl Appi 562 PURE YEAST CULTURE. e and A by a packing of hemp or cottoni^ool with vaseline; rubber is not suitable, as it is hardened by steam. The filter g consists of a metal capsule containing a tightly packed plug of cotton-wool 8% in. long and \V& in. in diameter. This plug consists of at least one- thirteenth pound of cotton-wool ; the addition of a little more is immaterial. If firmly pressed in, the capsule will hold one-ninth pound and more, but this is not necessary. The filter is dosed above by means of a cover which is screwed on and which is connected with the tube from the air- holder. Before the filter is screwed on, it is sterilized by heating it for two hours at a temperature of about 302** F. (120° R."). At the opposite side of the cylinder there is a small tube / scarcely % in. long and fitted with rubber tubing, the latter being closed by means of a pinch-cock and a glass stopper. Passing from the bottom of the cylinder is a tube k through which con- nection can be made with the wort cylinder D ; this tube is made in two pieces to prevent too great rigidity, and in addition to the two large cocks shown, it is provided with two smaller ones which are made use of during the process of steaming described below, partly for running off the condensed water and partly for introducing the steam. The cock shown at / is for withdrawing the beer and the yeast. The valve is screwed down in opening the cock and is screwed up when this is closed. In the figure it is closed. Its construc- tion prevents infection from occurring whilst the liquid is being drawn off, as the liquid cleanses the cock on passing through it. The pipe carr>'ing the cock is carried through the side of the cylinder and is bent toward the bottom, its end being ilA in. above the latter. It is, in short, so arranged that no air from without can enter the cylinder whilst the contents are being drawn off. The wort cylinder D must be raised somewhat above the level of the fermenting cylinder. (The wort can. of course, also be forced into the fermenting cylinder by means of compressed air, but in this case the wort cylinder must be provided with a safety valve.) Its height is also greater than that of the latter, but its diameter is the same. At the top is a filter m exactly a? at g, and connected with it is a pipe (indicated by the dotted lines) passing inside the cylinder. The lower clcscd end of this pipe /jas some small perforations through \v\\'kV. xV ^u ^i^«\^ -^.w ^Y.\t PURE YEAST CULTURE. 563 after passing through the filter. The tube n corresponds with the.tul^e c of the first cylinder, and like the latter its open end dips into a vessel of water o. In the case of the wort cylinder it is very important that the bore of the tube n, and of its cock, should not be too small, in order that they may not become choked by hops or other matter; a suitable diameter for the tube is % in. Around the upper portion of the cylinder, a little below the top, there is a pipe in the form of a ring p, the inner side of which is provided with small perforations. One end of this pipe is closed and the other is connected with a cold-water tap. In addition to the cocks on the connecting pipe k between the two cylinders, the wort cylinder has three others q, r, s. The cock s is for the introduction of the wort, and is put in connec- tion with the wort main u between the copper and the cooler. The cylinder stands in a shallow tray provided with an outlet / for the water which flows over the sides of the cylinder, whilst the latter is being cooled. The dotted lines at / show the bars on which the cylinder rests, and also the ring-like portion and bottom of the cylinder. If the fermenting cylinder is not standing in a room with even temperature it is necessary to arrange the fermenting cylinder in such a manner that the temperature of the liquid contained in it could always be controlled, and that it could be lowered when desired. This is done by means of the jacket, shown in C, which surrounds not only the sides but also the bottom of the cylinder; the bottom of the jacket is fixed with screws and can without much difficulty be removed when it requires cleaning. For the introduction of a thermometer there is a tubular aperture through the jacket and the side of the cylinder. The jacket is provided with a tap near the bottom, forming the inlet for the cold water, and another near the top and on the opposite side for its exit; a third tap at the bottom serves for removing the sedi- ment which is gradually deposited by the water. The wort cylinder is here also provided with a jacket, which, however, can very well be omitted, as the perforated ring serves the same purpose sufficiently well. Nevertheless the jacket has the advantage that it encloses the water from the ring so that the operator is not liable to be splashed. It adds, however, con- siderably to the cost of the cylinder, and vl vx\^^s \\. \^'=»'^ s^.vcv"s^.^ to manipulate. 564 PURE YEAST CULTURE. The middle portion of the cover is made of copper , and is provided with a brass flange with twelve bolt holes. Betveen the cover and the collar of the cylinder a rubber washer is in- serted and fits into a groove; a perfectly air-tight joint is thus ensured. In order to prevent the stirrer being raised out of its bed at the bottom of the cylinder whilst in use. a ball-socket is provided. The axis ends in a ball which rests in a hemispherical socket, and two pieces accurately fitting the upper portion of the ball arc bolted on; the axis can be rotated but cannot be raised from its socket With regard to the tinning of the cylinder, it must be pointed out that the tin should not contain an appreciable amount of lead. If this is the case, the yeast grown in the apparatus will according to Prior, be unsatisfactory. In putting up the apparatus, it ought above all to be borne in mind that it should remain in its position undisturbed. When possible, it will generally be best to place it in the fermenting cellar. There is then, as a rule, no trouble with regard to regulat- ing the temperature, and in drawing off the beer and the yeas* there will also be less work involved, for those occupied can in the interval, do other work close at hand. If the temperature of the fermenting cellar is below 43° F. (5° R.) it is advisable to have the fermenting cylinder jacketed. In putting up the appa- ratus it is, of course, necessary at once to consider whether one or two fermenting cylinders are to be employed; in any case a single wort cylinder will suffice. The apparatus having been fixed, it is necessary in the first place to test whether the cylinder is tight. To do this, steam is cautiously introduced through k, whilst the other cocks arc clo>od ; water-pressure may also be employed. STERILIZING THE APPAR.\TUS. Before the apparatus is set working it is necessary thoroughly to sterilize the two cylinders, the pipe which unites thcin, and also the pipe through which the wort passes on its way to the wort cylinder. Tiiis is done by blowing a strong current of steam through the whole. The filters are sterilized, a> al- rc/ic/y mentioiwd, in a sterilizing oven. The tcrniontini? cyliiiier /5 sterilized by steam, admitted thToug,V\ o\\c vA xW cocV^ v^w \\\^ ^ PURE YEAST CULTURE. 565 pipe k^ Whilst the high tension steam is passing, the different cocks are opened from time to time, so that it can escape through these as well as by the bent tube c; this operation takes half an hour. Shortly before this the filter is screwed on, and then all the cocks are closed except that on the bent tube. Simulta- neously the cock of the filter is opened in order that air may pass through the filter g and the tube h into the cylinder. The latter cools down as the air enters and the steam is gradually turned off. In short, the cooling is effected by the current of air, which mixed with the steam escapes through the bent tube c. So long as a current of steam is seen to escape, the vessel of water d is not required; this is only required as an indicator at a later period. If the steam were shut off suddenly, there would be a danger of the filter not admitting a sufficient volume of air to prevent a diminution of the pressure due to cooling, and the result would be either that impure air would be drawn into the cylinder, or the latter might collapse from the external pressure of the atmosphere. Under the conditions mentioned and at the ordi- nary temperature of the fermenting cellar, the cooling takes about two hours. With regard to the small vessels of water d and o at the bot- tom of the bent tubes, it may be stated once for .all that their only object is to indicate the direction of the air current, whether outward or inward. OPERATION OF THE APPARATUS. The wort cylinder and its two pipes s u and k are sterilized in the same manner, but the process of cooling is here omitted. When the steaming is nearly finished, the cock of the air-filter is opened and the wort is admitted. The wort employed is the ordi- nary hopped lager beer wort, which has been sterilized by boil- ing in the copper, and is run as hot as possible through the pipe u and the cock 5 into the cylinder. Shortly before the steaming is finished the pumping of the boiling wo<-t on to the cooler is commenced, and ten minutes later the cock s is opened. The wort is allowed to run into the cylinder until it reaches the up- per cock q, and the cock s is then closed. It is advisable to place a small bucket under the cock q to catch the wort which rvvtvs. ^>^v, and when this occurs the cylinder is known to eow\.«iAxv \\v^ ^^iw^^ volume of wort. The hot steam and air esc^L^ve v^xXX^ \\\to>x'?^^ ^\ 566 PURE YEAST CULTURE. and partly through the bent tube n. It is advisable to run off the first small quantity of wort which enters the cylinder- by means of the cock r, as it is mixed with water from condensed steam, which gives it a disagreeable taste. When the desired quantity of wort is in the cylinder the cocks q and s are closed. Air, sterilized by passing through the filter, is now forced through the hot wort for an hour before the cooling is commenced, and the aeration is also continued during the process of cooling. Gen- erally, a pressure of from i to 2 atmospheres in the air-holder suffices. It is merely necessary that the sterile air in the cylinder should always exert a slight pressure in excess of the atmospheric pressure, and thus prevent any impure air being drawn in. and en- sure the full amount of oxygen being taken up by the wort. It is evident that the operator must not forget to first open the cock n. If this is not done, there is a risk of injuring the apparatus. As soon as the wort is ready for cooling, the perforated ring p is connected with a water tap and the sprinkler allowed to play against the sides of the cylinder until the temperature of the wort is reduced to about 50** F. (8* R.). In an ordinary fermenting cel- lar this takes about an hour ; the further cooling must be eflfected by means of iced water. The air is passed through the liquid con- tinuously, and in escaping through the bent tube carries some of the wort with it; the rousing of the wort produces a good (leal of foam, but this never gives rise to contamination. The aeration must not. however, l>e very vigorous or there may be too great a loss of wort. It is only when the wort has cooled to about 52** F. (9*^ R.) that the foam comes through the tube; this is rendered less troublesome by introducing warm water into the vessel o. The wort, now ready for undergoing fermentation, is run through the pipe k into the fermenting cylinder. In order to avoid rousing the wort by the aeration whilst it is passing into the fermenting cylinder, the tiltcr may be connected with a forked tube, one limb of which is a coniinuation of the air-tube mentioned above, whilst the other (mly just passes through tile top of the cylinder without coming into contact with the litiuid. These two limbs must be so arranpcil that either can be C'pened or closed by a cock. The air adiiiiited whilst the iiort is hf'iDg run o{i has. of course, to pass through the last- mcntiotwil limb. 'J'his arrangement. \s> uot, however, essential. // it is th-'iight desirable that l\\e woti s\\o\\\c^ Oi<:v*>s\\. \\=> ^^(iCv ^ PURE YEAST CULTURE. 567 ment,^ an hour can be allowed for this to settle. To guard ag^xist impure air being drawn in, the filter must not be com- ' pletely closed, the current of air being merely checked. There is, however, no objection to the sediment remaining in the wort, which may therefore be transferred to the fermenting cylinder as soon as it is cooled. By this time a very considerable sedi- ment will have formed, and as the mouth of the pipe iS; is at a moderate height above the bottom of the wort cylinder, only a small portion of the sediment is carried through. The wort at first introduced should not reach above the small tube i, through which the yeast is introduced. The yeast is previously collected in large two-necked glass flasks or tin cans, and in the transferring operation a spirit lamp may be made use of if a gas flame is not at hand. The stirring apparatus is now set in motion and the yeast well mixed with the wort. As soon as this is done the remainder of the wort is added until its level rises to the upper mark on the glass tube /, the volume then measuring about iVi barrels. The column of liquid in this tube is forced by the pressure of the air passing through the filter into the cylinder, the cock on the upper horizontal tube e being closed, and the cock on the lower tube h opened. When it is not desired to continue the aeration during the fermentation, the latter cock is, of course, also closed, but only after the cock above the filter has been closed. After about ten days the desired portion of the newly formed yeast can be drawn off. It is here assumed that the cylinder has been exposed to the ordinary temperature of the fermenting cellar; if the temperature has been higher, the yeast will natur- ally be ready for removal in a shorter time. The beer is run off at the cock I, and when froth appears this is closed. Some wort from the wort cylinder — which by this time has been re- charged with wort for a new fermentation — is now passed in until the level rises to the second mark from the bottom on the glass tube /. The yeast is now well stirred up by means of the stirring apparatus, and the mixture of yeast and wort is drawn off into a perfectly clean vessel (cleansed with hot water and then steamed). When the level of the liquid has sunk to the low- est mark on the glass tube, the cock is closed and wort again run in to the second mark. The yeast Is 3i^"a\xv ^\ax\^^ >3i\v '^^'^^ drawn off to the lowest mark; the amouw\. VvN^v^^^^'cv xvo^ 568 PURE YEAST CULTURE. V measures about 13 finals. The portion remaining behind is /suffi- cient to start a new growth. ^ It is advisable to have two marks in the vessel into which the yeast is drawn oflf, one indicating 6% gals., and the other 13 gals. Great accuracy is not required in these measurements. The yeast obtained 16 sufficient to pitch 8 barrels of wort, and a new fermentation is started as soon as possible in an ordinary and well-cleaned fermenting vessel. If this cannot be done at once, the vessel containing the yeast must be covered over and set aside in a cool and clean place. Whilst the wort and the beer are being drawn off from the two cylinders, care must naturally be taken that sufficient air is continuously passing through the filters. Otherwise the liquids will not run freely and air will be drawn in from without. As soon as the yeast has been withdrawn from the fermenting cylinder, wort is run in until it reaches the top mark on the glass tube; the contents of the cylinder are mixed by means of the stirrer, and the new growth then commences. OTHER PUKE YEAST APP.\R.\TUS. Other pure yeast apparatuses were constructed by Bergh and Joergensen, Brown and Morris, Elion, Kokosinsky, van Laer, P. Lindner, Wichmann, Wahl and Henius. and others. Xearij all of those apparatus showed only slight modifications of the origi- nal Hansen apparatus. Joergensen was the first to construct an apparatus consisting of a small pitching cylinder and a larger one to be used as a sterilizer and fermenter. The Lindner and Wichmann apparatus were made on the same lines, and so was the Wahl and Henius apparatus. WAHL AND HENIUS* APPAR.\TUS. This apparatus is composed of a fermenting cylinder and steril- izer of a capacity of 48 gallons, and pitching cylinders and yeast reservoir of a capacity of 8 gallons. In the illustration A is the fermenting cylinder; C, the wort conduit with two valves (a. b) ; D, steam connection; E. vent- pipe for the beer; F, glass tube, which is connected witli the cylinder by H and I (inside of the cylinder the pipe I terminates j'/i 3 ring-shaped perforated tube): G. air-filter (connected with the air-pump) ; Af. doubly bent pipe ; K, ?l^\\a\ot \ V., \W^\\\ou\e- J PURE YEAST CULTURE. 569 ter: a connection between the fermenting cylinder and the pitch- ins cylinder or starter B ; P, glass tube (connected with the cylinder in the sante way as F) ; Q, air-filter; R ti a doubly bent pipe; S, small pipe with rubber tube ard glass stopper. The iermenting c^liiider A conla'ma a co\\ v\\^ci\\^\ ™V\'^ tN'd^'f S70 PURE YEAST CULTURE. ^ Steam, water or brine can be made to circulate, and has at^its bottom an outlet pipe with valve and cap for the yeast. The apparatus, having been tested for tightness by means of water or steam, is sterilized in the same manner as the Hansen apparatus, the steam entering through D into A, and through N into B, which is sterilized first When sterilization is over a is opened, and the wort conduit thoroughly sterilized with steam before the wort is allowed to enter it. The boiling hot wort now runs into the cylinder, and when the latter is three-fourths filled, a, b and e are closed, and the air allowed to enter the cylinder through cT.'ition. The principal advantaj>res of this apparatus are: It occupies little space, is not very expensive, and yields comparatively a larger amount of pure yeast. 4 > MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. TRANSFER OF GRAIN. The machinery used in transferring or conveying the different grains in the storage elevators or barley and malt in the malt- house and brewery is practically the same in construction and operation. The grain, etc., is unloaded from the wagon or railroad car by gravity, that is, it is dumped or shoveled into a chute deliver- ing to the "boot" of the elevator or to the conveyor. A power shovel is often used when unloading cars. This con- sists of a wide shovel or scoop, propelled or drawn forward by means of a rope attached to, or running over, a power windlass or shaft. This windlass is supplied with a friction wheel, or clutch, to allow the alternate winding and unwinding of the rope, whereby the shovel is drawn forward or the rope unwound so as to allow the shovel to be moved backward for the next operation. Corners and angles between the windlass and shovel are overcome by having the rope pass over swivel pulleys or blocks and tackles, enabling the shovel to be operated at various points surrounding the windlass. These power shovels are now in general use in floor malthouses to transfer the barley or green malt from any part of the floors to the openings through which the malt falls into the ele- vator for further transfer. This shovel has the advantage over the old method of loading the malt upon a truck or wheelbarrow, wherein the malt is carted to the opening, that the shovel is much more rapid in operation, and crushing of the malt berries by the wheels of the truck is practically avoided. (For \U\.\?»U^V\ciw cA '^Qr*,^'^ ^^<5m€^^ .see next page.) 57 i HALTIIOUSE OUTFIT. ELEVATOSS AHD COHTeY<»S. ^ The ordinary appliance tor elevating grain, barley, malt, clc, in the brewery, is the bucket elevator. This consists of a number of sleel, iron or wooden buckets, attached at equal drstances 011 an endless chain or belt. The buckets, while turning around a piilbv . or sprocket wheel placed at the lowest poini of travel, dip ir grain receiver or "boot." sctxjping up a certain aiiuiiini aciiT to thfir capacity, and pass upward to and around ilit top piilk wheel, where they are inverted and their conienl^ drop out. charging into a bin or hopper, or being conveyed further, a^s lie desired. The conveyor is an appliance used vri move aw\ ittW*;':^ ■ - HALTHOU5E OUTFIT. 573 in. a horizontal direction. It consists of a wooden trough or box. somelimcB lined with iron or made entirely of iron in which ii placed a closely-fitting spiral iron propeller screw. This screw, in revolving around its axis, pushes the grain with its blades in the direction of the spiral movement. SIZES AND CAPACITIES OP CONVEYORS. The following data are furnished by a leading malcer. and rep' resent average dimensions : Outside diameter Standard ill inches. 8 ft. 8 ft. ID ft. lo ft. 10 ft. Maxinium capacity Revolutions per hour^bushels. per minute, loo 100 2,500 3.500 5.500 6,000 Another conveyor for transferring grain in a horizontal direc- tion is the belt conveyor, which has the advantage over the r that grain can be conveyed for long distances, and that during fransit the berries cannot be broken, as may happen in a looscly-filting spiral conveyor. This device also re- quires less [)ower since tlit friction of the grain against the blades of the spiral conveyor or conveyor Uom%\\ \% t;\\w.Vn«>.'i^^- This belt conveyor consists ot and \s o^ta-Wi ^"^ S-sS^o"* 574 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. ^^ (see illustration) : An endless belt B runs over two pultnrs at either side (not shown in drawing), one of which is the driver, and is supported along its route by a series of pulleys or rollers. The grain falls upon the belt at one side, and is con- veyed along until the belt runs over pulley b, when the belt suddenly descends while the grain continues in the same direction and falls into spout c d, delivering into hopper e. The carriage X is movable forward and backward by means of rollers run- ning upon rails extending the whole length of the conveyor, so that the grain can be delivered to any number of hoppers c placed along the conveyor, which hoppers deliver to bins under- neath. The grain can again be divided so as to deliver into two bins by means of the double spouts shown on page 581. Here the grain, falling into a, can be delivered through d ot e by pulling on the cords connecting the lever at the top, whereby the one spout is closed and the other simultaneously opened b>- means of the slides / and c. GRAIN AERATORS OR COOLERS. Should grain become heated while stored in a bin. many grain storage elevators are so arranged that the grain can be aerated or cooled. This is done in a very simple manner by running the grain out of the bottom of the bin into a biickti elevator and discharging it back into the bin at the top. GRAIN AND BARLEY DRYERS. Should grain contain too much moisture a device is some- times installed for drying it. This consists of a scries of in- clined endless belts, running in boxes placed in a zigzag posi- tion above each other, each receiving warm air from a healing device and fan. The moist grain is elevated or delivered to the top belt, and in turn falls on each succeeding lower one. If not dry when delivered at the bottom the grain is again run through, after which it passes through a cooling device to be cooled to storage temperatures. This device can also be used to dry skimmed or iloat barley from the steep tanks in the malthouse. GRAIN MEASLRES. All grain, malt, etc.. is bought and sold by the bushel, and the nttnibcr of Inishch in a lot is calculated by weight. When grain is shipped or received in cars or >\agons X\Aese ^xe vj^ix^Xv-tOi >*;\\\\ -'^ MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 575 and without the load, the difference being the total weight of the grain. This is then divided by the bushel weight, determined by a special balance for that purpose, which gives the number of bushels in the load of grain. Most g^ain storage elevators are supplied with a large scale hopper or bin wherein the grain can be again weighed while in the elevator, either after receipt, or before delivery. AUTOMATIC MALT WEIGHING SCALES. Automatic scales are sometimes used and consist of a box ar- ranged in such a manner upon a scale that a certain weight of malt entering at the top forces it down, shutting off the supply and opening the bottom discharge valve. As soon as the box is empty it rises by its decreased weight to its original position, closing the bottom and again opening the top. This operation is continuous. The box is generally arranged to operate with a charge of one or more bushels of 34 pounds each. The amount discharged by each operation is registered on a dial. No atten- tion is required except to start the machine and to stop it when the dial indicates the amount wanted. This apparatus is not strictly accurate, as the moving parts are numerous and often stick together. GRAIN AND MALT CLEANERS. As grain, barley, malt, etc., contain substances that are un- desirable, such as chips of wood, foreign seeds, small stones, malt sprouts, etc., it is necessary to clean them before they can be ujsed. Malt is now almost universally cleaned by the niaUstcr b'^lore delivery to the brewer. BARLEY CLEANERS. Grain is cleaned by the following methods : 1. Forced draught; 2. Sifting or screening; 3. Gravity cleaners. Forced Draught. A current of air is forced through the grain while it is being fed in an even, thin sheet. The lighter particles such as dust, rootlets, etc., are carried away and the heavier berry falls into a receptacle below. Sifting or Screening. The grain is passed through and over a series of screens of different size ot me^V\ \i^ "^tv o^c>^-3i5Cvc\.^t v^^- tjon of the screens. In the first senes oi ^ct^^xvs N>cvfc ^rev^'^^^ '^'^^ 576 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. ^ larger than the size of the berry, allowing the berry to^fall through and retaining the larger particles. In the second seriet the meshes are somewhat smaller, retaining the berry and drop* ping the smaller particles, such as seeds, broken corns, etc. Some constructions have a revolving cylinder instead of oscillating flat sieves. The advantage claimed for the cylinder is that a small berry becoming wedged into the sieve will fall out when it reaches the top position and not clog the sieve. In some styles of grain cleaners the arrangement is a combina- tion of the draught and sifting methods. These are now extensively used for both grain and malt. For the latter a somewhat different construction of sieve mesh is used on account of the malt sprouts. In the grain cleaner the grain first undergoes the action of a fan where light substances are blown away by the air, then over a scalping screen, that is, a screen with meshes larger than the berry, where the larger, heavy substances are retained. It then passes over a screen with meshes smaller than the grain where the smaller particles drop through, and is finally again subjected to the action of the fan to remove particles not at first removed, or that may have become separated by friction while running over the screens. Another style of barley cleaner consists of a machine having at the top a perforated circular conveyor bottom which contains a spiral conveyor with brushes attached, which distributes the grain over the whole width of the machine, and discharges at the end all substances larger than the perforation. The grain falls into a hopper with automatic valve the whole width of the machine, which regulates the grain when it falls on a division board dividing the grain into two parts. Each part passes the biic- tion chambers separately, whereby all the light substances arc re- moved. The grain then falls on the shoe of the shakers and grader screens, where the grain is spread very thin so that every berry has access to the surface of the shaker screens, of which there are two sizes, fine and coarse, in order to grade the barley. Through the fine screens all small barley, also broken kernels, cockle, peas, seeds, etc.. pass into the cockle reels or cylinders. i*}j}ch separate the small barley from all broken kernels, seeds. etc. Over the Zinc screens passes the \arg;c barley to the second or coarse screens, which will on\y aWov; cXvi^w, \^\^^ \i^\V>S ^^ > MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 577 pass>through into the discharge spouts, while the larger sub- stances like oats, corn, etc., are cast off into the screenings pile. In another style of combined cleaner the barley first drops on a screen, where sticks, straws and stones, or other foreign sub- stances are taken out. The screen is very wide, so as to allow the barley to spread out into a thin sheet, and to give the berries an opportunity to pass through the perforations and allow none to tail over. After passing through the screen the barley falls into hoppers, which conduct it into the case. The grain then falls upon a rapidly revolving cylinder head, from which it is distributed evenly around in the space between the beaters and the case. The beaters throw the barley into oblong depressions in the case, whence they rebound to the beaters, and in being thrown back and forth between the beaters and the case, the barley is thoroughly scoured and clipped. All the impurities that are loosened are immediately drawn through the slotted openings to the fan, thus not allowing any of the dirt to be rubbed into the crease of the kernel, from which it cannot be removed. After the grain leaves the case it falls into a suc- tion spout and meets a strong current of air which divests it of remaining impurities before it leaves the machine. MALT CLEANERS. One style of malt cleanej: operates as follows: The malt is drawn from a garner into a hopper to an auto- matic feed, which is constructed with a regulating valve, and with an oscillating valve operated by two levers or arms con- nected with each side of the shoe, in order to secure a perfect and positive feed at all times. In the hopper is also placed a polisher, which is so constructed that it will remove the sprouts, and, while brightening it up, will not break or injure the malt. As most malt contains more or less metal, such as iron, wire and nails, there is placed in the hopper a heavy bank of magnets to remove them. The malt is fed in a thin, even sheet into the tirst suction leg, where the dust and light impurities are carried by a perfectly controlled air current to a dust room. The greater part of the sprouts are at the same time deposited in the first separating tip. Both separating tips are provided with a conveyor that carries the 'sprouts out oi, ;vtvd ^vsOcv-^x^^'^ >^^vc^ ^^^ either side of, the machine, as may b^ mo^V. coxvN^v^.^^^^ ^^^'^ '^^'^'^ S7 5/8 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. removal. From here the malt drops and is spread evenly ^over the whole width of the upper or scalping screen, which throws off any coarse foreign matter, such as straws, sticks, headings, etc. The malt next passes over a malt screen the entire length of the shoe. Under this is a fine screen, which removes cockle, sand, small seeds, etc. From here it passes into the last suction leg, in which a final separation is made of any impurities that may remain, the malt dropping out of the bottom of the leg in a cleaned condition, while the impurities are drawn into the sec- ond tip and removed by the conveyor. The sieves of this ma- chine arc all adjustable in the shoe, so as to be changed to finer or coarser ones, while the machine is running. In order to keep the bottom screen from clogging, this machine is sup- plied with an automatic brush, which travels underneath the bottom screens to keep them clean. The fan-shaft is extended, so that it can be driven from either side of the machine. The two suction legs are the full width of the sieves in order to secure perfect separation. There arc two fans in this machine. one on each side of the air tnmk for securing a free passage of air at any point and also avoiding sharp currents. This air trunk is so arranged with valves that any desired air current can be obtained at any point of the suction legs where it may be desired. Gravity Cleaners. These consist of a^ tall, upright spout or box inside of which are placed a series of steel pins or wires having different distances between them and the whole arranged in rows with one end of the wires free, similar in construction to an ordinary hair comb. These wire combs are placed in the box in an alternate or zigzag position, at right angles to each other, the end of one almost touching the other ; in fact, iliey occupy the position that the steps of a staircase would occupy if they stood on end upright. The grain is fed at the top and falls on the first "comb," thence rebounds to tlie second and so on to the last. All particles smaller than the berry fall or pass through the wires or "teeth" and are discharged into sepa- rate receptacles at either side, while the grain or malt berries fall into another. An advantage possessed by this system of uire teeth is that the grain in striking them causes them to vibrate 3jjcf dislodge any berry that might have a tendency to clog. These gravity cleaners require no power aivd c;x^v\ vVvvi^^lorc be placed wherever convenient. MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 579 Iif some malthouses the grain is passed through a gravity cleaner, after being cleaned with one of the above mechanical devices, as an extra safeguard. MALT STORAGE. The proper storage of barley and malt is a matter of consider- able importance, and is usually done in square bins like those described for malt in the brcwhouse (which sec). Of late, how- ever, a new form of storage receptacle has come into use which possesses fea\ures that will gradually enforce its universal in- stallation. This is the steel tank bin. These bins are constructed to hold many carloads of grain or malt. They possess advantages in the fact that malt or grain can be stored in them without absorbing much moisture; that it is easy to banish the objectionable weevils and other insects which cannot find their way through the steel plates of the tank; or if present are easily removed when the tank is empty and cannot infect subsequent contents; that the risk from fire is lessened to a minimum and consequently a great saving in insurance rates is effected. BARLEY WASHING MACHINES. The washing of the barley previous to entering the steep tank is usually accomplished in one of three manners. One method employs an injector-shaped vessel, where the grain and water are simultaneously allowed to enter, being there thoroughly mixed and the grain washed, whereupon both pass over a sieve, where I he grain is intercepted and transferred to the steep tank. The second method proceeds in a closed vessel having an agitator, wherein the grain and water are stirred together and the barley thus washed. The third way is to pass water through the con- veyor while the barley is being moved. STEEP TANKS. The steep tanks, in which the barley is soaked or steeped, con- sist now almost universally of cylindrical iron hoppers, with conical bottoms. Attached to the point of the cone is a steep tank valve, which is usually supplied with two opening devices, one for draining off the water, and another for dischar^vw^, ^Js^ft. barley. Some steep tanks are suppWed >n\\\v ^tv ^^t'a.'CvASf, ^^nVl^ for injecting slit into the Steeping gram. MALTHOUSE OLTl'lT. 5&> Other steep tanks consist of two tanks placed one over^lhe olher, the grain being partly steeped in the upper one before' dropping into the lower. When there is more than one sleep tank they are placed in ro»'s or tiers, and above thcni runs a spiral conveyor having an opening over each tank, so that in order to drop the grain into any tank all that is necessary is to open the corresponding slide in the conveyor. The tanks are r pipes for carrying off the float i properly steeped it passes either also supplied with overflow wale barley and chaff (skimmings). When the barley or grain i 10 the growing lloors. r,r into pneumatic drum,>^, ete. Several devices for turning the malt on ihe srowing floors by ntacbincry ha\c been invonlcJ and tried, bni did not meet with aril- general iiitroduciion. since tVicy weve cc.m?\kai.eii in detail and often got oat ol order, causing Itctiucw^ 4«\a."i^, MAt-THOUSE OUTFIT. 581 FLOOR MALT HOUSE. Floor malting is very simple, as far as mechanical equipment is concerni^d, and requires practically no machinery except the power shovel described above. The malthouse has different numbers of floors, consisting; of different body construction, b^t nearly all finished with a top coating of cement. The floors have a slight pitch to the sewer pipe to ensure drainage when washed. The barley is elevated into Ihe sleep tanks which are placed en the lop floor of the malthouse, from which it falls upon the Browing floors below. The green malt is usually elevated by a bucket elevator to the kiln, and is there distributed by one of three appliances. The one now most commonly in use is a revolving or movable spoilt (shown in illustration). The malt is dropped by the elevator into the hopper top, and by moving the spout the mall falls lo different parts of the kiln, where it is spread out by hand. To tlic spout arc attached two rods in such a manner that they form .1 triangle with the spout. To the lower or horizontal rod a sliding weight is attached, by moving of which the slant of the spout can he changed, .^no^hc^ style is the movable buckets (see illustration). The green malt falls into one bucket which is then pushed to where wanted and dtimped. Another stv^t ".^ '*>'i ^iiSv- nary spiral conveyor, which runs across \\\t VvVti \ti\?,vV-«\'i.t \v.-A has openings at different distances apait at "rts \>ti\Vov.\. '^"i "^^^ 582 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. ing the difFerent slidei the green malt can be dropped itbert wanted in heaps and likewise spread by hand. The constmctiop of the kilns is practically the fanie as those used for dram malt described belo»'. MECHANICAL MALTING DEVICES. Of late years quite a niunber of mechanical devices for re- placing the otd-style pining floors have been coming into use and are rapidly supplanting them. The advantages are prin- cipally as follows : Smaller buildings and less space to produce a certain output ; continuous operation both summer and winter ; more regularity in the growing process, etc. ; reduced capital in- vested ; less exposure of the growing grain to outside at- mospheric influences and consequent lessening oE danger of mould, etc. ; malt is not crushed by the workmen or shovel in turning; and. last, not least, reduced cost of labor. FNEUUATIC FLOOK OR BOX HALTING. This system of mailing employs a box-shaped receptacle for holding the steeped barley during the growing period. Travel- ing across this receptacle lengthwise is a carriage supporting a number of revolving spiral propellers for ihe purpose of aerating the growing barley by lifting or turning. This carriage travels from end to end automat ically, being propelled by wire rope transmbsion. The floor consists of perforated or slotted metal, through which the properly attemperatcd air passes. This air first p.-isses through the attempcrators. consisting of perforated ?inc pl.ilcs, over which water is continuously trickling, effecting a moistening of the air to the saturation point, and, at the same time, purify- ing it and equalizing the temperature. In cold weather the air first passes through a system of steam coils to be warmod. while in warm weather the air is cooled by the evaporation taking place in the nioistcncis. This air can thus be kept al a imiforiii tem- perature all the year round. The moistening of the growing barley can be accomplished by passing water through the shafts of the screw propellers, which are provided with sprinklers, so that as they travel through the grata the saiue is equally moistened. The growing boses are also n:arfe douhlg, one above the other, so t\\at \\\t v^Q^';^^ ":*" be ear- ned oat in a more economical mannev a^ ^o -it^uX^uo^, tVjL, MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 583 Another system of pneumatic box malting is very much similar m general details to the one above described, the main dtfFerence being in the shape of the receptacle containing the growing barley. Here this box or receptacle is round, having at its edge and near the top a circular cogwheel or ring attached, with the cogs point- ing inward. The stirring and turning device is attached to an horizontal shaft revolving on an upright central shaft as an axle by means of s cogwlieel at its end htting into this circular cog ring, in fact, similar in construction to a one-armed mash tun stirrer. The advantage claimed in this circular device is that each portion of the growing barley is turned at regular intervals at every revohition of the shovels, while in the first system where the turners travel from end to end and back again the middle por- tion is the only one turned at regular intervals, while those at the ends are turned twice in quick succession and then left undis- turbed for some time. This round system, however, has found only limited installa- tion, while (he square system is in extensive use and has. by long experience given good results. The cooled or heated and moistened air used in pneumatic floor systems circulates through the whole space in the rooms, as well as through the barley receptacles, consequently a very large vol- ume of this treated air must be furnished. This quantity of air is considerably lessened by the employment of drum-shaped receptacles for containing the growing barley. Drum systems differ from each other mainly in the construc- tion of details and methods of using the prepared air. They are all, however, similar in the following points, namely: At every revolution of the drum every portion of barley contained under- goes the same change that it did in previous revolutions, hence, there is uniformity in turning; the circulation of the prepared air passing through the growing barley can lie well regulated; there is little barley exposed to fho air in the unfilled portion of the (IruMi, consequently (he grain does not dry out much; and there are no shovels or stirrers 10 injure the barley berries. In the construction of the drums (here is also this similarity in •nil systems: That they consist of two concentric ^wl more thorough\\ Xv\TT\ev\. MALTHOUSE OUtFIt. 585 MALT KILNS. After the growing barley, now called green malt, has reached the desired stage of growth, the next operation necessary is quickly to check this growth. This is done by drying the moist malt upon the kiln. Here it is not only deprived of its moisture, but also receives certain new characteristics, the latter depending I'pon the amount of moisture contained at certain temperatures. The temperatures in the kiln therefore must be easily regulated. The green malt, in discharging from the drums, falls into a horizontal conveyor, which discharges it by means of a bucket elevator to the kilns where it is distributed as above described. Kiln floors. The kiln consists of perforated floors below which are furnaces supplying the heat for drying. In order to save fuel, building space and labor, the kiln floors are placed one over the other, usually two in number, although occasionally, especially in large plants, there are three such floors. The dryer malt is placed upon the lower and the more moist upon the top floor and the heat applied from below, so that the greater amount of moisture is nearest the exhaust and does not pass through the dryer malt. Dumping Floors. The kiln floors arc constructed of perforated or slotted metal and in order to allow the malt to drop upon the floor beneath are made to open partly and are then called "dump- ing" floors. These consist of a number of strips of perforated metal which, when all laid horizontally, form an even floor, but, each being centrally pivoted at the smaller end, can be tilted or given a quarter turn so that each strip assumes a vertical position and any malt resting on it is dropped or "dumped" on the floor below. The pivot or bearing on one end of these strips usually extends through the wall and is supplied at the outside with a lever handle for the purpose of turning and closing from the out- side. A mechanical device for turning the malt upon the same kiln has lately been installed. This consists of a series of short con- veyor screws each attached to a vertical shaft, and these shafts in turn supported by and revolving in an overhead beam or travel- ing crane running from end to end of the kiln. As the revolving screws travel through the malt they lift the lower layers and allow the upper to fall in their place, thus U\tw\v\% \\\^ vcvj^x vin^\\"s - 586 MALTIIOUSE OUTFIT. The furnaces for furnishing the heat to the kilns are usually open at both ends and are supplied with draft regulating air shafts. The fuel is usually anthracite pea coal or coke, and spe- cial care should be taken to add little fuel often in order to/e- duce the smoke production to a minimum. COMBINED DKUM AND KILN. As the handling of the green malt from the drum to and upon the kiln necessitates considerable labor, and the installation of the kilns considerable capital, one system of malting now in use does away with the extra kilns by also using the drums as kilns. The manipulation of these drums differs little during the grow- ing period from those used for germination only. But at the time fi^'owth is completed, the green malt, instead of being taken out, remains in the drum and the cool, moist air used in the growing period is replaced by dry, hot air and the drum is used as a kiln. In this system the drum is in uninterrupted operation from the time it is filled with steeped barley until the latter is taken out as finished nMlt. MALTING OPERATIONS. GENERAL OUTLINE. Malting is the process of preparing the grain — commonly barley — for use in the production of beer wort. Broadly, it embraces every manipulation from the moment the crude grain leaves the elevator or storehouse up to the time the finished malt is conveyed to the storage bin or to the hopper to be measured into the crusher mill. In a more confined sense, the term is sometimes applied only to the three operations of steep- ing, germination and kiln-drying. IMPORTANCE OF MALT. Among all the materials, undoubtedly the greatest importance tttaches to the malt. It is only in malted grain that we find not only the materials necessary to give substance to the beer, in fact to supply the greater part of the extract, and all the essential ingredients which make up the character of the beer except those which are derived from the hops and the water, but also the enzymes — diastase and peptasc — that prepare those ingredients by the inversion of the starch and peptonization of albumen. Unmalted grain may supply starch ; malt alone supplies the important albuminoids and the enzymes. It follows that while it is possible to make beer, using as the starch-yielding basis only barley malt, it is impossible to prepare a beer wort from unmalted cereals only. A certain amount of malt is indispensable to supply the enzymes in sufficient force to invert the starch both of the malt and of the unmalted cereals. The latter are, therefore, properly iw^\\. '3l^\v\tv^v^, ^\^^ ^>^'^nx- tutes. 5S7 MALTING OPERATIONS, Fulness o£ body (palate), foam-holding capacity, tasie, aroma and color of the beer are largely derived frotn the malt. The complete dependence of ihc character of beer upon that of the malt is illitslratcd by the two extreme types of Bohemian and Munich beers which display the greatest differences of character, although the identical mashing method may hr. fol- lowed and the malt prepared from the same barley, provided only due regard was had in the malting process to the character of beer to be turned out. PARTS OF THE KERNEL. The barleycorn consists in the main of the "husk." the "germ" and the "endosperm." The husk is mainly for pro- tection, the germ contains the vital principle endowed with the faculty of growth, under suitable conditions, into the new plant. the endosperm contains the bulk of the nourishment to sustain (he germ until, in the natural order of things, the roots are suffi- ciently developed to draw sustenance from the soil in which the grain is growing. The germ of the l.arlcycom develops, during grnivlh, ihc ".icr.v spire" or "phimula" and the '"radicle." The fcirincr is thai part from which develops the green blade which appears above the ground where barley is planted, and eventually produces the st.tlk. The radick sends out a. number of shoots that develop into the roots of the plant and are commonly called "rooilels." In germination, the rootlets protrude at the germ end of the grain, while the acrospire. starting from the same end. grows up toward the olher end of the grain, keeping under the husk along the back nr solid side of Ihc grain. In the natural process of growth it finally breaks out at the end opposite the rootlets and grows up into the til.ido. In mailing, it is not allowed to reach this point, growth being checked suddenly by kiln-drying hofurc ilu- .icro=pire quite reaches the opposite end, experience having demon si rated that (hat degree of ikveloniiient of the aernfiptre. MALTING OPERATIONS. 589 PRINCIPLES OF MALTING. The nourishment for the germ stored up by nature in the endosperm consists, in the main, of starch, albuminoids and a small amount of mineral substances. It is necessary that this food shall be made soluble and modified, so as to be available by the growing germ. This is done by diastase and peptase, re- spectively, two enzymes which are developed in the grow- ing malt in proportion to the needs of the germ for increased quantities of food, and their function is to attack the starch and nitrogenous substances, changing them into sugar and amides which, together with phosphate of potash, constitute the three main articles of food on which the growing germ subsists. The germ cannot obtain its food and grow properly unless it is given a sufficient quantity of water, nor unless the tempera- ture is congenial. Oxygen also is necessary to carry on the life of the germ. Under proper conditions of life as to amount of moisture, degree of heat and supply of oxygen, then, the germ will take up sugar, amides and mineral substances. The sugar is split up into carbonic acid and water, and jointly with the amides and mineral substances goes to build up the body of the acrospire and radicles, and supply the vital energy of the germs. SUPrLYING THE MOISTURE. The required moisture is supplied by steeping, that is, im- mersing the grain in water to allow it to take up a sufficient amount thereof to start germination. In the progress of growth much water evaporates, and it is always necessary to make up the loss by sprinkling during the more advanced stages of germination. TEMPERATURE DURING GERMINATION. Since by the decomposition of the sugar into carbonic acid and moisture, heat is generated, the temperature of the barley heaped on the floor of the malthousc will bo increased. The temperature in the heap will rise in proportion to the amount of maltose consumed by the growing germ. The higher the temperature of the heap, therefore, and the greater the size that the radicles and acrospire have attained, the greater will Vvcv's^^^'2^.^' S90 MALTING OPERATIONS. of the heap within the proper bounds. Too high a temperature of the heap favors the development of fungus growths and im- pairs the uniform growth and character of the malt. OBJECTS OF GERMINATION. The immediate objects of germination are: 1. To open up the endosperm, making the same sufficiently porous so that starch and albuminoids will be readily invertible in the mash-tun. 2. To obtain sufficient quantities of diastase and peptase to effect inversion. These objects must be obtained with a loss of as little substance as possible. OPENING UP TUE ENDOSPERM. The removal of starch, albuminoids and mineral substances consumed by the growing germ, by solution and inversion, takes place along diminutive canals intersecting the endosperm. These canals are enlarged by the removal of the consumed parti- cles as germination progresses, and the endosperm becomes more and more porous and spongy. At the same time the enzyme "cytase" emanating from the scutellum part of the berry permeates the endosperm, and gradually dissolves the mem- branes of cellulose in which the starch granules are encased, thus facilitating the solution of the food particles. The modifi- cations which the endosperm undergoes in this process are pre- cisely the ones required to fit it for use in the preparation of beer wort, since the diastase and peptase generated in germina- tion are needed in the mashing process for the inversion of the starch and nitrogenous substances (albumen) of the endosperm. Thus, while the germs themselves are not wanted in brewing, and the consumption of nourishment by them from the grain mate- rially depletes the endosperm, thereby diminishing the amount of matter available for the preparation of wort, nevertheless, the gen- eration of the en.Tvmcs and consequent modification of the contents of the barleycorn arc operations absolutely imlispcn fable f«^r the production of beer wort ; the endosperm becomes more mellow, that is. more readily permeable by water, which is important for the quick inversion of the starch in the mash-tun, and the nitro- genous substances become modified so that they will be acted upon by the peptase in the mash-tun, yielding the all-important 3/buniinoids necessary to give characlct \o ^i \)ct\. V\\\\YA.Ued crcals do not yield any desirable a\but\V\tvo"\ds \tv v\vt m^^Vwrcv, MALTING OPERATIONS. 591 Malting, then, consists, in the main, of the operations neces- sary to bring about these modifications of the endosperm, event- ually making the malt so prepared stable, and adding flavor and color by kilning. To this end, germination is induced and fostered, and, at last, interrupted at the critical moment when it has proceeded to a certain degree. INTERRUrTING GERMINATION. This is done by expelling the moisture by kiln-drying. Malt should be so dried as to possess, when finished, the desired color, aroma, mellowness and diastatic strength, all of which properties are governed, to a large extent, by the conditions of drying. The modifications that take place in the dry-kiln depend, in the main, upon the proper adjustment of temperature to the degree of n\9isture in the malt. This is a very delicate task. TEltfPERATURES IN DRY-KILN — COLOR — AROMA, Temperature affects the strength of diastase more severely while the malt is moist than after it becomes dry. The more moisture is expelled before the temperatures are raised high in the kiln, the greater will the diastatic power of the malt remain. With reference to obtaining the color and aroma that may be desired, the relation between moisture and temperature is also of the greatest importance. Under the influence of higher tem- peratures — aho-ve iii° F. (35° R.) — the moisture will tend to liquefy, or gelatinize, the starch, in part, and in that condition the diastase will invert the starch, producing maltose and malto- dextrin. The heat increasing, these products of inversion will be caramelized, giving color and aroma. Again the liquefied starch, as well as the inversion products, will fill up the capillary canals, and there settle and be dried, resulting in a malt less mellow and inferior in diastatic and peptonizing power, the latter being af- fected presumably by the same conditions as the diastatic power. The less moisture, therefore, a malt contains when those temperatures on the kiln are reached at which the starch gela- tinizes and is inverted, the paler will be its color, the less pro- nounced will be its malt flavor, the less will its mellowness and diastatic power be impaired ; while the longer the moisture is in evaporating, the tighter will the husk close around the endo- sperm, resulting in a malt with higher bushelwcight, but oi greater resistance toward atmospheric m^uwvc^s, VC«.^ vwassXN^'^^, which is absorbed by malt the more read'\\y m %VoT^^t,N>cv^ Q^^vfys.-^ the kiln-drying process has been carried out. 59^ MALTING OPERATIONS. POINTS ABOUT MALTING. CLEANING, SEPARATINC AND WASHING BARLEY. The barley, as it comes from the elevator, always contains much dust, seeds from other plants, half or injured kernels and kernels of other cereals. The dust, containing numberless foreign organisms, promotes mould and decomposition. The foreign seeds may impart to the malt a foreign taste, and the injured kernels also promote the growth of mold. Moreover, if the size of the kernels is very irregular, then in steeping the smaller kernels would become sufficiently steeped more speedily than the larger ones, which might take hours more to become thoroughly soaked. The result would be ir- regular growth. It is necessary, therefore, to clean the barley, separate and grade the kernels according to size. and. if desirable, wash it. This is done by machines known as barley cleaners and separators, the chief parts of which are described in "Malthouse Outfit." (Pages 575-578.) STEEPING. Steeping is the process of soaking the barley with water, and is performed by immersing the grain in the steep tank for a period of time under certain conditions. It aims to impart to the grain sufficient moisture to start and carry on germination and. also, to dissolve from the husk the coloring matter and other extractible substances which otherwise would give the malt a raw taste. Different varieties of barley will absorb different amounts of water in a given time. The period of steeping depends on : 1. The character of the water, whether soft or hard. 2. The temperature of the water. 3. The character of the barley, whether the hull is thick or thin, whether the endosperm is mealy or glassy, whether the diameter of the kernel is greater or smaller. 4. The age of the barley. CH.\RACTHR OF STEEP W.\TER. There has Itcen much discussion as Vo lV\e proper character of fAe steep water. Soft water dissoUes iiom v\\^ Xi^A^N \oq \wo.Ocv MALTING OPERATIONS. 593 soluble albuminoids and mineral substances which the yeast requires for food. The best water for steeping is a medium hard, pure spring or shallow well water. The temperature of the water should not exceed 55** F. (10" R.), otherwise moldy growth will be encouraged. In winter, the water should be warmed to the proper temperature before it is run into the steeping tanks. The softer the water, the higher its temperature, the smaller the diameter of the berry, the thinner the husk, the more mealy the barley, the younger the barley — the less time is required for steeping. Barley should never be oversteeped or be allowed to become sodden, otherwise its vitality may be seriously impaired. Sprink- ling on the floor can be resorted to if there is not enough moisture in the grain, but where there is too much, it cannot be removed. It is safer to understeep than the opposite. Since grain always contains some mold spores which find favor- able conditions for growth during the germinating period, and may, under circumstances, have an effect on the flavor of the final product, it may become advisable, when moldy growth is feared, to use some antiseptic to keep them in check, such as bisulphite of lime or other suitable substance, which should be added to the sleep water for the first steep of the grain. SIGNS OF SUFFICIENT STEEPING. 1. When cutting through a grain, the contents should show completely and uniformly wetted, with the exception of a minute speck in the center of the endosperm. 2. When taken by the ends between thumb and index finger, and pressed, the kernel should not prick the skin. 3. The kernel should be elastic enough to be bent over the finger nail without breaking. 4. At the end where the radicle is located the hull should ap- pear to open. 5. Upon biting gently into a kernel, the endosperm should move to both sides without breaking or cracking. 6. A sample of barley taken from the steeping tank should show an increase in weight of about 45 per cent. Of these indications, Nos. 1 and 6 are \.\vq. \wo%\. x^x-s!^^. 594 MALTING OPERATIONS. PERIOD OF STEEPING. This is a matter in which the individual judgment of the maltster must of necessity be allowed much play. Only approxi- mate hours can be given, as follows : For Two- Row Barley: California 50 to 60 hours Dakota. Montana, Utah 60 to 72 hours Six-Row Barley: Iowa, Minnesota or Wisconsin No. i 48 to 56 hours Iowa. Minnesota or Wisconsin No. 2 45 to 52 hours Iowa, Minnesota or Wisconsin No. 3 36 to 48 hours Canada 45 to 56 hours CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE DURING STEEPING. The barley takes up a large amount of water; the volume of steeped barley is 25 per cent greater than of dry barley, four bushels of dry barley yielding five bushels of steeped. The in- crease in weight is about 45 per cent*, or 100 pounds of dry barley give about 145 pounds of steeped. A certain amount of various matters, both organic and mineral, is extracted from the barley by the water, the total amount being about 1.5 per cent. Among the substances so dissolved out are: Cane sugar, g^m, diastase, coloring matter, phosplttoric acid and about one-half of the soluble nitrogenous constitiitents. GERMINATING. The grain having reached the desired degree of" steepage, it is sent to the germinating department. According to the traditional mclhod. which still remains the most common, germination is conducted on a smooth floor con- structed for this purpose, the process being called "flooring," "growing," or "germinating." Of late years some improvements have been introduced in this branch of malting, being based on artificial or forced aeration either on a perforated floor or in revolving drums. Another important distinction is that by the old method the work is almost entirely done by hand, whereas t/ie recent /niprovements may with nutch propriety be called mecJmnical mah'mg, most of the woiV. W\t\^ ^oxv^ \i^ vcv^i^iVvvtiery. MALTING OPERATIONS. 595 COMMON FLOOR MALTING. The grain is sent from the steep tank to the germinating floor after the water has been drained off. It was customary, of old, to shovel it out of the steep tank on drays and convey it to the Hoor. In a modern malthousc the steep tank is provided with a conical hopper bottom, and situated above the malting floor, so that, the trap in the bottom being opened, the grain slides down on the floor in a hear. The lot of grain so sent to the floor is called a "piece." The first heap is called a "couch," that name being derived from the practice under the former English law, when the duty was paid on steeped barley, which was measured by the govern- ment ganger in an open frame called the couch, designed to hold a certain bulk and provided with a removable end which was taken out as soon as the grain had been gauged, and the malt then moved out on the floor through the open end. Such couches are still commonly used in England, but not in the United States, where the term couch has been applied to the first heap, the practice of malting, however, being derived mainly from Ger- man methods. The couch is set at one end or side of the floor, and the malt gradually worked over toward the opposite end, or side, at which the dryjciln is situated. The chief points to be observed in carrying on germination are: • 1. To provide sufficient moisture; 2. To maintain suitable temperatures; 3. To aerate the grain (ventilation) ; 4. To protect the growing grain from deleterious in- fluences. All these essential conditions should be so observed as to op- erate upon all individual grains alike, in order to secure a uni- form growth. Too high temperatures must be avoided since they promote the development of micro-organisms and facilitate un- even growth. Growth should not be allowed to proceed too rapidly. The saving of time that might thus be effected is far more than made up for by the fact that an unduly swift develo^iw^w^ <^^ "^^ acrospire and radicles will not aWow ol \\v^ xtc^vyiV^ vcv^^^^- ing of the endosperm which is among \.\\e cV\e\ o\i\'ing. In Germany the malt is frequently air-dried in the so-called "Schwelke" at ordinary temperature before being sent into the kiln. In England it is ''withered" by heaping the malt into a thicker piece and leaving it for hours. \vhcrcl)y the temperature is increased, ventilation impeded and growth at least partially checked. This is made necessary by the general use of one-floor kilns in England. Withering may also be accomplished by spread- ing the germinated malt very thinly upon tlie floor, thus facilitat- ing the escape of moisture. American maltsters often turn the malt twice in the last three or four hours, so as to ventilate it, reduce the temperature and check growth. As a rule, air-dry \ng \^ coT\i\^\\)»4;\>.'e.\ w^xwwv^ 600 MALTING OPERATIONS. three or four hours, but drain it off entirely once a day. Whete the water cannot be kept running, change it twice the first day, and once a day thereafter. For steeping, the grain is kept in the same tank. Temper the water in the tanks before running it on the grain so that it is about 50-55** F. when it reaches the steep tank. Keep the tem- perature of the room so as to preserve this degree in the tanks as nearly as can be. Steep for about forty-eight hours, modifying for dryness of air, hardness of water, type and condition of bar- ley, etc. When the time is nearly past, sample the grain at short intervals, according to the tests elsewhere described. The grain being fully steeped, drain the water off at the bottom. Frequently the steep tank has a conical hopper bottom by which the barley is dropped on the malting floor ; otherwise it is loaded on trucks and wheeled to the floor. In couching, the head malt- ster directs the placing of the loads so that on leveling the grain will form a heap eight to ten inches in height, extending along a longitudinal side of the floor and occupying rather more than one- third and less than one-half of the floor space. About every six hours the malt'sters turn the barley to enable rapid superficial drying. Keep the temperature in the room between 50° and 60° F., as uniformly as practicable. See to good ventilation all the time. At the expiration of about twelve hours, the barley being dry, the heap is drawn together, that is, the men shovel the grain together and level it at twelve to fourteen inches. Leave it at this height, turning every eight hours, until the rootlets mat well. Use the thermometer freely, pushing it down into the couch. If the temperature approaches 75** F., break down tlic heap and extend it to a layer of less depth. This repeated breaking down or flooring of the heap gradually extends it over that part of the floor which was originally left free. When the g^ain mats strongly, sprinkle with water, either by hose and spraying pipe or by a sprinkling can. If possible, enough water should be given to save another sprinkling. Turn every five or six hours thereafter, breaking down the heap more and more, until the layer is only five or six inches deep and covers almost the whole floor. Growth will take about five days. When the malt is mellow, and the acrospire about three-quarters up. turn the malt once or twice in the last three or four hours so as to lenti/ntc the heap thoroughly and stop further growth. Most Americnn bnrlcy, being rather reiTacVoiv \\\ \w?\\.\vi^, ^\\c>v\^ tssA MALTING OPERATIONS. 6oi be turned too much. There arc some exceptions, as California barley, which grows even on the shovel. Turning should be de- layed until the temperature of the malt imperatively requires it. After clearing the floor of green malt, wash it well with diluted bisulphite, or milk, of lime. Then wash well to remove all traces of the chemicals. KILNING OPERATIONS. The malt ready for the drying-kiln, it is conveyed to the elevator at the end of the floor by means of scrapers sus- pended from the transmission shafting under the ceiling. The scrapers are handled like plows, being set in place and guided by the maltster, while operated by machinery. The receptacles of the elevator are charged by the scrapers, and on reaching the upper floor of the kiln, dump the malt automatically. On the upper kiln floor the men level the malt to an even height. The dry-kiln in the United States commonly has two floors, and is heated by an open fire. Above the upper floor in the dome are drafts to carry off the vapors, and often a suction fan to promote drying. The temperature should be kept at 75-90® F. on the upper floor. Where the suction is such that a powerful draught can be maintained through the malt, there is no need of turning the malt, but it is sufficient to loosen it up once. With a less perfect draught, turn once about three or four hours after loading the kiln. Where ventilation is insufficient, turn after six or eight hours, and again after nine or ten hours. The upper kiln is loaded about 18 inches high. All tempera- tures referred to in kilning American malts are read from ther- mometers, the bulbs of which are immersed in the malt extending about half way between surface of malt and kiln floor or about nine inches from surface. Usually three thermometers are placed, one at each end and one in the center. The charge on a kiln floor is usually 2,500 bushels in the larger malting establishments, or 5.000 on both floors. The malt, being hand-dry, which takes about twenty-four hours, is dumped on the lower floor, commonly by mechanical dumping floors which turn in sections on an axis and drop the malt be- low. Spread the malt evenly on the lower floor. The initial tem- perature here should be 120-130** F., leaving it about that point for twelve hours, more or less, until the malt is absolutely dry. Then raise within one and one-half to two Uouts Vo VW ^xsaX N.^xvx'^^'^'s^-"^'^^ and keep at that height for about Ivjo \\o\xxs. 602 MALTING OPERATIONS. Final temperature for pale malt should be about 145° F., for market beer 165-180**, for high-dried malt for darker beer up to 220* F. The curing stage being over, cover the fires and cool the malt slowly. Hard coal, being smokeless, is commonly used for fuel. The fireman should see to the maintenance of the proper temperatures by watching his fire and the dampers. The malt being cooled down, it is shot through traps from the lower kiln floor to the cleaning machine stationed so that -the malt drops into it without any assistance. The rootlets or "coombs" are here removed. The clean malt runs into one bin. the roots into another, and there remain until the malt is used for brewing, or the rootlets sold for feed. KILNING AMERICAN MALT FOR PALE BEER. Time of kilning. 48 hours. After loading, the temperature is raised during the next ten hours to 90° F. (25-26** R.). during the next four hours to 120° P- (39** R-). J^nd kept at this temperature for ten hours. Now the malt, is dumped on the lower floor, where the temperature is raised during the next four hours to 130° F. (43-44* R.) ; dur- ing the next twelve hours to 150** F. (52-53* R.) ; during the next three hours to 180* F. (65-66* R.). and held at this tem- perature during three hours when the malt is removed from the lower kiln to the bin, and the lower kiln receives a new charge from the upper kiln, and the upper kiln is reloaded, the time of unloading and recharging the kilns being about two hours. KILNING AMERICAN MALT FOR EXTRA PALE BEER. Time of kilning, 48 hours. On the upper floor the malt is treated as for pale beer. The malt reaches the lower kiln with a temperature of 120*^ F. (39* R.), which is gradually raised during the next four hours to 125* F. (41-42° R.). and during the next twelve hours to 130° F. (43- 44* R.). Tlicn raise witliiii the next three hours to 145* F. (50- 51*^ R.), and hold this temperature for three hours. KILNI.N'G AMERICAN MALT FOR DARK DEER. Time of kilning. 24 hours. On the upper kiln the mall is heated in five hours to 90* F. (^5-26" R.), in the next two hours to 120° F. (39° R.), held during the next five hours at 120* F. (2ff ^.^. ^^\n dumped MALTING OPERATIONS. 603 on lower floor, brought in two hours lo 140** F. (48** R.), in the next five hours to 180** F. (65-66* R.), in the next two hours to 220° F. (84** R.), held here two hours, and unloaded. MECHANICAL MALTING OPERATIONS (AMERICAN). Drum Malting. — Take for a sample a plant of fifty drums, using a Wisconsin barley, which is representative of the average quali- ties of barley used for trade malt. This barley runs about forty- eight pounds to the bushel. There is little difference in steeping for drum malting from steeping for floor malting. The barley is steeped for about forty- four hours at 50-55** F. The water is forced in at the bottom of the steep tank, and also drained off at the bottom, except for the first hour or so, when it is kept flowing so as to carry off the skimmings from the top, a workman standing over the tank and helping in the removal of the skimmings. After that, the water is shut off and the mixed grain and water allowed to stand about ten to eleven hours. The water is drained off and renewed four times within forty-four hours at about equal intervals. When the desired degree of steepage has been reached, the water is drained off completely, which takes about three hours for a tank of 250 bushels. A spout in the hopper-bottom of the tank is then opened, and the grain runs into the drum, which is located on the floor below right under the steep tank, and cal- culated to hold just one full charge of the tank. When the drum is full it is started revolving. The temperatures are kept as follows: First day 55** F., second day 60** F., third day 65', fourth day 70^, fifth day, first half, 75°, the last 12 hours being given to air-drying or withering. Every drum having a ther- mometer, the temperatures can be readily regulated by increasing or reducing the draft of air or giving an extra turn of the drum so as to turn the malt if it sweats too much. The drum is turned about as follows: For the first three days, one full revolution every two hours; fourth day, every iVj hours; first half of the fifth day, the same; after which the drums are kept revolving for 12 hours, making one revolution in about 40 minutes. The drum is connected with an air shaft leading from the coke tower or atomizing room, where the air is drawn through cokr and water, so as to be filtered and at the same time cK^^s^^< with uioisture. The air is drawn v\\yov\^\v nXv^ ^\>\vcv Xs.^ "^ ^'^' 604 MALTING OPERATIONS. About 12 hours before germination is finished, that is, when the continuous revolutions of the drum begin, this moist air supply is shut off, and air drawn through from the room itself, so as to dry the malt. It thus becomes much drier than floor malt when it reaches the kiln. While in the drum, the grain is sprinkled twice with a hose, about one barrel of water being given for a piece of 250 bushels. After each sprinkling, the drum is given an extra turn, so as to mix the grain and water well. The first sprinkling is given after the grain has well broken out, answering about to the stage of the third day on the floor. About 12 to 14 hours later, sprinkle again. At the end of the fifth day, when the acrospire has reached a length of %-% of the grain, and the malt has been air-dried as described, it is dropped through the door of the drum into a trough running along the floor, several men being sent into the drum to shovel it out In the trough an ordinary worm con- veyor pushes the malt to the dry-kiln adjoining the malthouse. The charges of ten drums, aggregating about 2.500 bushels, are unloaded and conveyed to the kiln in about two hours. m The dry-kiln has the usual two floors, open fire, vents and dampers. Besides, it has an automatic turning device, which travels along the railing of the floor, with blades to scrape up the malt from the floor and worms to carry it to the surface, so as to turn it thoroughly. The temperature on the upper floor is kept at 90** F. for the first twelve hours, then raised to 100** for the next twelve hours. The vents are so regulated as to carry off the vapors, which are much less than with floor malt, owing to the air-dry condition when the malt reaches the kiln, and the dampers set to maintain the temperatures. At the ex- piration of twenty-four hours the charge is dumped on the lower tloor, where it starts at 1 10", and is kept at that temperature for twelve hours. The last twelve hours the heat is regulated ac- cording to the desired product. It high-dried malt is wanted. the temperature is gradually raised and the last three hours kept at 200 up to 240**. For ordinary pale malt the final ♦emperature shou'.o be about 170''. .Vficr kiln-ilryiiig, the mall is treated the same as floor mail. The drums arc cleaned with water only, the men being sent //7/c f/icm with a hose, and flushing out by means of a force pump. O/ie mnn cnn ckaii ten drun\s in iS: \\ovus. ^o *Jk\^\^VvicV\\\\^ MALTING OPERATIONS. 605 are used in cleaning, the drums being varnished inside and in- capable of holding dirt. Barley of the Canada and Californin type requires six d>cv^ xo'^^'Cv^v^- Then the malt should be well heaped up ou vVv^NsaVcv^ ^V^^^ ^^^"^"^ 6o8 MALTING OPERATIONS. it is Stored in bins which are generally placed around the ex- terior of the kiln walls on account of the dryness and warmth of the position. It should remain on storage 6 to 8 weeks or more, before being used. Southby says that drying and curing cannot be properly ac- complished under from three to four days, including the time re- quired for loading and unloading. He recommends bringing the whole load of the kiln up to ijo** F.. with as little delay as possible. This temperature must not be exceeded until the bulk of the moisture is expelled, and the moisture should be reduced to about 6 to 7 per cent by the time the temperature reaches 140**. About 3 to 4 per cent more of the moisture ought to be expelled by the time the temperature arrives at 155°. which should be when the kiln has been loaded for about 60 hours. Another 12 hours and the temperature should have risen to about 175° F., and then it should be maintained at 175° to 185** for the following 12 hours, when the malt will be perfectly dried and cured, and can be at once removed from the kiln. The moisture of the perfectly dry malt should not exceed 1.5 per cent, and is frequently found less than i per cent. Perfectly dry malt, according to Southby. will keep forever without de- terioration at the temperature of very hot climates. Besides pale malt there is used: .A-mbcr malt, which is simply pale malt that has been subjected to a high final temperature on the kiln so as to give it some color and destroy the action of the diastase. Dloii'u or Brown Malt, which is dried rapidly over a fire of beech or birch wood. This has a much higher color than amber malt, and contains but little, if any. diastase. Black' or Patent Malt, which is absolutely roasted like coffee, and the roasting sliould be so carried out as to produce the larg- est amount of sohible coloring matter. Crystal Malt is prepared by moistening the malt during the drying process with a solution of sugar and then drying it off at a higli temperature. Resides iliese. caramel malt may also be employed. For pale ales only the palest malts can be used. For mild .i/cs. p.ilc iiKih /s n>cd with a little black malt. Porter and stout nre hrcwcd in Dublin from high-drWA v;v\c uva\\ ^vxvX XAwO^. \w^U o/j/y, while London brewers generaUy ^relei ^x ?,V\s\ c^wv^vmwv^ 7J\ MALTING OPERATIONS. 609 the three qualities of colored malt, viz., amber, brown and black« in addition to the pale malt. When black malt only is used in brewing porter and stout, one of black, by measure, to seven of pale is sufficient for the blackest beers, and one of black to twelve of pale is about the smallest proportion used even in Ireland where the black beers arc generally far less highly colored than in London. MALTING IN GERMANY. QUALITY OF GERMAN MALT. Three types of malt are distinguished in Germany, viz., Bo- hemian, Wiener and Bavarian. In the production of all of these two-row barley is universally employed. In regard to purity, that is, freedom from dust, foreign seeds, etc., appearance, color of husk, condition of endosperm, color and general appearance of sprouts, length of acrospire, the same general remarks apply as to the valuation of American malts. As to the taste or aroma of the malt, that of the Bohemian type should have no caramel and very little malt aroma; the Vienna malt, on the other hand, should possess it distinctly, and in the Bavarian this aroma should be very strong, without a bitter empyreumatic taste. In the following are given some of the most important character- istics of German malts from laboratory examinations, according to Thausing. a. Amount of Moisture. — This differs according to whether the malt is kiln-dried, low or high. Taken fresh from the kiln it contains 1.5 to 3.5 per cent of moisture. When properly stored it absorbs 2 to 3 per cent of moisture, so that when ready for brew- ing the malt will have about 3.5 to 6.5 per cent. b. Aroma of the Malt Mash. — This should always be pure, whether it is neutral, as for pale malt, or weakly aromatic, as for Vienna malt, or strongly aromatic, as for Bavarian. During the process of mashing the odor changes constantly. c. **Brcak" of the Malt Mash. — If at the end of the mashing period the mash beakers are allowed to stand quietly, the grains will settle and the wort over them will appear clear. If this takes place quickly it is a good sign. d. Power of Inversion, Diastatic Power. — After the mash in the beaker has reached a temperature of 70° C. (158° F., or 56° R.) in carrying on the laboratory mash (see. E.Y."a.xt>A\-v2^A^^ ^^ Malt in the Laboratory), the lime up Vo \\\3ii\t^ \^ ^'^^^•a.^ ^^ ^^ fioor at a depth of 0.3 to 0.5 m. {wSi to \^n \tvOc\fci^ ^o '^icv•a^ •vicsR 6l2 MALTING OPKRATIONS. barley does not lose too much water. To spread the grain (Nasshaufen) lower is advisable only in case the barley has been oversteeped. The couch is turned every lo to 12 hours. The heaps are gradually thinned out and turned if the temperature in the "Brechhaufen" has increased 3** to 4° R. (6.75° to 9° F.) above the temperature of the room, in the "Junghaufen" if the increase is 4° to 6** R. (9" to 13.5** F.), in the "Althaufen" if the increase is ;** to 8' R, (15-75** to 18** F.). The "Brechhaufen" reaches this temperature after about eight hours, the "Junghau- fen" after about six, and the "Althaufen" eight hours. The maximum temperature should be 17** to 18** R. (70° to 72.5" F.), and the period of germination 6 to 8 days. At the end of the . germinating period, especially if the desired degree of mellowness has not been reached, the heaps may be left for 18 to 24 hours to mat (angreifen lassen). Sprinkling should, according to Lcyser- Heiss, take place during the first stages of growth, i. e., the stage of the **Nasshaufen/' using about 40 to 50 liters of water for every 55 hectoliters of malt. The grown malt is taken to tiie air- drying floor (Schwelke), where it is spread not more than 0.05 m. (about 2 inches) high, except if the mellowness is to be increased by the further growth on the drying floor, or to prevent freezing in winter The three different types of beer known as Bavarian, Wiener and Bohemian, require correspondingly different treatment of the malt from which they are produced. The malt for dark Bavarian beer should have a strong malt flavor, a darker color of the en- dosperm and less diastatic power than the Bohemian malt from which the light-colored beers, with relatively more alcohol and less extract, are produced, in which the aromatic malt flavor is but very little pronounced compared with Bavarian beers, while in the production of the Wiener type of beers a malt is em- ployed which may l)e considered as standing between the Ba- \arian and the Bohemian types. The following description of operations, condensed from Mich- el's "Lehrlnich der Bierbraiierei.' will be fciind useful in un- derstanding the systems of malting as employed in the pn>«'iuc- tion of these three typical German beers. .MALT FOR BAVARIAN BEER. Since Bavaria grows barley of excellent quality and in suth- c/cnt quantities, very little barky Is \n\^Q\V<:^ \xv \X\^\. ^Ciwwx\^. MALTING OPERATIONS. 613 The steep water is about 10* R. (54.5** F.). Time of steeping, 90 to 120 hours. Amount of moisture taken up by the barley, 44 to 45 per cent. The duration of steeping is longer than in the production of Wiener and Bohemian malts. Sprinkling is, there- fore, not necessitated to the same degree. The grain is then spread on the floor 20 to 25 cm. (about 8 to 10 inches) high, and is turned in the morning and evening. As soon as the tempera- ture begins to rise the height of the heap is reduced. The heaps are turned regularly every 12 hours, unless the temperature rises too high, until the fifth or sixth day, at which time the malt should show a strong development of radicle. It is then allowed to lie 15 to 18 hours in order to mat. Generally the malt is allowed to mat twice, and if necessary, the temperature is supposed to rise to 18° R. (72° F.). FLOOR RECORD OF A SAMPLE MALT FOR BAVARIAN BEER. Time of Turning. Temperature In Heap Remark.s. Day. Hour. 1 6 p. m. 9°R. 2 6a. TD. 8.6« R. 2 6 p. m. 9^ R. Mdlt begins to chit. 3 6 a. m. 10° R. 3 6 p. m. 12" R. 4 6 a. m. H** R. Radicles begin to sbow. 4 A p. m. le** R. 4 12 p. m. 17° R. Abundant sweat. Heap thinned out. 5 12 m. 17° R. Allowed to mat. 6 9 a. m. 18° R. Matting has taken place. 7 » a. m. 18.5° R. Malt strongly matted. 8 9 a. m. 17° R. Matting has progressed but little. The temperature in the room was kept at 7° to 8** R. (48® to 50° F.). Height of malt kept at 20 cm. (about 8 inches) during the first 5 days, and reduced to 18 cm. (about 7 inches) for the last 3 days. The radicle in many corns exceeded one and one-half times the length of the corn, the acrospire reaching thrce-fjuarters of the length in a majority, when the malt was ready to go on the kiln. KILNING MUNICH MALT. The total time of kilning is forty-eight hours. During the first twenty-four hours the green malt rests on the upper floor, being spread about ten inches thick, and receiving such temperatures as nafiirally follow from the regulation of heat o\\ VV\^ V<^^^\ '^'^^>'^. given below. 6i4 MALTING OPERATIONS. After the malt has been dumped from the upper to the lower floor — the upper being loaded afresh with green malt — the tem- perature for the first twelve hours in the lower chamber under the upper lloor is kept at 104° to in** F. (32° to 35° R.)- The drafts or dampers are then gradually closed, and the temperature of the lower chamber slowly and steadily raised during the fol- lowing six hours, at the end of which time the heat should be 133" to 140' F. (46° to 48^ R.). During the remaining six hours the malt is heated slowly — the temperature being raised steadily and uniformly, during three hours, up to the final temperature, at which the malt is kept for the final three hours, the dampers l>eing closed tight during that period. The leniperalurcs at the different stages, from hour to hour, for the final six hours, are given below. These figures can serx'e only as a general g^iide. subject to the judgment of '.he maltster during this last critical period of malt-making. TEMrER.XTURES FOR THE LAST SIX HOURS ON LOWER KILN FLOOR FOR MUNICH MALT, ACCORDING TO MICHEl^ Hours. remperatiire on Kiln Floor. 18> In Mai t. 6^70= R. Air In Lower Cha Ho-U9=F. 48 m»»er. 18 to 191 207 =F. TO«R. -18J<»K. h'Z \{ 19 to 20 •227= 87*= 191 198' 72 74^ I49-ln6^ .v: ;Vi" » to 3L 239« 92* 207-21 -i' 7>* 80' I.i" 162- .V> bS' 21 to 22 2S0' 97* 21 i 216' 80 ^<2'' 162 167^ SH 60- ti to 23 250' 97'» 2 6 221" 82 HI' 167 I7r 6»» 6-r 23 to 21 250^ 97' 2^11 -223*» 84-K.>*- 171 -18*^ 6.' rt7^ The lower kiln is then cleared, and the malt from the upper floor d'.mipcd down on the lower, and the upper floor freshly loaded with green malt. •MOISTURE IN MALT OF MUNICH TYPE. On reaching upper kiln 37 to 40 per cent. -•\fter the first 12 hours 20 to 24 per cent. After the next 6 hours 10 to 14 per cent. .•\fter the next 6 hours 5 to 6 per cent. Finished malt iK» to 2 per cent. MAi.T FOR wi::nf,r r.EER. Barley with as light a color as possible is used. Sleeping period. 37 to 84 hours. Moisture after steeping. 38 to 42 per cent. The tenipcrnture of the couches should never rise higher tlian 15° R. Mi^ F). and at the time when ihc TCK>\\e\s W^\t\ vo vJ^vxtVoi^jy MALTING OPERATIONS. 615 should not be over 12* R. (59* F.). Growth throughout is slower and at lower temperatures than in the production of Bavarian malt, the germinating period lasting 9 to 10 days. It is of special importance to obtain as strong and perfect a de- velopment of acrospire as possible, while the radicle remains somewhat shorter. The heaps are turned every 6 to 8 hours. The malt is never allowed to mat FLOOR RECORD OF A SAMPLE MALT FOR WIENER BEER. Height of Heap. 18— 16 cm. ( 7-6.3 In.) 15-14 cm. ( 6—5.5 In.) 12 -14 cm. (4.7-5.5 In 12-13 cm. (4.7—5 in 18-14 cm. (5-5 5 In.) 14 cm. (5.5 In.) 14cm. (5.5 in.) 14 cm. (5 6 in.) J Days. 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. a Brechliaufen JunKbanfen. Wach5ihau fen. it Altiiaiifen. Weight. 3 Time). 4 5 5 3 2 2 I »< It «• »t II ii II Temperature. 8-lPR. (50 -57«P.) 11— H*»R. (.57-63.5op.) i5-i6«R. (oa-es^F.) WR. (68" F.) 16«R. (68"?.) 16*'B. (fl8«P.) le-R. (68" P.) WR. (68° P.) The grown malt is generally taken directly from the malt floor to the upper kiln and is spread 12 to 18 cm. (about 4.5 to 7 inches) high. The malt is air-dried at 28* to 30" R. (95** to 100** F.), all the draughts being opened. As soon as the malt is air- dry, the draught is checked and the temperature raised to 50* to 55* R. (144° to 156° F.), time of kiln drying, about 24 hours. KILN RECORD OF A SAMPLE MALT FOR WIENER BEER FOR THE LAST 12 HOURS. Hours. On lower Iciln floor. .. . „ Temi>erature in degrees R. * *^ *** '^ Inthealr 23 21 26 28 In the malt 35 33 40 40 V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 30 33 38 43 48 52 55 61 .SI 61 67 67 68 75 76 80 MALT FOR BOHEMIAN BEER. The barley should be of very light color and have a thin husk. Time of steeping, 57 to 72 hours. Amount of moisture in steeped barley, 38 to 42 per cent. Low temperatures are maintained. The first couch is made 20 cm. (about 8 inches) high, and the temperature in the room 8° to lo** R. (50° to 54.5° F,). If the temperature is lower, the couches are laid as high as 30 cm. (about 12 inches). Heaps are turned regularly in the morning and evening, until the radicles show development, i. e., until they become visible. After that the heaps are turtved tN^\>3 ^ \^ *^ hours and spread lower. If the rad\c\es Vv^n^ dfcNOvQ^^*^^ v^^ ^"^^ 6i6 MALTING OPERATIONS. the length of the corn (Junghaufen) and the heap at a tempera- ture of about 12" R. (59P F.) after lying 12 to 15 hours shows only little sweat, the malt is sprinkled with about one-half to i liter of water per hectoliter of barley, and immediately turned and laid 12 cm. (about 4.5 inches) high. The heap is then left un- disturbed until the temperature has risen to 14^ R. (63.5** F.) or at most 16'* R. (68® P.), which may take 12 to 18 hours. Time of growth, 9 to 10 days. KILNING HLSENER MALT. Time in kiln, twenty-four to thirty hours. Thickness of layer on upper kiln, six to eight inches. Temperatures of air in the lower chamber and in the malt on the lower floor for the last fifteen hours, taking the maximum duration of kilning of thirty hours, of which fifteen was spent on the upper floor. Iloiirs • • • • • • • 1 "i 1 1 2 3 4 1 .s 1 6 7 8 Tomi>erature of 1 lir in 1 ) 'F 77 i — 1 «« 81 81 90 9> 93 111 lower chamber .. . s 1 ^R 30 ' 30 1 2J .>•■> en •-V 1 31^ a=i Tem|»eniture of malt ( \ V 100 iioo 113 113 115 117 llO 131 on lower floor. •••..• 1 1 ^R ft) 30 36 1 3rt 37 3S ■ :fc» 44 Hours Tomjwralun* of air ln» » 'F lower chamber \ * ^R Temi>erature of mull on » 1 'F lower th>or \ 1 - R 9 117 38 144 10 40 149 .T2 11 130 43 151 13 131 14 :>4 13 •5« I7H (V5 14 156 55 ITS 15 156 55 1:8 65 Draft holes arc kept entirely open during the first twelve hours of the fifteen, and arc then gradually closed during the last three hours, up to one-fourth. COLOR MALT. According to Prior, color malt is produced by masting malt nioistoncil with a little water in revolving drums. This process should be carried on in such a way as to prevent the formation of atase. but yiebl almost as mucli extract as or- dinary mali^. Prior >:atcs ho observed that ordinary malt fresh fmm the kiln /i/Vi'cJ int'^ l.in< in a warm condiiion .-utters deterioration on ac- cottnf of the fernperatiire incrcaMUg uvAxeniWv. \\\\\v:\\, \\v>\\t \s ^vsVc-^nvvv^^ throughout the body of the growing Xi^tW'^'coTw c\v\\V0 Malio-e. ... 1.2 1.98 Gluc«»s«- 1.1 :i.l ryZ 1.57 Levulose ... 0.2 .... 0.71 roi.i/ -J.O ! ft.O -l.OX H.76 MALTING OPERATIONS. 619 ftEADY-FORMEO SUGARS OF MALT, ACCORDING TO BROWN ft MORRIS. Barley after 48 hours' steep. Barley after 10 days' germi- nation. Embryos. Rndos perms. Embryos. Endosi>erms. Cftne SQsrar Per cent. 5.4 1.8 • • ■ PfT cent. 0.3 0.2 • • ■ Per cent. 24.2 1.2 « • • • Per cent. 2.2 Invert sugar M ftUose 2.2 4.5 Total 7.2 O.R 254 8.9 Nitrogen. Ptfi cent. Raw barley 0.0600 Steeped barley 0.0354 Green malt 0.1671 Kiln-dried malt... 0.1194 Nitrogen. Per cent. Nitrogen. Per cent. Nitrogen. Per cent. 0.0169 0.0417 0.0294 • «•••• 0,0290 O.1417 0.050s 0.0057 0.2257 0.0029 A. Hilger and F. van der Beeke (Archiv. f. Hygiene, 1890, 10, p. 477, from Prior's Chem. u. Phys. d. Biercs) investigated the changes that take place in the nitrogenous substances during the growth of barley. The following table gives results: Albumen Peptone Ammon. Amido-acid Amide Nitrogen. Pdr cent. 0.0046 0.0009 0.0058 0.0233 Accordingly, the increase in the amount of soluble nitrogenous substances during germination would be as follows, the figures being for soluble nitrogenous substances in percentages of the total amount of nitrogenous substances contained in the water- free malt : Raw barley 6.74 per cent Steeped barley 3.75 per cent Green malt 5 days 21,96 per cent Kiln-dried malt 24.44 per cent Buiigener and Fries determined the amount of soluble nitrogen- ous constituents of a sample of barley and of the malt made from it as follows: Barley. Per cent. Total nitrogen 1.690 Nitrogen as albumen 0.161 Nitrogen as peptone 0.040 Nitrogen as amides precipitable by mer- curic acetate 0.052 Nitrogen as amides not precipitable by mer- curic acetate CkA^^ Malt. Per cent. 1.580 0.230 0.060 0.182 ^.-SSi- yALTING OPERATIONS. Total solnblc nitrogen 0.355 o-^A^ (See also "PepUse and Albumen" in Chapter "Chemislry.") "■" Cml.[L»n[, l^r C^l. t^ 8 1 1 «.t SB 1 JO ill ft it i! 4.^ t.i Amid. .'.r. FUNTY AND UKALY CORKS. n- sugar. . The difference between bard and mealy corns vestigaled by Prior, with the following results: Water Yield of extract . Reducing sugar in Cane sugar in ex Total sngar to ni Diaslatic power . Nitrogenous iiialters Calculiiled for dry matie Yield of extract Diast.ttic power Nitrogenous [iialiers Of which passing into wi Prccipilaled by boiling ... Reinaining in solution . . . Behavior of malt and m Saechariticaiion ,. . Dr.iinage nf ivorl Condition of wort -Break" of wort in boiling ealy Corns. Flinty Corns. 1 1. 45 P- c. 11.23 p. c. 67.43 p. c. 62.40 p, e. 61.93 P- c. (.,.«} p, r. S 99 P. c. S43 p. c. :o.47 1 : 0.50 76 IS P- 16.7.V II 48 p Tlio tn!)!cs lead 10 (he follmving coiicliisii I. The water coiilfiit ot mealy and rlirity c erccnt 8.44 DiasUtic power 122.7 Dimttatic power calculated for dry iLatter. 134.0 Time of saccharincatlon 7 mln. Maltose in extract in percent 74.57 Maltose to non-maltose 1:0.34 Color of wort Inc. c 0.1 normal Iodine solution ' Brown corns in percent ■ Decrease of water content In percent Decrease of diaMatic power calculated for dry matter. Decrease of maltose content in per cent Increase In depth of color INFLUENCE OF DRYING TEMPERATURES ON PROPERTIES OF MALI. The influence exercised by temperature in air-drying and kiln- ing malt upon the properties of the product and the composition of the worts obtained in the mash is explained by investigations by Prior, the results of which are laid down iu the tables above. The experiments were directed particularly to those modifications which the malt undergoes at different temperatures with respect to water content, diastatic power, sugar content in extract of worts, color of worts, time of saccharification, and condition of endosperm. The conclusions are as follows: MOISTURE. The water content diminishes steadily with the temperature. DIASTATIC POWER. The diastatic power decreases materially at such low tempera- tures as 45 ** and 50° R. (133° and 144.5° F). but the decrease at these temperatures remained equal. It follows that when the temperature of the malt on the kiln has reached 45^ R. (133° F.) the diastatic power does not suffer by a further advance up to 50** R. (144.5* F.). This is true, however, only if the water con- tent does not exceed 8 to 9 per cent when this temperature sets in. and if the kiln floor does not have a higher temperature, for t/ie succeeding sample which had been heated at 55° R. (156° P.) shows a further diminution of diaslauc povj^i o\ \ia ^^ ^q.ycv- MALTING OPERATIONS. 623 DfFLUENCE OF DRYING TEMPERATURES ON PROPERTIES OF >«ALT (prior) . — Continued. 45« 6.15 80.0 85.2 8mln. 74.82 1:0.34 0.25 60« 5.80 fO.O 85.0 lOmin. 74.68 1:0.84 0.25 2.20 48.8 2.55 40.0 ^50 60*> f5« 70«» 75" 4.41 4.31 3.88 8.17 2.86 09.44 60.44 68.(i0 45.67 26.77 72. « 72.6 66.5 47.2 26.4 10 mln. 10 mln. 12ixiin 13 mln. 20min. 72.88 70.62 60.f6 68.5Q 63.86 1:0.37 1:0.42 1:0.44 1:0.46 1:0.57 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.5 1.75 0.5 1.0 2.5 7.5 • 20.0 4.03 4.13 4.56 5.27 6.08 61.4 61.4 67.5 ^6.8 107.6 1.81 4.07 5.03 6.10 10.83 0.06 O.Ob 0.15 0.25 1.5 SO- 1.74 14.81 15.1 20 min. 60.75 1:0.65 2.5 37.0 . 6.70 118.0 13.94 2.26 pared with the preceding period. The decrease in malt heated to 60® R. (167** F.) is equal once more to that heated to 55** R. (156** F.), so that the same is true for these two temperatures as for the two preceding ones, with regard to the diastatic power. From 60° R. (167" F.) upward the diastatic power dimin- ishes every 5 degrees at a rate which increases with the rise of temperature and is quite substantial at the temperatures 70**, 75'' and 80^ R. (189.5°, 201** and 212° F.), amounting finally to u8.9^ Calculating the diminution of diastatic power per hour of heat- ing time, the following values are obtained : Temperature 45'' 50** 55** 60° 65** 70"^ 75° 80" Diastatic Power 4.1 4.1 5.1 5.1 5.6 7.2 9.0 9.9 SACCHARIFICATION. The time required for saccharification increases in proportion to the decrease of the diastatic power. MALTOSE in EXTRACT. The maltose (sugar) content in the extract remained the same in the two samples treated at 45° and 50** R. (133* and 144.5° F.) as in malt that was first air-dried at 35° R. (111° F.). But the diastatic power having fallen from 134° to 85°, the greatest pos- sible sugar production takes place in the mash even at a diastatic power of 85° under the prevalent conditions. Hence, it is quite iiri material for the amount of sugar formed in the extta.d ^V\^nX\^\. the diastatic power is 85° or more. 624 MALTING OPERATIONS. At the succeeding temperatures the maltose content in the cx^ tract decreases, the greatest decrease being 13.94 per cent at 80^ R. (212** F.). The diminution of the maltose content in the extract is not« in all probability, to be attributed to the decrease of the diastatic power exclusively, since the same diastatic power is observed in the samples dried at 55** and at 60** R. (156'' and 167** F.), whereas the maltose content in the extract is 2 per cent less at 60* R. (167* F.). This is connected with the fact that roasting products begin to be formed at 55* and 6o' R. (156* and 167* F.) from the carbohydrates of the malt. COLOR AND AROlkfA. The color of the wort up to 50** R. (144.5® F-) is the same as that of worts prepared from malts dried at 35^ and 45** R. (Ill** and 133** F.). When 55° and 60^* R. (156** and 167° F.) is reached the color begins to deepen, some individual corns turning brown, which confirms the observation of Lintner, Sr., that roasting products begin to be formed at these temperatures. From 65' R. (178** F.) upward the production of roasting prod- ucts increases materially. Malt dried for 12 hours at 80" R. (212° F.) had acquired a somewhat bitter and enipyreumatic taste. It is not advisable, therefore, in practical work, to maintain high temperatures too long. The best temperature for obtaining aromatic malt, according to Prior, is between 65" and 70° R. (178^ and 189.5° F.). It seems advisable to prolong the time of kilning at medium tern perature of 65° to 70° R. (178° to 189.5° F). to extend tht roasting process above 75° R. (201** F.) for not too long a time and not exceed 80"^ R. (212* F.) for the final temperature, or at least not materially. This proceeding serves to yield enough roasting products while the diastatic power of the malt is pre- served as far as ncccssar>', and the formation of substances hav- ing, and imparting to the beer, an enipyreumatic and bitter taste is avoided. The malt prepared with a maximum temperature of 50° R. 1144.5' F.) has been designated as Pilsencr malt, but as it con- tains noticeable, though not large, quantities of roasting products // approaches more nearly the character of a Wiener malt. Ia preparing Bavarian or Munich m^\l vV\t 2a\\\ ^VowX^Xi^ \.3S p.c. 16.18 p.c. 6.75 p. c. 5.75 p. c. 12.50 p. c. 12.10 p.c. 0.46 p. c. 32.06 p. C. Primary Pho- phaes. 23.2S p. c. 21.00 p. c. 25.00 p. C. 41.68 p. c. 3 1.56 p. c. 85.91 p. c. During the air-drying of the malt (Schwelken) the acidity in- creases by the formation of fixed organic acids and primary phos- phates, while the volatile organic acids diminish somewhat by volatilization with water vapors, thus proving that the physiologi- cal processes, which take place during germination of the malt, continue during the air-drying process. These changes can be seen from the following: Green Malt. Air-Dried Malt. Water 42.00 p.c. 8.44 p. c. Redufint; sugars 7.31 '* 12.58 " Fermenting capacity 51.55 " 122.7 Calculated on dry matter: Reducing sugars 12.5^ " 13.74 " Fermenting capacity 88.88 *' 134.00 " The acidity of malt during the kilning period has also been studied by Prior and is shown in the table, ow w^yA. \v"aj^si. 628 MALTING OPERATIONS. CHANGES OF ACIDITY IN AIR-DRIED MALT (FRIOR). Water Toul acidity Volatile acids Fixed organic acids. . Primary phosphates. Corresponding P2O5.. ToUlPjOj. Green Malt. Bavarian Uarley. 43.83 p. c. 37.75 CO. S.68 ** 4.38 " 3S30 ** 0.*»g. 0.&S4 " Bohemian Barley. 43.47 p.c. Si.OOcc. 2.M •• 3.38 '* ».&0 •' O.20O5g. 0.480 ** Air-dried Malt. Rantrian Barley. 17.39 p.c. 68.00 c.c 3.50 '• 7.7.i " CO.iVO *• 0.4i96ir. 0.810 " Bohemian Karley. 1 1 . 15 ]> c. 63.00 c c. 3.60 •• 8.75 '• 52.25 •• 0.371 g. 0.78i '• Amount of o.i normal soda solution required for 100 g. dry mat- ter: Total acidity Volatile acldi Fixed organic acids Primary phosphates Corresponding P2O5 Total P/O;, 66. 4 j c.c. 4.63 " 7.71 " 86.80 ** 0.403 r. 0.911 *' 02.3^ C.C. 4.68 •' 6.20 " 54.10 ** 0.384 g. 0.860 ** 82.31 C.C. 4.24 •* 9.38 '• 73.24 •• 0.9c»)g. 0.903 * 70.91 C.c. 3.91 '• 9.85 •• 58.81 •• 0.418 «. 0.880 '• ACIDITY OF MALT ON KILN (PRIOR). Bavarian Barley. Boliemian Barlcv N umber of c.c. 0.1 normal soda solution per 100 g. Water J Totalacidtty < Volatile aclJ i Fixed organic acid Primary phosphate I Corresponding P> 05 ' Total 1*2 (Hquaniilalively N umber of c.c. 1 normal s<>da solution per 100 ^. dry aatter. Total acldltv Voiatlle acids Fixed organic acids Primary phosphate Corres|x>nding P:>():i Total l*j 0% quafitiiativclv ... ■o C i 4> -0 -Dr alt. eS • • < s25 17.39 3.81 ! 68 00 79.5 1 3.50 5.0 7.16 10.0 605 66.5 0.4296 04722 819 0805 82 31 82.55 4 24 5.19 938 10.38 1 7S.t4 OD.OI 0.5iO 0.400 0.i«(l3 OK** 2.91 78 5 4.25 9 5 67.8 0.4810 0883 80 85 4.38 9.78 69 78 0.4» 0.8H9 ,11.15 63.00 . 3.50 i 8 76 52.25 0.371 0.782 ,70.91 3.94 ; 9.8> '5H.81 C.IIH 880 368 72.50 3 7.i 8..T0 '64.00 ; 0.4n4 I 0901 75 27 3.75 , 8.82 U472 . 0.9;V) as I *-^ ^ 2.19 73.00 1.25 825 63.7.^ 4.53 ; 0.8><5 74.03 4 35 8.43 6.M8 0.4f5:< 0.90> The acidity of the malt from Bavarian barley taken from the kiln at 50° R. (144.5^ t'-) J'unds 0.52 per cent Skimmings 50 pounds 0.13 per cent Sprouts 1,100 pounds 2.87 per cent Moisture 2,757 pounds 7. i per cent 4.107 pounds 10.62 per cent The difference betiiveen the total loss and the above summary is equal to 5,865 — 4.107 = 1,758 pounds, or 4.6 per cent. This figure represents the loss in weight of the barley through ex- traction of substance during steeping and by exhalation of gaseous products during germination (carbonic acid). The absorption of moisture by the fresh kiln-dry malt during two months* storage amounted to 3 per cent. A hundred parts of barley, consequently, furnished 84.8 + 2.5 = 87.3 per cent of stored malt with 6 per cent moisture. From 132,900 pounds No. 3 (Chicago grading) Minnesota bar- ley with a bushel-weight of 50.5 pounds and 11 per cent nioi?lure there were obtained 104,200 pounds sprout-free, kiln-dried malt with 3 per cent moisture. Consequently 100 pounds of barley would give 78.4 kiln-dried malt. The number of ungerminated grains amounted to 5 per cent. The total loss of substance reached 28,700 pounds = 21.6 per cent, and was distributed among the different stages as follows: Loss during cleaning 1.730 pounds 1.3 per cent Skimmings 3.720 pounds 2.8 per cent Sprouts 3.854 pounds 2.9 per cent Moisture 10,893 pounds 8.0 per cent 20.197 pounds 15 per cent The loss in steeping and germination (exhalation of carhoiiic acid) was 8,503 pounds = 6.35 per cent. The absorption of moist- ure during two months' storage amounted to 3 per cent. Conse- quently 100 parts of barley gave 78.4 -\- 2.4 = 80.8 parts of stored malt with 6 per cent moisture. A lot of 71.700 pounds No. 4 Dakota barley, very light in weight, considerably damaged by rain, with a busliol weiglit of 47 pounds, and 11 per cent moisture, furnished 54.0S0 pounds kiln-dry malt with 3 per cent moisture. Consequently lOO parts of barley furnished 75.4 parts of sprout- free, kiln-dry malt. The un^cnninated grains were 8 per cenl. TW XvAvvX \oss v.A vv\v MALTING OPERATIONS. 633 , Stance amounted to 17,620 pounds = 24.6 per cent, and was dis- tributed as follows: Loss in cleaning 1,716 pounds Skimmings 3,206 pounds Sprouts 2,294 pounds Moisture 5,535 pounds 2.40 per cent 4.47 per cent 3.20 per cent 7.70 per cent 12,751 pounds 17.77 per cent Loss in steeping and germinating. 4,869 pounds 6.8 percent Consequently 100 parts of barley furnished 75.4 + 2.6 = 78 parts of stored malt with 6.3 per cent moisture. In nine experi- ments recorded by the same author the following maxima and minima were determined: Maximum. Bushel weight of barley in pounds 55 Bushel weight of kiln-dry malt in pounds. 37 Weight of sprouts from 100 pounds barley in pounds 3.2 Loss of cleaning and skimming from 100 pounds of barley 6.9 Loss in steeping and germinating 6.8 Total loss of substance 24.6 Barley used for the production of 100 pounds kiln-dry malt 1330 Barley used for the production of 100 pounds stored malt 128.0 The following table will show at a glance the differentiation of barley and malt, according to the above tests : Minimum. 46.5 32.5 2.8 0.65 4.6 15-2 1 18.0 114.0 COMPARISON OF BARLEY AND MALT. BuHJu'lwcik'lit Length of radicles Kernels not ^?ro\vn Lengrh of acrosplre Amount of nioistiire In malt from kiln Loss In cleanlniT Loss In sktmmlny LosR in sprouts Loss of ex t ract us food for germs LoHs on kiln, moisture From lOu Ins. of liarlev \vas obtained malt fresh from kiln with 3,' moisture.. Sfalt after 2 months stornee Q'i, moisture . Wisconsin Scotch Iiarlej\ 55 llM*. W 2 r,' ^4 3 0.52 ', 0.13 2.87 'i 4.« r 7.1 T t' HA C»\V>%, Minnesota. No. 3. 50 5 W 5 3 1.3 2.8 2.9 «.35 «.0 lbs. r' ,u rf \ \ Dakota. No. 4. 47 lbs. r-4 ':■■ h % 3 2.4 ' 4 47 : 3.2 '. 7.7 ■:: Its .^\\V«.- 634 MALTING OPERATIONS. MALT INCREASE. Barley and malt arc bought and sold in America by Height, but in terms of bushels — a bushel of barley agreed to represent 48 pounds, a bushel of unclcaned malt, 34 pounds, a bushel of cleaned malt, 3s pounds. Since the loss in weight from cleaned barley to malt does not amount to so much as the difference between the bushel -weight of .barley and that of malt, the maltster obtains a greater number of bushels of malt than he has put bushels of barley into his steeping tank. Thus 38.450 pounds of Wisconsin barley cleaned, or 58,450 ^ 48 = 801 bushels, yielded 32,785 pounds, or 32.785 -=- 33 = 993% bushels of malt fresh from the kiln, germ-free, which represents an increase of 993% — 801 or 190% bushels, or 190^ X 100 -:- 801 per cent = 24 per cent. This w^as an exceptionally heavy barley with little loss in skimmings. Ordinarily, the increase is much less. In case of the Minnesota barley the figures would be as follows: One hundred and thirty-one thousand one hundred and seventy (131,170) pounds cleaned No. 3 (Chicago grading) Minnesota barley or 131,170 -^ 48 = 2,732 bushels gave 104.200 pounds, or 104,200 -^ 33 = 3.157-6 bushels of malt fresh from kiln and germ- free, an increase of 3.157.6 — 2.732 = 425.6 bushels, or 425.6 X 100 -4- 2.769 rr 15^! per cent, which increase may he considered the average. From figures obtained in malting establishnientN operating on a large scale the increase was found to be for : 1890. 1 000. Dakota barley No. 2 18 — 19 per cent per cent Canada No. i 19 — 20 per cent per cent Wisconsin No. i, Minnesota No. I. Iowa Nt). I.... 17 — 18 per cent 15 — 16 per cent Wisconsin No. 2. Minnesota No. 2, Iowa No. J.... 15 — 16 per cent 14 — 15 per cent Wisconsin No. ;\, Minnesota No. 3. low a No. 3 14 — 15 per cent 12 — i.^ per cent Tlic increase becomes still preaier it the wei£rht of the finished malt i^ compared with tlie malt that actually undergoes t/ic rn.i]tinff process, that i>. deducting the weight of the skim- niing> from the cleaned barley. utu\ '\l x\w W\\vin '\s <:«^>w\'^2LTed MALTING OPERATIONS. 635 jiHth stored malt after it has taken up some moisture. Generally speaking the increase is greater for two-row than for six-row barley; larger for a better grade of barley; larger for a poorly- grown than for a well-grown malt; larger after storing, and larger ior a poorly stored than for a well stored malt, and the amount of increase is really without much significance on the whole. LOSS IN VALUE THROUGH ABSORPTION OF MOISTUKE. When malt is poorly stored the brewer, since he buys the malt by weight, and pays for the moisture the malt absorbs during storage, is the loser. One hundred pounds of malt will yield the smaller an amount of extract or wort of a certain gravity, the larger is the amount of moisture it contains. It is apparent that when 100 pounds of malt have absorbed 3 pounds of moisture it will take just 103 pounds of malt to get the same amount of extract or wort as before. For a brew of 100 barrels, for which, say 5,000 pounds of malt is employed, this would mean a loss for the brewer of (5,000 -r- 100) X 3 = 150 pounds, or over four bushels of malt. . The malt will always take up moisture in transit, and conse- quently the brewer should receive a larger amount of nialt in weight than was consigned to him. LOSSE.S AND GAINS IN MALTING IN GERMANY. It will be quite instructive to compare the data about American barley and malt >Vith results obtained by German observers con- cerning German malt and barley. Thausing, for instance, states that the loss by germination is quite uniform, amounting to about 8.5 per cent on an average (C. Birkhofcr's results give an average of about 8.9 per cent), from which about 3 per cent have to be deducted for the formation of sprouts (C. Birkhofcr's average being 2.99 per cent), and about 5.5 per cent are con- sumed in germination (C. Birkhofer does not specify this loss in each case separately). Other elements determining the total loss, for instance, the quantity of moisture and foreign admix- tures, vary considerably, according to the origin of the barley and other conditions. Well cleaned barley with 86 per cent of dry substance furnishes for each 100 pounds of barley. Well steeped barley \\v .\ ^ci>^vA'^ Green mult \:j,^.'2.\>^vv^^^ 636 MALTING OPERATIONS. Malt and sprouts (dry substance) 79.7 pounds Fresh malt (germs included) 81.3 pounds Sprouts 4.0 pounds Dry substance of malt 75.0 pounds Fresh degerminated malt with 2 per cent moisture. 77.3 pounds Stored malt with 5 per cent moisture 79.5 pounds Twelve per cent of the original weight of the dry barley sub- stance was lost, namely, in steeping 1.5 per cent, substances gasified during germination 6 per cent, sprouts 4.5 per cent. Following are results of actual, very numerous observations in German malt houses on air-dry barley. One hundred parts of cleaned barley will give: From Loss from skimmings. ... 0.8 per ct. Well steeped barley i35-0 per ct. Green malt (fresh) 1350 per ct. Kiln-dry malt freshly cleaned 73.0 per ct. Stored malt 75.0 per ct. Sprouts 3.5 per ct. Allowance, of course, must be made for the difference in the quality of the barley. As a rule, however, the diflference be- tween the weight of the barley and the malt is the greater, the larger the growth of malt on the floor proved to be. For fresh kiln-dried cleaned malt it amounts to 23 to 25 per cent, and stored malt 21 to 23 per cent of the weight of the barley. E. L. Hartniann detemiining the changes in weight and vol- ume that German barley undergoes in the malting process, arrived at the following results, based upon years of practical experience (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1895, p. 148) : To 2.0 per ct. 160.0 per ct. 148.0 per ct. 78.0 per ct. 80,0 per ct. 4.8 per ct. Average. 1.2 per ct. 148.0 per ct. 140.0 per ct. 76.0 per ct. 78.0 per ct. 4.0 per ct. Cn.\NCE.S IN GERM.^N n.\Rl.F,V BY MALTING. Maximum Welphl. ! Volume. I Barlov charged into sleep 100. 1 100. Sieei»e(l barlev . . . . 162.21 ItOAi Green malt...* LSI 73 • 268. .S7 Polished k iln-. dried malt ft\l4 108.51 [ MmJt sprouts 4.76 2\.hO \ Minimum A vorago Weight. Volume. Weluiit Volume. 100. 133.08 ICO. 122 .^3 •JOO.OO uxv mo. MX 7S Hr>. 49 133 43 227.44 72.05 V«.40 76 57 101 .32 3 63 i;<.06 MALTING OPERATIONS. 637 Prior fotind by similar tests that the loss in weight from bar- ley to kiln-dried malt (Bavarian) amounts to 26.2 to 30.5 per cent (Bayerisches Brauer journal, III, p. 157). Schtitt found that during a 9 days' germinating period for Ger- man malt, 100 parts of malt, figured on a dry basis, generated lap parts of carbonic acid by weight, which was obtained from 6.7 parts of starch (Wochenschrift f. Brauerei, 1887. p. 673). At the same time 3.7 parts by weight of water was formed from which results Thausing computes that 0.4 parts of fat and 6.0 parts of starch were consumed. The heat produced during this period amounted to 285.40 calories or heat units. changes in composition of wort from malt after seven months' storage (aubry). Fresh. Stored. ! Extract 77.91 77.72 Maltose 64.83 60.07 Nitrogen 0.«3 q.489 or Albumen , 3.90 3.06 ( Maltoge eo.88 64.44 Tn ovtrsi/*» ) NUiogen 0.800 0.630 in exinici < Or Albumen ."S.OO ( Maltose to Non- Maltose = 1 to 0.42 0.55 INSECT PESTS IN GRANARIES. Tlic increased facilities of exchange of products between the different parts of the globe, made possible by rapid transporta- tion, have not been without drawbacks. The English sparrow in the United Stales, and the rabbit in Australia are not the only examples of unfortunate exchanges between different countries. Less obtrusive but capable of doing an iinmcnse harm to vegeta- tion is the insect-pest which commerce has carried, with grain and other food-products, to all parts of the globe. Most of these insects, which are found indoors in the northern part of the United States, arc natives of tropical countries and do not, there- fore, thrive so well in the colder climate. . It is in the southern states, where they have found a new and congenial home, that they do the greatest harm outdoors while in the northern states they become especially dangerous to the grain in the granaries or elevators. The damage done by insects to stored grain in Texas alone has been estimated at over a million dollars a year, and in Ala- bama in 1873 the loss to the corn crop was esiimated at $1,071,- 382, or about 10 per cent, according lo A.ss\?>X;slV\\. '^wN.ovcvOv^^^'^v 638 MALTING OPERATIONS. Cliittenden in "Some Insects Injurious to Grain," U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Farmers* Bulletin No. 45, which has been our main source of information. The different grains offer more or less resistance to the attack of the insects, the softer ones naturally falling an easier prey to the ravages than the hard flinty ones; unhusked oats are almost exempt, whereas the hull of barley offers but little resistance. Heat and dampness are highly favorable to insect life, but the idea that such conditions will produce insects is wrong, and each individual insect owes its existence to an egg deposited in the grain. A large number of insects in a heap of grain sometimes cause a rise of temperature, probably on account of chemical changes in the excreted matter. The grain-damaging insects may, for our purpose, be divided into two classes, namely: Class I. — Such insects as attack whole grain. The most important of these are : The Granary Weevil; The Rice IVcevil, and The Grain Moths. Class II. — Such insects as attack grain products and are there- fore commonly found in flour mills, but may also be dangerous to whole grain. The most dangerous of these arc: The Mediterranean Flour Moth. The Indian Meal Moth. The Confused Flour Beetle. The Saw-toothed Grain Beetle. Tlie Cadelle. ILASS I. — INSECTS THAT ATTACK THE WHOLE CHAIN. Weevils are a very large group of beetles. Thoy are ea^ily distinguislied by their peculiarly shaped head, which i> exteiuJed into a long snout, toward the end of which the short, usually elbowed, antennie project on each side. Most insects which feed on stored grain are called weevils, but the only true weevils of the granary arc the two mentioned ab^ive : the granary weevil 3n<} the lice weevil. In appearance they rcsenibk- each other very /IJUCjj. HALTING OPERATIONS. '>i'j The illustrations show rhc insects enlarged, llic aclnal size !»'■ ing indicated by lines accompanying ttic figures. Granary Weevil (Calandra sranaria). — This old enemy of stored grain has from time immemorial led an easy liEe and in consequence lost the use of its wings. When fully deve1u[ivd il measures from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch, and is of a bright chestnut hrown color. The larva: are short, iiesliy, legless grubs, shorter than the adults, with a series of tnhercles along each side of the body; the head is round with strong jaws {see PiK- ' Fig. l). The pupa is white, clear and trans pa rent, sliowini; the fonns of the future beetle. The female bores a hole in the grain wiili her snout and de- posits an egg, Tiie larva, when hatched, livi's iiu tlie coutcnls of the kernel and undergoes its changes within the hull. The lime re'iuircd fur the change from egg I'l fully developed beetle delleml-; mi the temperature. In the northern slLites there may be Umr t.. five Kencralions. and in tlie ^.luili six in sevt-ii. or even more. ;iiid one pair luaj in oui; ',^;-,\'i v't^'i^'"^'^ vsSf« 6t40 MALTING OPERATIONS. Barley as well as wheat maize and other grains are attacked by this beetle. Rice Weevil {Calandra orysae). — As its name indicates it was first found in rice, and is supposed to have come from India. It is found in every state, but is of small importance in the north. In size and appearance it is similar to the granary weevil, but its color is more of a dull brown, with four faint red spots on the wing cases, has well developed wings and can fly. The rice wee- vil is therefore often found in the field. It feeds on rice, wheat, maize, barley, rye, hulled oats, and when abundant attacks also barrels of flour and bags of meal. Grain Moths (Sitoiroga ccrcalcUa). — ^Thi Angoumois Grain Fir. 2 — Sit0tr0ga ceretxltlla : **. eg s; A. larva ax woik; «. laiva. siJt- vitw. if, pupa; (, inoth;yi same, side view d ngiiial). Moth (so-called from the province of Angoumois in France), or the Fly Weevil, as it is incorrectly called in this country, has spread from North Carolina and Virginia into the soutb.ern states, where its ravages are enormous. It is also found in the southern part of the northern states. Though not so widely dis- tributed as the weevils, it threatens to become an even more serious danger. It infests all cereals, and it has been estimated that grain infected by this moth may lose 40 per cent in weight and 75 per cent of its mealy matter. The aduh insect resembles to a great extent a clothes moth. /s of grayi
  • Canada indicates that the insect it capable of indoor existence in a colder climate than most otiier grain insects. The adult moth has a wing-cxpansc of a little leas than an inch, the fore-wings are leaden gray with black marking^ the hiad-wings are of a dirty white, with a darker border. The caterpillars are white and hairy, and spin around them a web in the form of a cylinder. When raadjr to andergo its trans- fonnalion the gmb leaves its riften boose, and wanders around in search of a proper place, spimuDg its wetf all the time, c r to felt t Although the larva prefers flour or meal it u-ill attack grain, bran, prepared cereal foods, etc., in lack of the former. Indian Meal Molh (Ptodia interpunclilla^.—lhii insoci is often found in mills and stores. It feeds on meal, flour, bran, grain, dried fruit, etc. The adult measures across the expanded wings from one-half lo ibree-tourths of an inch. The fore-wings are. nearest the body, of a dirty gray, the outer t»o-tbirds of a red- dish brown. Confused Flour B.-clU (Tribolium confusum) .—This beetle is nearly of the same size as the grain-weevil with which it is often found together. The grown bcetk ;s a\»iit. QttV^vi.t.b of an inch MALTING OPERATIONS. 643 long, brown in color, a'nd flattened. It had long been known in Europe, when in the fall oE 1893 it was recognized- in this country. In less than two years from its first appearance it had, however, been reported from every slate, and caused more com- plaints than any other grain-devouring pest. Sam-Toathrd Grain Beetle (Silvanus surinamemii),— This bee- tle is only one-tenth of an inch long, slender and flat, and of a chocolate -brown color. The thorax (the part of body next the head) has six saw-like teeth on each side, and two shallow grooves on the upper side. The larva is almost white, has six legs and is very active, run- ning about and nibbling here and there. When ready lo undergo its transformation, it builds a covering of small grains or par- ticles of food, gluing (hem together with an adhesive substance, secreted from its body. There may be four to six generations. This grain-beetle is found in nearly all granaries and places where edibles are stored. Though it usually follows the attack of other insects (especially the Indian Meal Moth), it does considerable damage, being Caddli: (Teiiebroides mai.ri/omViii),— This beetle is as widely distributed as any of (he preceding species, but, happily, it is wA so prolitic. producing only one gencta,t\(ii\ aTivvMaSv^j. TVtt's. Vvi. MALTI.VC; OPERATIONS. been a dispute about the 8f'iin-<^nt'i'p propensities of tliis insect. but experitnents by Mr. F, II, Chittcndvn have conclusively proved that it feeds upon grain both in the larval and adnli conditions, going from kernel to kernel, devouring tlie germ only, and dc- ftroying the gTnin for germinating purpose?. Both larva .-ind lieetle partly repay ihe damage by de-itroying all other grain in- sects that Ihcy < Prolific as Hccvils are and in a Hill higher d.-pree lb. few individuals of a species would in a year devdop i /ess numbers, iiere it not that nature itself checked lln "tig grain insects are theniScKes ptejed Mtww t-j toel truss which /s suspended to, and connected with, a weighing attachment so //rj/ \\. BREWERY OUTFIT. 653 Should someone desire to build hoppers himself, employing local mechanics, the following data will afford a basis for calcu- lation : • Whole malt weighs, average. . Crushed malt weighs, average Barley Grits Meal Per Bu. 34-38 IbH 25-28 lbs. 48— 5 lbs. 53—54 lb.. 48—47 lbs. Per Cu. Ft. 27— ?9 Ibt!. 20—21 IbF. 38—10 lb!-. 42-43 lbs. 38-37 Ibh. Meal Scale Hopper. Malt when crushed increases in volume, three bushels of whole malt on an average giving four bushels of crushed malt, which should be considered in building hoppers. For calculating contents of square or round bins with hoppers^ see "Mensuration." 654 BREWERY OUTFIT. DUST o)t£acn»& In order to collect the malt dust liberated during the handling or treatment of malt, dust collectors are used. As there b always more or less dust where malt is handled, special devices for collecting it are installed. The kind generayy in use consists of a central revolving cylinder into which the dust is drawn by suction. Around this cylinder and opening into it are attached a series of radical tapering cloth tuDes, or sacks, ar- ranged in straight parallel rows. As the whole device revolves, the dust falls from the cylinder into the sacks, which can be removed for the purpose of emptjring or cleaning. Caution. — Malt and grain dust is highly explosive when brought in contact with a flame. MALT fousHnta. It is not advisable to polish malt, as polishing removes -too much of the hull, thereby reducing the amount of the filtering material much needed in the mash tun. MALT MILLS. The object of the malt mill is to crush the malt for extraction in the mash tun. The malt should not be crushed too fine, as such treatment will impair the running of the wort. Only smooth rollers should be used for crushing, and the hull should be split open lengthwise and not torn, as would happen if corrugated rollers were used. There should be no whole corns in the crushed malt; even the smallest should be split open. Most modem malt mills are constructed on the same general principle, and consist of two smooth rollers, one driven by a belt or chain and the other following by friction of the grains between the two. This second roller is adjustable so that the space between the rollers can be regulated to suit the degree of fineness desired in the crushed malt. Before the malt drops between the rollers it runs over or between a series of steel mag- nets where tacks, nails, or other particles of iron which might damage the surface of the rollers or the mill generally, are re- moved. Non-Explosive Malt Mills. As. very fine dust. from malt or grain explodes readily on ignition, which, in malt mills may occur and supplied with a device for safety from explosions. This con* 3y friction of bearings or by a piece oi flitit or metal passing If^wecn the rollers, etc., these miUs ate W\\\. ol ^v^^ ^x^^ '>s.^^ BREWERY OUTFIT. 655 RtructioR, however, does not prevent the possibility of an ex- plosion. The term "non- ex plosive" applies to their arrange- ment being such as to render any explosion harmless by confining it to a certain space in the mill, this space being provided with a blow-off spring flap or door which, after the explosion oc- curs, doses immediately, smothering the flame that may bum in- side, and, with a seal below, practically prevents any flame from communicating to the ground malt and bins below. This lower seal consists in some styles of a revolving drum or wheel always I partly filled with crushed mall and acting similarly to a "trap" used for liquids. Malt mills with wood casing often have a steam extinguishing device, the explosion either causing a steam valve to open or breaking a connection. In no case are these mills secure. In selecting a reel and mill the brewer should see that it has such a capacity, guaranteed by the manufacturer, that the amount of malt necessary for one brewing will run through in one hour without crowding. 656 ItRKWLKV OUTFIT. WATER TAWKS. Water tanks in brew-houses are now made mostly of sheet iroo or steel, either round or square in shape. They should be sup- plied with liquid volume gauges or "tell-tales" so that the quan- tity of water withdrawn can be readily read off, also with a thermometer to register the temperature of the water. All tanks containing warm or hot water should be well insu- lated. (See Insulation.) Hot Water Tanks, They are used to supply hot water for . doughing-in, mashing up, final mashing, sparging grains and hops, and cleaning. t ^ Otfrg,er I tuiQ_D-iro o Q fl Q mro"n o cro ocrfl T L ^ WMTcn Ovrt€T Hot Water Tank, sectional view. The water is heated either by live steam, exhaust steam, or by a steam jacket Where the steam is pure, that is, where it im- parts no odor or taste to the water due to impurities in the boiler water or the use of improper boiler compounds, direct or live steam may be used as it is the most rapid and efficient method o/ heating water. Heating by exbausl slt^im Ixorcv \V ^x^^mn BREWERY OUTFIT. 657 or pumps in a more economical method, but it is uncertain as to regularity of temperature on account of the difference in the amount of steam supplied by the machines at different times. Exhaust steam should preferably never discharge into the water, but enter and leave through a copper coil placed at the bottom of the tank. This is on account of its liability to contain lubri- cating oil from the cylinders of the machines and giving it off to the water. For using water of medium temperature a mixing tank is some- times used where the cold and hot water can be mixed to any desired temperature. This arrangement is, however, almost en- tirely supplanted by a mixing valve, in which the hot and cold supply pipes are run together, the joint fluid being then run into a larger or delivery pipe into which a thermometer is inserted. By regulating the proportionate flow of the hot and cold water a mixture of any desired intermediate temperature can be delivered. Cold Water Tanks, These arc constructed similarly- to hot wa- ter tanks except that they are not insulated and have no heating device. LIQUID GAUGE. The liquid gauge "swimmer," or "tell-tale," now gener- ally used, consists of a float to the top of which is attached a cord or chain, which passes up and over two pulleys and then down in front of an indicator board, and is held taut by a weight. The tank being filled with water, the float rises and the weight descends, and as water is drawn off for use the float de- scends and the weight rises. By having the board graduated with lines or marks the rising of the weight past these marks will in- dicate the quantity of water drawn off. In graduating this board proceed as follows: Run in a small amount of water, say 5 barrels, accurately measured (enough to raise the tioat from the bottom), and make a mark on the board where the bottom of the weight touches it. Mark this line "five barrels" — next fill the tank with an accurately measured amount of water, and again make a mark on the board where the weight now touches it, say it was 100 barrels. If the tank is cylindrical or square, the sides arc parallel and all that is left to do is to take a rule and divide the board as desired, into i, 2, 5 or 10 barrel marks. Where the tanks have irregular or tapering sides each division on the scale must be measured and marked separately by adding a corresponding AmowwX. ol -w^v^^ ^'^'^v ^^- caratelv measured. 42 658 BREWERY OUTFIT. Principal SpeciAcations for Water Tanks. In small plants having 25 to 50 barrel kettles, the water tanks should have a ca- pacity of twice that of the kettle. The ratio of tank to kettle gradually decreases as the kettle becomes larger. For a 400- barrel kettle the tanks should hold about 1.5 times that amount Cold water tanks, and hot water tanks heated with live steam, can be made in almost any ratio of diameter to height, as may best suit the building. But in hot water tanks heated with an exhaust steam coil, the diameter or bottom should be made large enough to accommodate a coil of sufficient length to heat the water to the best advantage. This coil is usually made of 2% inch, 16 gauge, copper tubing for smaller tanks, and 3 inch for larger ones. The total heating surface of the coil should be not less than 0.5 square foot per barrel of water for small tanks, or 0.J3 square foot per barrel for large tanks. CEREAL COOKERS. Cookers are used for the purpose of gelatinizing the starch contained in raw or unmalted cereals. The starch is thus pre- pared for more complete and rapid inversion in the mash tub. Cookers should be well insulated. See "Insulation." Rice Tub. The most widely used form of cooker is the rice tub. It consists of a cylindrical vessel, generally made of sheet iron or steel, though sometimes of wood, and contains a stirring device. This device consists of a central revolving vertical shaft driven by a cog-wheel from above and having attached to, and radiating from it a series of stirrer arms placed in a spiral posi- tion above one another at different heights. These arms revolve at a speed of from 10 to 30 revolutions per minute, according to the size of the tub, and stir the mash so as to keep it at a uni- form temperature and consistency. The rice tub is heated either by live steam, a steam coil, or a steam jacket. Where the steam is pure, that is. imparting no taste or odor, it should be used direct, as liz c steam gives the greatest and most rapid work. Here the steam is conducted by a two-inch circular main pipo. placed around the tub and branching ctT into the tub through six openings provided with check valves. These check vnlvcs prevent the mash from entering the pipe wlien :!ie steam IS turned off. If a s/i'iim coil is used it is gcncraWv ^ wso o-^ \.Va^^i \\\c\\ circular BKBWERV OUTFIT. 659 copper pipe placed close to the inner wall and at a position about four inches above the bottom. Sometimes a one or one and a half inch coil of several turns placed above one another is provided. TIic sU'aiii jacket is placed under the bottom and extending about two feet up the sides of the tubs. In the last two arrangements there is danger of scorching, if the mash is too thick. )ui.«..lK>wrliie Slim She and Appliances. Rice tubs are madt smaller in their i-n- pacity than the kettle, being usually 50 to 60 per cent as large according to the sije of the plant. The ratio of diameter to height is v.iriable. according (o the dimensions of the room where it is to be placed. An accurate thermometer should be attached to every rice tub so that the temperature of vUt -Ka-Av w-'i'At *^». tub can be read from the outside. This vs »> v«».^ ilqwnw*.*-^^*- 66o BREWERY OUTFIT. slnee it obmtcs the trtmblesonie and sometimes confusing method of taking the temperature with a thermometer at the top of the tub. Pressure Cookers, It has been found that by boiling cereals at a higher temperature than can be obtained in an open cocilcer (▼iz., 80^ R. or 212^ F.), the starch contained in them can be better and more perfectly gelatinized. On that account pressure cookers are frequently used. They consist of either an upright or of a horizontal closed iron or steel shell differing in internal construction of stirrers, and steam inlet jets. The principle of all of these constructions is practically as follows: The dosure cover is opened and the mash boiled at atmospheric pressure un- til all the air is expelled from the cooker, which is then closed and heated under pressure Iqr ateam to as high as 302" F. (120" R.), or to any desired temperature for some time. Valves are then opened, reducing the pressure and consequently the tempera- ture, and should it be desired further quickly to reduce the tem- perature below tlut of the boiling point of the mash at atmos- pheric pressure the cooker is again closed and the suction or vacuum pump started and operated until the desired tempera- ture is obtained. MASH TUN (or TUB). The mash tun is used for the purpose of extracting the valuable ingredients from the malt and cereals, and of further converting them into products desirable for brewing. It consists of a cylindrical vessel made of sheet iron, steel or in some instances of wood, and supplied with a removable perforated strainer or false bottom placed rfbove the real bottom of the tun. It is further provided with a stirring device for mix- ing the malt or other material with the water: a steam heating appliance to raise the temperature of the contents, and a sparger or over-sprinkler to supply a spray of water for washing out the grains. Below the bottom and attached to it is a series of tubes. each having a smp cock at the outer end. and all tk-livcring mho a cylindrical copper vessel called the Grant, from which it can either be pumped back into the mash tun or run into the kettle. Double Deck Mash Tuns. These mash tuns have a hood at- tachment with doors in the sides instead of at the top. They are generally provided with high arm stirring devices. frooiicn Mash Tuns. These arc mostly ordinar>' wo«^dcn tubs of variable height and diameter. \vu\\omi sv\tt\x\^ ^. BREWERY OUTFIT. 663 The ring sparger consists of a stationary circularly bent copper tube placed near the top of the mash tun, having holes drilled through its lower side slanting in such directions that the water issuing through them is evenly distributed over the surface of the grains. Of more antiquated forms of spargers, but such as are still occasionally found in use in older plants, may be mentioned : The "sprifzkopr* or spraying head, which consists of a perforated nozzle attached to a hose through which the water is sprayed over the mash goods; the "sprinkler" used with open mash tuns, and consisting of a tin or iron can of three to five gallons' capac- ity, having a spraying nozzle attached, to which is given a rotary motion ; and the "board" which consists of a wooden plank, about two feet square, near the outside of which numerous holes are ar- ranged. The nozzle of a hose is placed against the center of the board which is suspended over the mash and the water running off through the holes produces the desired spray. Pony Mashers or Foremashers. These devices are used for the purpose of moistening the crushed malt before it enters the mash tun so as to prevent its caking or sticking together, or of any fine malt dust being lost by rising out of the mash tun. The dif- ferent forms of construction all have the similar purpose of dividing the malt, while passing through them into a thin stream or layer, and while in this condition, bringing it in contact with a fine spray of water. This is done either by running the malt over a cone-shaped obstruction, or dropping it upon a revolving pad- dle wheel. In both processes the water enters from the side of the foremashcr in finely divided jets. Grant and Wort Pipes. The grant consists of an horizontally placed cylindrical copper vessel with closed ends and supplied with doors or lids in its upper part. The purpose of the grant is to furnish a temporary reccptable for the wort while it is being examined, and from it the wort is cither pumped back into the mash tub, or run into the kettle. The grant sometimes consists of an open vessel or wooden tub. But this form is no longer sup- plied with new outfits. Should it be desired to withdraw a "lauterniash" from the main mash, the grant, if large enough, can also be used as a receptacle fur storing this lautcnnash until it is returned to the mash tub, thereby doing away \v\lV\ tiw ^-st^U-a. N^s't>v\ \ok\ '^.\>x purpose. 664 BREWERY OUTFlt. The wort pipes consist of a series or batteries of copper tubes, four to ten in number, connecting the mash tub with the grant These tubes start from different points in the bottom of the tub and run together into the grant, at which end each is supplied with a stop cock. Underlet or "Pfaff" At some place between their ends these tubes are cross-connected to a header (underlet or "Pfaff') so as to enable water to be run under the false bottom and upward through the mash. The upright tubes of the underlet, connecting the header with the wort pipes, should each be supplied with a separate stop cock. This makes it possible, by closing the cocks of the other pipes, to force water from the tanks above through any one pipe at full pressure, enabling quick and thorough flushing of such pipe and affording a means of dislodging with greater ease any obstruc- tions that may have become fastened therein. The arrangement found to give the best results is to employ eight to ten of these lubes and have each connect with one open- ing in the mash tub bottom only. It has been found that if one tube is connected with more than one opening the wort will run unevenly and hence the grains will be inipcriecily extracted. In some cases the wort pipes are connected with a copper pipe placed around the outside of the mash tub and delivering directly into the kettle, thus dispensing with the grant. Whatever the arrangement may be tlie >Ian: cr pitch oi the wort pipes should be no more than necessary to allow the wort to run through and out of thcin. as otherwise the wort in the pipe may create a si-ction and cause either the str/iincr h<>le5 to become stn?i^t ei;hor of a ihermonictor placed ilai against tlic ouisitle o\ tlie tub. having its mercury bulb bent at rigli; angles and extLnding through tlio wall of the tub in:o tiK mash, or of the lone >t«. ni siylo oi •htTm«>meter, Ctinsi^iiiiL: -f a ti:cr:::":vA*.LT ".t\ •. x'-: -S above tb.o ;>p of tlic mash tub. wliile tlic :!ivr.:ury \\\\.\\ rc.icb.es down iJiti' :::c :i:ash. In either siv'a- \Vv. g'a^> parts art' r''»- tectvd by s'.. tt.;h ar:.; t'l';.-! with ••■ht.r. ibo .■•::..- » :•■'.'::■..■ ::i BREWERY OUTFIT. 665 Ihe tube expands and presses upon the gauge, the latter being supplied with an indicator dial. Safety Mash-Tun Gauge. — Every separate filtering tub or com- bined mash and filtering tub should be supplied with a liquid gauge. This consists of a glass tube, from one to one and one- half inches in diameter, attached to the tub with its lower end inserted into an angle valve with a tube having an opening of equal size as the glass tube, and running into the tub under the false bottom. The upper end of the tube is open. A steam connection is made between the angle valve and mash tub so that steam can be blown through for cleaning. The principal advantage derived from the use of this gauge lies in the fact that the flow of the wort can be perfectly regulated, and any suction under the false bottom created by too sudden opening of the cocks while tapping the wort is indicated by the dropping of the wort in the gauge to a lower level than in the mash-tun, or its entire disappearance. In this case the suction would be apt to clog the holes in the false bottom, and result in subsequent slower running of the wort. It therefore gives a per- fect indication as to the proper or maximum opening of the taps allowable for proper running of the wort. Another benefit derived from the use of this gauge is that it indicates the quantity of mash or water in the tub. This gauge was introduced for above purposes by M. Renins about ten years ago. HEATING THE MASH. The mash is heated by means of direct or live steam, a steam coil, a steam jacket, or hot water. Of all these methods, that of employing live steam, provided it is pure and does not impart any taste or odor to the mash, has been found to give the best results, and is now in general use. By this method a circular one to two and one-half inch pipe is placed around the bottom of the mash tub on its outside, the pipe having six or more branches, with check valves, leading into the mash directly above the false bottom. These branches dis- tribute the intlowing steam in such proportions that the stirring device can readily keep the mash at a uniform temperature; to divide the steam either too much or not enough leads to detri- mental results. In the case of too fine distribution, that is, if a circular steam pipe with too small pcTioxTvXxotv \^ X-^x^ Vcv^\\^ "^^ edge of the bottom of the tub the maisVv >NO>a\^ \iii.U*. The grains tank is supplied with a deliver>' valve ai the bottom ; also a drain pipe to carry off any water that may settle if the grains are kept in the tank for some time. FiR.-^r WORT rf Mr. A pump for returning the first turbid wort to t':e Tuash tub or for pumping sparging water, where such work i- necessary, siioi'.ld he. ci»nvenit.ntly placed. This pui:ip may al5'.> be made to riii>\\^'r I. -r :;:o purp'-sc ■ f pumping wi-ri ir;-:!. ti c k- ::Ie t<.. the surface cooler. Tliis pump should be specially constructed f-. r the purpose, <'in(I hnve the valve 5cat5 made larger than in cr-iiiMry pumps, so ns to prevent clogginf: of the valves. 1\ quut iTv^\\ev^\\\ \v3.v\j^tv?.. BREWERY OUTFIT. 667 while pumping back first wort, that the moment the g^rant is empty, or before all the liquid has been discharged from the pump Cylinders, the pump is stopped and some of this heavy wort is allowed to remain in the pump, giving the solid particles an opportunity to settle and stick in the valves. It is therefore necessary to pump sufficient water through the pump after each brew to displace any remaining wort. Duplex or double cylinder pumps are preferable, as they fur- nish a more even discharge, and can be better depended on tlian the single cylinder pumps. THE KETTLE. The kettle is a vessel in which the wort is boiled for the pur- pose of precipitating its albuminoids, of extracting the bitter principle and oil from the hops, and of concentrating and aerating ^ the wort. Kettles are built in different shapes, but the pear-shaped closed kettle is now in almost universal use. Other forms are square or cauldron- shaped, the latter generally being open kettles, supplied with a hood for carrying off the vapors. The pear-shaped modern kettle is heated by means of a steam jacket. This consists of a jacket or double bottom placed around the bottom of the kettle, the space between being crescent-shaped and forming the steam chamber where steam is injected under pressure and heats the wort in the kettle above. In order to allow the use of steam directly from the boiler where the pressure ranges from 60 to 90 pounds, which is much too high to be used for heating the kettle, a pressure-reducing valve is placed in the steam run which allows the steam pressure upon the kettle to be regulated at will. Some kettles have copper steam coils placed inside near the bot- tom and directly in contact with the wort, while others again are heated by direct fire from underneath. These Urc kettles are gen- erally open kettles, built over a brick furnace, and fired by means .of coal, coke or wood, the heat being regulated by a series of drafts and dampers placed in the walls of the firebox. Fire ket- tles are gradually going out of use, since the steam kettle has been found much more economical and reliable. Fire pans are constructed similarly to fire kettles, the difference J[>eing in that they are more pan-shapt-d. so that a greater heating surface may be exposed to the fire. Steam Traps. In order to obtain a \>acV v^fis^vvct -^^xv^ •^<^^ 668 BSEWEKY OUTFIT. tbe water of condensatioii to ctcape, a Ucam tnq> is placed at tbt (team ontia of Ifae kettle. v mainty of two kinds, diaphragm and float Irepa Diafhragm suam trafs consisl of a fl.itlrtied sphrrc divided into tuo cliaivbcn by a copper disk. This disk is t.-istened on »tV. ihe lower part being loose so rtiav ttvc aeavn v^^ijwT-: and BREWERY OUTFIT. (S69 condensation causes the disk to vibrate slightly, allowing the con- densed' water to pass to the other side of the disc where it is discharged through a pipe. The Hoat trap consists of a pot-shaped vessel containing a thin copper cup, acting as a float on the condensed water, and closing a discharge valve at the top. When the condensed water in the trap reaches a certain height it flows into the cup, thereby sink- ing it, by which the discharge is opened and the water forced out of the trap by the steam pressure. When the cup is empty it again rises and closes the discharge valve, this operation being automatic. HOP EXTRACTION APPARATUS. This is used for the extraction of the hops and preventing volatization of the oil of hops. It consists of a closed cylindrical steel tank, having a conical bottom and fitted with a stirring de- vice. First wort is pumped into the tank, the hops added, and this decoction brought to a boil by means of live steam. The doors are then closed and the hops further boiled under three to four pounds' steam pressure. The hopped wort thus obtained is then collected and subsequently added to the wort, cither in the kettle at the time it is run out or in the settling tank. The hops left in the extractor in the meantime are transferred into the ket- tle and boiled with the main wort before it is run out. HOP AROMA OR HOP OIL CONDENSER. This consists of a copper vessel affixed to the ventilator of the kettle. It contains a series of small tubes through which cold water circulates. A damper, to prevent vapors from escaping through the ventilator, is placed just above the branch pipe for the condenser. When the hops are added, this damper is closed and the cold water supply turned on, the volatilized hop oil is condensed around the tubes, and Hows into a collecting receptacle placed at the bottom of the condenser. After the oil is distilled over, the damper is again opened and the vapors allowed to es- cape through the ventilator in the usual manner. This recovered hop oil is then added to the wort in the fermenting tub. HOP SEPARATING MACHINE. This machine has the object of separating the lupulin of the hops from the leaves and stems. The hop cones are torn apart and by means of sc^^i^tv?. ^'^ having nn oscillating motion, the coarse \e^Nt^ ^xo: ^^^•jwt-xV^^ V^^'^ 670 B&E^'ERY OUTFIT. the. Ittpaltn and more finely diWded leaves. The coarse lea' are added in the kettle as the first lot of ho|»s, and the lupulin, etc, is either used in place of the second additiQia of bops in the kettle, or else added in the hop-jack. WOKT CONCENTRATOR. This appliance consists of a closed vessel having steam coils for heating purposes and heing connected to a vacnum pump so as to allow its contents to evaporate at a lower temperature. The last spaigings are mn through the concentrator, where they are thus boiled under reduced pressure and run into the kettle. This device has. at present, been installed only in large plants where several brews are being made continuously. By its use from 15 to 20 per cent more sparging water can be employed, re- sulting in an increase in the yield of the materials. ROF-JACK. The hop-jack has the purpose of straining out or intercepting the hops contained in the wort after leaving the kettle. The hop-jack is made of steel, either round or square in shape, and supplied with a false bottom or strainer similar to that contained in the mash tub. The diiTcrcncc. however, is that here the false bottom is placed from 4 to iS inches above the real bottom, instead of onlv three- fourths to one inch as in the mash tub. The object of this higher space below the strainer is to furnish a larger bulk of filtered wort for the pump to draw from, thereby giving an uninterrupted rtow to t)u* cooler anil at the same time p^e^'enting too much suction under the false bot- tom, which might cause the holes in the latter to clog by particles being drawn into them. In order to avoid the wort standing in contact with the hops too long, which will happen if the pump or cooler is of insufficient capacity, and cause the hops to impart a rank bitter taste to the wort, it is advisable to raise the false bottom to such a height in the hop- jack that the space between the bottoms will hold at least one-half of the filtered brew. This raising of the false bottom is practically a necessity in the new arranpcn-.ciit n^w luinp fre- quently installed in new breweries, where the li<"'p-.'ack is placed above the cooler alid the wort, with the hops, pumped up into it with a rotary pump, the hop-jack thus also taking the place of the beer tank or surface cooler. T/ie difference between the regular aud V\\\s wt^ Tjix^^w^cment BREWERY OUTFIT. 671 as to the length of time the wort remains in contact with the hops is. that in the former, with the hop-jack placed below the kettle, the wort can be pumped out of the hop-jack and away from the hops as fast as it will strain through the false bottom, whereas in the latter arrangement where the hop-jack is above the cooler, the hops will remain in contact with at least part of the wort Hop Jack, sectional vit-w. during most of the time required for cooling, and the lower tlic false bottom is placed in the hop-jack the greater is the amount of wort that thus remains in contact with the hops. The sparger for washing out the hops is constructed in the same manner as the sparger contained in the mash tub, except that when placed in square hop-jacks, it is one straight perlora.icd pipe. 672 BREWERY OUTFIT. Hop sparging Apparatus. — Since the surface of the strainer in the hop- jack is proportionately large and causes the hops to be spread out into a very thin layer and not admit of their being sparged properly, it is advisable to sparge the hops in a separate vessel. This vessel then takes the place of the hop press and can be constructed in a similar manner. The basket of the old hop press should be displaced by a cylinder of sheet-iron, and a sparger, like that in the mash tun, be affixed for spray- ing boiling water over these hops. Should this hop sparging apparafus be newly constructed it should be so proportioned that the hops from th« brew, when throD^n into it, would lie about three feet deep. In this con- struction it may, however, be inconvenient to throw out the liops, but this defect could be readily remedied by having the cylinder containing the hops, detachable or merely resting upon the strainer or strainer-housing so that in removing the hops it would be necessary only to lift the cylinder, when the hops would fall out similarly to lifting a barrel whose bottom had become loosened or broken. HOP PRESS. This consists of an upright cylinder made of perforated gal- vanized iron in which is inserted a tight-fitting plate, or plunger, movable up and down by means of a screw. The hops are thrown out of the hop-jack into the press, where any remaining wort is squeezed out and subsequently added to the bulk of the wort. This pressing of the hops is not advisable. The ani«^nni of \\<>rt recovered is small and contains so large an amount of the coarse and undesirable principles of the hops as to more than outweigh the advantage of recovering this small amount of wort. The hops should be sparged with hot water. (Sec "Hop Sparging Apparatus.") WORT PUMPS. The pump used for elevating the wort from the hop- jack to the cooler must differ from the mash tub pump in having a much greater delivery capacity, and also in being of the high pressure type on account of the height, often considerable, to which the wort must he pumped. For this purpose, where the deV\vcT\ \s ol vcxovi^^-s.^^ height. BREWERY OUTFIT. (>73 centrifugal pumps have found extensive service, since large vol- umes of wort can be quickly raised by them. Rotary pumps are also used, but this style of pump gives its greatest efficiency in the arrangement where the hop-jack is placed above the cooler, and where it is necessary to pump the wort con- taining the hops from the kettle up to the hop-jack, situated at a higher level. SURFACE COOLER. This consists of a shallow iron or steel pan, of a length and width very large in proportion to its depth. This form of cooler allows the wort to stand so as to present a large surface exposed to the air, causing rapid cooling and thorough aeration of the wort. The surface cooler, however, also has the disadvantage that it presents a large surface for impurities to settle upon and infect the wort, for which reason this form of cooler is gradually being abandoned. WORT OR BEER TANKS. Tliis tank frequently takes the place of the surface cooler as a receptacle for the wort after leaving the hop-jack and before be- ing run over the pipe cooler. It is generally made of iron or steel, either round or square in shape. WORT AERATORS. These devices are used for the purpose of bringing a large vol- ume of wort in contact with the air in as short a time as possible. This is accomplished either by forcing the air in finely divided jets or sprays through the wort, or by spraying the wort, in the reverse manner, through the air. The latter form of aerators consists of a nozzle placed on the end of the wort delivery pipe. This nozzle is either provided with a propeller-shaped >vheel, so that when the wort issues it strikes against this propeller, forcing it to revolve and thereby throwing the wort in the form of spray, or else has a metal cone or other shaped plug inserted in the opening, whereby the outflow- ing solid stream of wort is broken into a spray or rain. Sometimes these devices are provided with a fan to blow air against the spray and thus intensify the aeration. • PIPE COOLERS. The most important of this type is the lUiudclot co oUr . \.\ '\> used for the purpose of cooling \\\e >not\, -^Iv^^ \\^\v.^ "s^^\a^^'^ with the necessary fittings for cot\nccl\oT\ Vo \Vvt rcvaLOcvvw^, ^/C BREWERY OUTFIT. SIMPLIFIED BREW-HOUSE PLANT. ' In order to simplify the general equipment, and, at the same time, the cost of installation, the following arrangement has been proposed by M. Henius in 1892. The principal implements in this equipment consist of a cooker 'and -an ordinary mash tub, besides the usual malt mill, hot and cold water tanks, and a pump. The cooker is used for boiling the wort, and the mash tub for straining the hops, thus doing away with a kettle and hop-jack. The cooker may, at *a later stage, be used for cooling and aerating the wort and a surface cooler thus made superfluous. The cooker is located above the mash tub and contains a hollow -stirrer and a steam jacket, both of which can be filled with stdon or cold or hot water. By means of pipes at the bottom, running through the jacket and opening into the apparatus, air, hot or cold witer, or steam can be admitted. The lower implement is a common mash tub. with this differ- ence, that it is equipped with a closing device permitting its con- tents to be boiled by steam under pressure. The pump can be rscd for moving the wort during the differ- ent pumping operations neccssar>\ or for drawing a decoction or "I winter" mash. The operation is as follows: The corn mash is put into the' upper cooker, the stirrer started, and the mash made as or- dinarily, with or without pressure. In the meantime the malt is doughed-in in the mash tub below, and the corn mash is then run down into it. The clear wort is then pumped up into the upper cooker and boiled, and when finished is run down into the mash tuh, which then is used as a hop-jack. The wort is then again pumped into the upper vessel, where it is cooled by passing cold water through the stirrers, and aerated with filtered air. The wort then passes through a closed c«M)ler into the cellars. The advantages offered by this apparatus are the it^liovving- 1. Very simple management ; 2. A great saving in first cost ; 3. It is easy to watch the whole pr«>ccss: 4. A saving of labor; 5. A brew-house of two stories could contain all ilie apparatus iwJ ntncljincry /iccded for preparing the wort. BKEWERY OUTFIT. '177 CELLAR OUTFIT, These tubs arc used as receptacles in which to start fenncnla- tion. In them the ytasi is added to the wort (pitching), aitd the albumen and j-csinous substances, precipitated while the wort is cooled, are allowed to rise to the surface of the fermenting wort. Starting tubs are btiill of wood, generally cedar, or of steel, and in shape are round, oval, or square with rounded corners. They are nearly always built of a sire capable of receiving a whole brew, and are constructed with tapering sides in order lo allow the hoops to lie driven on or tightened. This tapering constnielion is in use in nearly all the cooperage throughout the brewery, tlie curved sides of the chip cask, etc., answering the same purpose. If the side of the tubs arc parallel, the hoops must be snp|)lied with a screw tightening device, but this construction of tubs is not generally in use. (.Anfziehen.) One style of device for aerating and pitching the green wort consi-.is iif an .lir filter containing cotton, below which a bulb rairies an injeetor. The filtered air is forced through the in- jiiiiir and c:irriis along with it a large quantity of wort, both then passing through a perforated cap. thus mi.xing as well a-: iii-raling the wort. 1 llhiT methods of mixing and pitching the wort are clllier by means of a pole, to which a perforated pail is attached, or by means of an oar-shaped paddle. In both cases the wort is i^hnr uiighly agitated with these tmpleniems liy hand, Buckci Acralort. This consists of a tub or vat into which the yeast and an equal quantity of wort arc brought. A vertically placed wheel, to which a number of buckets are allaclicd, is then revolved inside of this tub. This causes the wort and yeast to be carried upward in the buckets and emptied or thrown back into the tub at each revolution, thus mixing and aerating the mass tliiiriiiighly. iiri'vi\«V^^^,\« lieing poun-d from one into the Other nwW X.Xw^owsJr*.-^ tA*-«.*i O^B BBEWESY OUTFIT. mad leratcd. This simple method » reir popular and nmch naed at the present tinier TBA9TTUBS. Tbese generally consist of oval oaken tnbs, vanusbed !ihIi U a preferable mclbod smc< It"' brine is nscd to kovp tin yi;i-i tiv.;, Swccinal.T ilUmptrators. These implemcnl'^ arc coiistriKlvl £>niilarlv to the hrme allcniperators, with the exception llial ihe coil IS made o/ coppir pipe Ice watev is circulated throngb them L ■aad con-equentiy they can be submerged \nlo vVie vciw "\\ it%«a&^\. ^^. '^'^'^' 68o BREWERY OUTFIT. sists of two copper cylinders, of which one, somewhat smaller, is placed inside the other so that there is formed a cylinder having double walls, about one-half inch apart. A wire or rod is soldered inside this annular space in a spiral direction from the bottom to the top so that the cooling medium, in passing through, is evenly distributed throughout the attemperator. This attem- l)erator is suspended in the wort, and is provided with a raising and lowering pulley. Another similar, but simpler, form of attemperator consists of a double cylinder having walls about three-quarter inch apart and connected together at top and bottom so as to form a jacket. Brine is circulated between these walls from bottom to top. This form of attemperator can be used only for small tubs. Swimmers consist of a half-globe-shaped vessel, about three feet in diameter, used for cooling the wort. They are filled with ice and lloated upon the surface of the wort. COVER REMOVER. • Thi> iir.plenKiit c«)n.sicnt a special feature, in that they arc made similar to jack-screws, sn as to conform to any tmcvcnncss of ftoov. TUc v>a*^king between the ItREWEKY OUTFIT. (>Sj consist of prepared cotton webbing, saturated witb water- compound. : advantages of using these cn&iiicled metal tanks arc: of cleaning, since the inside of the tanks presents an even <.l;i-> I-liKiiiu Ini tanding higher internal pressures; mm neccs-ity fur repairs, and IxwaWn. v\\\\v\>\\\\^vi"-.V'^'^'s.\-'^"^"^^^'^'^ paly lininllvil. 684 BREWERY OUTFIT. BUNGING APPAKATUS. This device is used to enable a certain desired pressure to be maintained on the surface of the beer in the chip cask by auto- matically blowing off any excess pressure created. The simplest form of bunging apparatus consists of an air tank supplied with a blow-off valve which can be regulated to different pressure. To this tank each chip cask is connected by a hose. A more modem device consists of an intricately constructed blow-off apparatus having an adjustable dial indicator. Another part consists of an automatic valve screwed into the chip cask whose construction is as follows : This cock or valve has two openings, one for connection with the pressure hose, and the other for connection with the blow-off device. The opening to the blow-off valve b supplied with a check valve arrangement, consisting of a ball tightly fitting over an opening. As loi^ as the pressure in the cask is less than the back pressure from the other casks, or, in other words, the bunging pressure, this back pressure holds the ball in position. But as soon as the pressure in the cask becomes a trifle greater than this back pressure, it forces the ball upward and the gas causing the over-pressure is blown off with that of the other casks. In this device it is unnecessary to connect the hose to the bunging apparatus when the cask pressure becomes sufficient, or to disconnect ilic hose each time before racking, consequently the bunging hose can al- ways be kept in position. The shutting off of the racking pressure. so as to prevent it from communicating to the bunging tulK>. is done by means of an extra cock supplied for that purpose. Other styles employ mercury seals to regulate the blow-off pres- sure. FILTERS. Beer filters are used for the purpose of clarifying beer, that is. mechanically removing or straining out solid particles, such as hop-resin, albumen, yeast cells, etc.. contained in the beer. whereby the time of storage in chip cask, the time fnr finishing the beer, and the amount of finings are considerably reduced. The use of a filter also reduces "rest" beer and .-thcr incidcnia! losses. The suhatnncc used as a filtering material **t filter ^la^s is ni- most universally cellulose or pulp prepared iTO\x\ wovkI cr cotton ifAers. BREWERY OUTFIT. 685 Modern filters, in order to present as large a filtering surface as possible, consist of several filters combined into a battery, all being contained in one vessel or receptacle. This is accom- plished by placing a succession of layers of filter mass at a cer- tain distance from each other, each clamped between two sheets of perforated metal or wire gauze, and then clamping the whole series into one drum or cylinder-shaped receptacle. The supply of fluid is so fed through branches that a portion of the liquid passes through each layer or cell, and all portions are united just previous to leaving the filter. Another style of filter has round metal dish-shaped plates, con- taining the filter mass, and these plates or cells are placed in a cylindrical vessel, somewhat larger in diameter than the plates. The whole is then filled with beer which passes through the mass and leaves it through an opening at the center of each disc, the whole number discharging into a central tube or column, wherein the beer is collected before passing out of the filter. All styles of fihers have a "lantern" and gauge at both en- trance and discharge inlets to allow insi)ection of the flow of beer, the degree of brilliancy and pressure on the fluid. Before the filtering operation can proceed it is necessary to re- move the air from the filter, as otherwise the inflowing beer would foam by coming in contact therewith. This is accomplished by first running water through the filter and in turn displacing this water by the l>eer to be filtered. At the end of the operation the beer in tlie filter can again be displaced with water and the last ])eer in the filter thereby obtained for use. Should it be desired to interrupt the filtering operation until a later time, the filter can be washed by passing water through in the direction of the How and then backward, repeating this again arid apain. until the water runs clear both ways, then letting the filter stand full of water, and proceeding with filtration as at the start. This is preferable to the custom of some brewers of let- linpj the filter stanod results with filtering it is quite essential to have an air tank to receive pre^^surc from U\c a\\ V'^vtcv^, 'w^sv^-jA ^\ having direct pressure. 666 BKEWERV OUTFIT. It 11 necesunr to tuve a doable ntddng cock when racldns off beer through a filter, so as to hare an oninternipted flow. The capadtr of beer filter* ranges from 15 to #1 barrda per hour, depcndiog largelj upon the size of the oatlet of the diip mk and the ainonnt of air pressure that can be put thereon, which nnges from 8 to 30 pounds. Tbe location of the fStcr is gcoerally bdow tbe racking room in order to get a more steady pressvre and flow at the racking bench. Pretture RfgMlalbig Pnmp*. In order to obtain a high pres- sure on the filter and a lower pressure on the cask special tegulat- ii^ pressore pumps are used. These putnps allow any desired pressure to be put upon the filter whik tbe pressure on the cask can be reduced as low as is ncceisary to deliver the beer to the Prossure RenoLiL Wilh a high pressure on ihc filter, i. e.. higher than il would be safe to put upon llie cask, the advantage ii gained that the filter mass can be packed tighler. whereby bellcr filtration is oblained. and moreover, beer can be luti throtigb mors rapidly, thus s.ning time in washing the Rltcr mass and more frcqnt-nt rt'itatking of the filter. These pressure regulating pumps are supplied with a regulating device, so that any excess pressure, above that .it which the pump is set, will be automatically blown off. Such excess pres- sure is apt to be caused by the filter mass bccciniing cioggi-d. In order to filler out albnmen, etc.. which might pri'iipit.iie if the beet' was subsequently subjected to a tcmperaturt lower than that at which ll ucnl through llie filter, a cooler is inserted in the ran before the beer enters the filter. T\w Xow \em\«.\»\'i^t to BREWERY OUTFIT. 687 this cooler precipitates these substances beforehand, so that they can be taken out by the filter. Filter Mass Washers. In order to enable the filter mass to be used again it is necessary to remove the beer and substances filtered out that remain in the fiber after the beer has passed through. This is done by means of washing devices that consist of a vessel containing revolving agitators, arms and a clean water in- let at the bottom. The washer is filled with cold water, the pulp put in, and the water supply turned on. The stirrers serve the purpose of keeping the mass well separated, so that the inflowing water will readily mix with the mass and wash it out. At the top where the water overflows there is usually a strain- ing attachment to intercept the mass that the water has a tend- ency to carry away. Other forms of washers consist of a tank containing a per- forated revolving drum in which the filter mass is placed. RACKING MACHINES. The racking of beer by the old appliances, that is, through an ordinary cock or Y with attached gut, is rapidly being succeeded by the employment of back-pressure filling machines. By the old method considerable of the carbonic acid contained in the beer is allowed to escape, since the beer runs from the cask, where it is under considerable pressure, into the package in a comparatively small stream at ordinary or atmospheric pressure, allowing considerable of its contained gas to escape, owing to this sudden reduction of pressure. In ocder to prevent this loss of gas by any sudden reduction of pressure racking devices are constructed which enable the original pressure, or a greater one, to be maintained upon the surface of the beer during the entire time required for filling, and practically also while the package is being closed. The method of operation of most styles is on the following principle, the differences being mainly in the construction of the several parts: The beer enters through a tube, inserted through the bung-hole of the package, and so applied that it can be raised or lowered by a lever. This tube is supplied with a rubber collar or plug, which is compressible over, or into, the bush in an air-tight manner. As Oic beer flows into the pack;vgc \>v \u\v\q. o\ "^^ \s\\vv^ 688 BR£W£RY OUTFIT. pressure, the air in it is displaced and passes into a special re- ceptacle supplied with a blow-off cock or similar device. The amount of back pressure on the package is thus regulated by .means of this blow-off device. Between the filling tube and this reservoir is placed a "lantern" or glass cylinder, for the purpose of indicating when the package is filled. This is readily recog- nized, since, as long as the air is passing through this lantern it causes white foam to show, which disappears when the beer passes through. At this point the supply cock and cock to reservoir* are simultaneously closed the filling tube raised or removed, and the package dosed. These machines are usually constructed with two or more filling tubes, so that as sgoon as one package is filled the supply and the return from the reservoir immediately flow into another package and the filling is thus carried on continuously. CARBONATORS. These devices are used for the purpose of charging stock or "ruh" beer with the carbonic acid gas neccssan- to give it proper life. The principle of operation of most carbonators allows either a stream of beer to come in contact with liquid carbonic acid at a high pressure, or forces the beer into a tank, where the gas reaches it and is taken up by the beer. The pressures of both beer and gas and their relative pressures to each other vary in different systems. One style of carlwnator on the market consists of a cylinder for impregnating the beer and another smaller one. or "lantern," for regulating the gas inflow. Both cylinders are connected at their tops as well as at their bottoms, with tubes. The lantern is placed upon a movable arm or lever, and connected with the gas cock in such a manner that as the lantern rises or descends, according to the amount of beer contained, it regulates the in- flow of the gas. By suitably counter-balancing the lever arm dif- ferent regulations are obtained. Another style consists of a cylinder containing revolving pad- dles and agitating the beer during impregnation. The rogulalii>n of the Iwer and gas i.-^ automatically accomplished by moans of a float. In stJU another style the beer and gas are run together under r BREWERY OUTFIT. 689 equal pressure in a continuous manner, through a scries of coils uniting again into one discharge pipe. Some systems for carbonating comprise, besides the impregnat- ing devices, a complete system for collecting, purifying and com- pressing the gas. WOODEN BUNGS. Bungs for brewers' use, although very simple in appearance, nevertheless require great accuracy and uniformity in their con- struction. They are made from choice poplar wood apd com- pressed across the grain. The thickness is usually somewhat less than an inch, and the size commonly used in the United States is i 15-16 inch diameter. They are first cut cylindrical in shape and then compressed at one end so as to enter the bushing easily. The bung becoming moist by contact with the beer, expands, and fits more tightly than at first, for which reason slight leaks that appear directly after bunging often disappear soon after- wards. Wooden bungs, although almost in universal use, present the drawback, that, in the closing of the package a blow of consider- able force is necessary properly to seat the bung. This may loosen the bushing, and cause subsequent leakage, or may crack off part of the interior lining of pitch, if such happens to be somewhat brittle. MECHANICAL BUNGS. They consist of two or more metal parts covered with, or con- nected by, a rubber housing or disc. By means of an eccentric motion these metal parts are either spread or compressed, whereby the rubber portion is widened or expanded so as to fill the bushing while in the compressed state. This is done by means of a key of special construction, so that the bung cannot be removed except by a person possessing such a key. They should not, however, possess the defect that the opening in the bung gets clogged with ice or dirt and prevents the insertion of the key and quick removal of the bung. Another style of mechanical bung is built upon the check valve principle, the internal pressure affecting its closing. In tapping, these bungs require a special faucet to fit so that only the pos- sessor of one of these can tap the package. The connection be- tween faucet and bush is so constructed as lo 2lncai^ Xo'**^ ct^^ iw^^n^-s* W^tcv. BREWERY OUTFIT. 69I The heating is generally done with gasoline vapor or illumi- nating gas, burned by mixing with air in a specially constructed Bunsen burner. BUNG BRANDS. Of late many brewers are branding their wooden bungs with the date on which the beer was racked or filled into the package. This gives them an excellent control over shipping beer, since the bung is not disturbed or removed from the package and returns with it to the brewery with the branded date still intact. The brewer can, therefore, immediately see on what day the beer was racked, and may know from what lot or cask it was taken, and how long the package was away from the brewery. This gives him positive information, often enabling him to settle controversies and disputes with his customers quickly and in his favor. The operation of branding bungs is very rapid and it takes but a short time to brand enough for a day's supply. Bungs are branded on either side, usually on the outside, al- liiough some brewers prefer the inside, as there is then no possibility of the mark being effaced. The machines for branding bungs employ small brands heated by gas, similar to the larger package brands. WASH-HOUSE, ETC. After the packages are returned to the brewery they must be washed thoroughly and examined for leakage and condition of the pitch coating, etc. The condition of the pitch can be readily determined by an experienced man by inserting a light into the package and ex- amining its inside surface. The washing of the packages was until recently a laborio.us operation, each package being handled separately, soaked, brushed, rinsed, etc. But automatic devices are now in use which soak, convey, scrub and rinse packages with very little labor. These apparatus consist of a long narrow soaking tank, into which the packages are placed. Here they are either pushed along by hand or conveyed mechanically. The conveyors either run through or above the tank. The submerged style carries the packai^^^, ^nVC*^^ >^cvt ^^\k^\n:^ style pushes or rolls them, by means oi aw attw t.^\fcTv^vcv^ ^ck^^ 692 BREWEKV OUTFIT. w«rd from the conveyor. After the packages have arrived at the other end o( the lank they are placed upon the scrabtnng rnachioc, some machines delivering them automatically. The waler used for soaking should he as warm as the' ]>iteh in the package can stand without sofleniiig. The scrubbing machine consiRts of an iron frame holding at its lower part two revolving shafts on which are fixed four iron or nibber wheels. Upon these wheels the package rests, and these shafts and wheels being revolved, the package also revolves, and scrapes between and under a set of brushes attached Id the sides and upper parts of the frame of the machine, whereby all ex- ternal dirt, etc., is removed. As the package from the soaking tank is discharged towards the scrubbing machine it rolls over and depresses a lever or tripper, which spreads the brushes and elevates the ivaslicd pack- age already on the scrubber, so that the new package can easily isiliun. Ill d'ling this llie new packiigi' dir;li ilgis, by or bumping, the wa:;hcd package, the former position of which it then occupies. .After the lever is released ilic bruslK-s arc ag.iin ttirccd to- gether and press tightly upon .ill the surfaces of the revolving new package. This lever in some styles of m.icliiiies aulnniatically turns on the water supply necessary for the i-crubliins optraiioii. the latter i.-isuiiig In a spray over the surface of ihe p.ickagc. After being scrubbed the packages are plaicl over ami upon --' ' ■ ■ r which injects. unAct v^c5.f\w;. ^ ■iv^'s of a sprinkler or I BREWERY OUTFIT. 693 clear water into them in order to remove the last traces of soak- ing solution, etc., from their insides. The final rinsing water should be pure, as part rctnains in the package by adhesion and eventually comes in contact with the The packages should also be placed over this sprinkler before entering the soaking tank, as thereby niuch of the beer r etc., can be flushed out. KEC nSTATDBS In order to raise filled packages from one floor to others abo\e or to the loading platform keg elevators are used They consist of in endless chain running over two sprocket wheels and phced either in an upright or slanting position At- Ijched to this chain at intervals are iron arms for the gutv^A^ of lifting the packages Close to t\\c &scen4vE\% Ava.\vi ■&. Xw-'Cv^'i work or slotted platform is placed a\\o'w\n% Vtit ^^to* qV "Ct-* *' 694 BREWERY OUTFIT. vator to pass through it freely. All that is necessary to devmte a package is to roll it upon this idatform, where it remains mtfl the ascending arms grip, raise and again discharge the padage when it has passed over the top wheel, in which posttkm the arms are above the package. In fact, the whole system of oper- ation is the same as that of the endless belt bucket conv^ror. SRAVIlfGS WASHER. This consists of a differently shaped perforated drum, revolving in either direction, and supplied with a central hollow shaft or tube with perforations for sprinkling water into the drum. Shavings Washer. As the drum revolves the chips are agitated by falling, and a spray of cold or warm water, as may be desired, is run upon the chips to remove or wash off the yeast and other matter. PITCHING, AND PITCHING APPLIANCES. In order to prevent wooden receptacles from absorbing part of the contained liquid within the pores of the wood, which would afterward, when they are empty, result in souring and possible infection when the package was filled again, such wooden vessels receive an internal coating of an inert substance. In open ves- s€)s, or such as can be entered by a workman, this coating usually consists of varnish, mostly sheWac. aipv^vt^ v^iih a brush, but in smaller ones, where this procedure Vs \mvt2Le\Ac2Xi\t, >Jafc v^^^^^Q^^ BREWERY OUTFIT. 695 is to flood or coat the inside of the vessel with a substance which readily melts at a temperature not affecting the wood, while it does not impart any taste to the beer or other fluid, and is easily applied, since it must be often replaced. The substance found to be best adapted to this purpose is pitch. (See Brewing Materials). New packages are treated by first heating the inside of the package in order that the injected melted pitch may be able to flow evenly over its entire inner surface before cooling, while in packages already coated the old coating must be first removed by similar internal heating before the fresh coating can be properly applied. THE OLD METHOD.- To accomplish these purposes in the older methods, either hot air, that is, air that has been passed through a bed of live coal or coke, or superheated steam, or both, are injected into the package. In so doing, however, care should be taken not to burn the wood around the bung-hole. After the old pitch is removed a measured quantity of molten new pitch is injected into the pack- age, which is then closed with wooden plugs and rolled or turned in order to spread the pitch evenly over the inner surface. Finally, any excess of pitch not adhering to the wood is allowed to run out. The pitch is usually melted in an open iron kettle, heated with coal. PITCHING MACHINES. One form of automatic pitching machine consists of a re- ceptacle for heating the pitch, connected with which is a sep- arate chamber holding the measured quantity of pitch necessary to pitch the package. Another style consists of a kettle, at the top of which a hand pump having a spray nozzle is attached for the purpose of inject- ing pitch into the package. A style of pitching machine that has given good results and is in quite extensive use has the following construction: A two- inch steam pipe leads from a boiler to the pitching machine, which may be a distance of 300 feet, if necessary. The steam enters the jacket on top of the furnace, is superheated there, and so enters the blower, drawing with it hot air from th^ \^0*w^V ^^h^\.- ing the furnace top. The combined VvtaX.'td ^vc ^tA ^Nx.'assw v^ forced through the grates and fire into 0\^ Xi^xx^s Vox ^icvfc V^s^" 696 BREWERY OUTFIT. poae of meltiiig oat the old pitch. No way of stopping the cgms of steam is given in order to do away with the danger of ex- plosion. In another form the pitch is injected into the psrirtgr l^ means of air pressure iqxm the snrftice of the pitdi, iHule in another kind the pitch is remored in one part of the appantas, and the package then taken off and placed upon another ptft» where the new pitch is injected. All the above described madiines rcx|tiire two operationa, via., removing the old pitdi and applying die new, and nsually a third operation, viz., rolling the packages to get an even distribntkMi of the pitch. This reqnires time and labor, and it b not an uncommon scene to see quite a number of workmen engaged in the pitching and rolling operatioo. COMmNATlDN FnCHING MACHINES. In 'order to reduce the labor to a minimum, machines are on the market which require one man only for their operation and in which the packages are stripped of the old pitch and a new coating applied in a single operation. SPRAYING MACHINES. The main features of these machines are as follows: The package is placed on the machine with the bung-hole over a spray nozzle, and the flow of pitch turned on, whereupon the pitch is sprayed into the package, striking the entire inner sur- face. This causes the old coat to melt off, flowing back into the tank, while a new coating is left in its stead. The flow is then stopped, and the package, after the superfluous pitch has run out, is taken off the machine in a finished state. One man can readily run this process, and rolling of packages is imnecessary .with the use of these combined or double-acting machines. The machines of this type, however, differ from each other in general construction and the means employed to deliver the pitch to the package. In one style, the pitch is thrown into the package by means of a centrifugal pump sucking the pitch inward and forcing it out through the nozzles. Here an ingenious movement is used; by raising a handle the nozzle is at the same time raised into the package and the flow communicated through it. Simultane- ously with this Operation a worm gear is connected, and the spindle or spray tube and nozrle axe leNoVs^ ^-^ V2Pft% ^"^ the BREWERY OUTFIT. 697 handle is raised. Both flow of pitch and motion cease when the handle is depressed. Another style of machine likewise employs a centrifugal pump, but has a novel device which obviates any serious consequences possibly resulting from the man in charge forgetting to slop the flow of pitch before he removes the package from the machine. The hot pitch cannot be sprayed around, pos- sibly scalding the operator seriously. This safety device consists of a balanced arm, to one side of which is attached a plunger operating a pump in the pitch below. At the outer end of this arm is placed a counterweight somewhat lighter than the pack- age to be pitched. By placing the package in position it drops over the spray nozzle and depresses the side of the arm, and by the same motion the descending plunger opens the flow of the pitch to the package. When the package is raised, which is necessary in order to remove it, since the spray nozzle extends into it for some distance and the package cannot be pushed off sideways, the counterweight raises the package support and by this opposite motion in turn automatically shuts off the flow of pitch. The other styles of these combination machines differ mainly in the general coifstruction of parts or in the method of applying the power for injecting the pitch. In some styles this is done by means of compressed air acting upon the surface of the pitch in the kettle. The spray nozzle in all styles consists either of a stationary perforated bulb for sprinkling the hot pitch in all directions, or of a revolving slotted bulb ejecting the pitch in a thin revolving sheet. In either style the pitch strikes all of the inner surface of the package with some force, whereby the old coating is melted and rinsed out, running back into the kettle, and is replaced by a new coating. With these double-acting machines one man can run a four- spindle machine by so regulating the placing of the packages that as soon as one is placed another is ready for removal. The packages must, however, be delivered to him and taken away, which usually requires the services of another workman or helper. After the packages are pitched they are filled with water for some time, in order to displace any pitching %:aj&&% "mA. v^ ^^- solve any soluble substances which vjou\d Q^«tN«\s»^ V>^ ^v'sasJc*^^ by the beer and might affect its quality. BREWING OPERATIONS. INTRODUCTORY. In the follo^ving are given the principles and methods of brew- ing, as they are understood and recommended by the American Brewing Academy, as well as the Scientific Station for Brewing of Chicago. The matter is presented in a very concise manner, in accordance with the plsn of this book, refraining from all discussions and omitting all subjects that do not appear to have practical significance. Readers will find in other parts of the book matters pertaining to Brewing Science, theoretical, histori- cal and explanatory. As far as Brewing Operations are concerned it seemed to the publishers essential to have the subject treated from one stand- point, so as to avoid confusing the reader, who is not supposed to study this part" with a view of drawing his own conclusions, but rather of obtaining advice. If. therefore, statements are made which, in the light of the present status of brewing sci- ence, must be considered to be still in doubt, the reader will re- member the reasons that prompted an avoidance of discussion at the respective place. For the same reasons it was found un- desirable to make extensive mention of literature in this part of the book. GENERAL OUTLINE. Brewing Operations, properly so-called, embrace the produc- tion of the wort from the raw materials. They include all the operations from the scouring or cleaning of the malt up to the point when yeast is added to the finished wort in the settling tank or the fermenting vat. Before selecting and weighing the materials, in order to start IfreHr/ng- operations, the brewer should clearly understand the re- Qutrements the finished product is to meel, ^tv^ ^n^vj o^^x'^Xvtvn 698 BREWING OPERATIONS. 699 he carries out should be undertaken with a knowledge of the influence it may have in shaping the character of the beer as de- sired. Beers as we find them in the market vary greatly as to their properties. We may distinguish, for instance: 1. The Bavarian type of lager beer, with a dark color, malt flavor, and a sweetish taste as the main features, with the aroma and bitter taste of hops but Httle pronounced; usually lively and sparkling. 2. The Bohemian type of lager beer, with a light color, pro- nounced hop aroma, and bitter taste; while the malt flavor is not pronounced ; usually lively and sparkling. 3. The American type of lager beer, with a light color and pro- nounced hop aroma; less bitter than the Bohemian, with a high degree of brilliancy; quite lively and sparkling. 4. Ale, with a light color, very pronounced hop aroma and bit- ter taste, and with a rather high percentage of alcohol and tart taste in the aged product, cither lively or still, and usually clear. 5. Stout, with a very dark color, malt flavor and sweet taste, brewed stronger than ale, and possessing a tart taste in the aged product, but less alcohol than ale; usually lively. 6. PVeiss beer, very light in color, no pronounced malt or hop flavor, quite tart, very lively, but not sparkling; usually turbid. 7. Common or Steam Beer, light in color, hop aroma and bit- ter taste not very pronounced; very lively and not necessarily brilliant. The American, Bohemian and Bavarian types of lager beer should possess a certain degree of palatefulness, and should draw with a creamy, lasting head, which requirements are not to the same extent to be met by the other brands. Besides the above there are brewed in America beers to meet special requirements, for instance: Temperance beers, so-called; bottled goods, with a percentage of alcohol less than 2 per cent. Such beers are considered non- intoxicating, and are not excluded from the market in so-called temperance districts. Tonics, so-called: Bottled goods brewed with a high percent- age of extract, usually pure malt beers, possessing a dark color, either thoroughly fermented with a high percentage of alcohol and comparatively low percentage oi T^uv^\mYv% ^^\x^^v, ^^ ^'«^- TOO BREWING OPERATIONS. pcrfectiy fermented, with a low percentage of alcohol and high percentage of remaining extract The selection of the methods to be employed to produce beer should be made from the point of view of quality, that is, char- acter, of the finished product, and from the view point of eoonomy. PROPERTIES OF A BEER. The character or properties of a beer are necessarily dependent upon its composition, that is, upon the amount and nature of cer- tain substances contained in the beer, and although we may not as yet be able to account chemically for every peculiarity of char- acter a beer may possess, it seems justifiable to express the well- known properties of beer in terms of concrete chemical sub- stances. Such properties of beer are: "Palate-fulness (body)," dependent upon the relative amounts of extractive matter, especially albuminoids (albunioses, peptones, amides). "Foam-holding capacity/* dependent on a definite amount of carbonic acid gas, and on the same substances that give palate- fulness. 'Life," dependent on amount of carbonic ac«d. 'Color," dependent on amount of caramel. 'Malt Flavor," also dependent on amount of caramel. 'Hop Flavor." dependent on amount of hop-oil. "Taste:" "Bitter," dependent on amount of hop resin ; "sweet," on amount of sugar (kracusened l*eers) and nialio-dcxtrin; "tart," on amount of lactic acid; refreshing taste, on amount of carbonic acid. "Stimulating effect" on consumer, dependent on amount of alcohol. "Brilliancy," by which we mean the property of a beer of being transparent. Brilliancy may be impaired by particles in suspension, which may consist of either complete organisms or organic matter. The former may be either yeast cells, and in that case culture yeast, wild yeast, or mycodtrma; or. bacteria. under which head come sarcina. lactic acid ferments, butyric acid ferment, acetic acid ferment, saccharobacillus pastorianus. The organic matter may consist of starch, albuminoids, or hop resin. Inorganic matter is found in rare instances as a c^ws^ q\ wtcVa^Wn . "] "( "j 4*1 BREWING OPERATIONS. 7OI "Durability (stability)," by which we mean the property of a beer of retaining its character after it is finished. This property may suffer from yeast cells, bacteria, or albuminoids, or any con- dition favorable to the growth of yeast or bacteria, like presence of sugar, or storing at high temperatures. It is enhanced by the amounts of alcohol, carbonic acid, lactic acid, and hop-resin, which have the force of natural preservatives. COMPOSITION OF BEER. The substances that make up beer, varying in ratio according to the character of the beer, are : Non-volatile: i. Albuminoids, divided into albumoses, pep- tones, amides, all of which are desirable, and proteids, which are undesirable. 2. Carbohydrates, as dextrin, malto-dextrin, mal- tose. 3. Miscellaneous bodies, as lactic acid, mineral substances, hop-resin, and caramel. Volatile : Alcohol, carbonic acid, water and hop-oil. BEERS CLASSIFIED. The composition of a beer is dependent upon the composition of the wort from which it has been produced, on the method em- ployed in fermentation, and on the treatment of the beer after fermentation. According to the .system of fermentation employed. l>eers may be classified as follows: I. BOTTOM FERMENTATION. a. Pilsener i b. Wiener I- German Lager Beers. c. Mucnchcncr ' d. American Lager Beers. e. American Steam Beers. 2. TOP FERMENTATION. f. Ale / g. Porter : English Beers. h. Stout ) i. IVeiss Beer. 3. SPONTANEOUS FERMENTATION. k Fa "J'*'. :::::::::::::::;:::::::!■ seigi"" Beers. The influence of the system of fermentation on the composition of the beer becomes noticeable, espec\;!iU^ m \>cv^ ^x^'t-t^ivx v>^'?:«v- tities of lactic acid produced during i^YTtvexvV^NAOXv "^^cv^ '5N52>x-^^y 702 BREWING OPERATIONS. Bottom fermentation beers have less lactic acid and fewer bac- teria than top fermentation beers, these, in turn, have less than spontaneous fermentation beers. WORT. The term "wort" is applied to the fluid produced by the process of brewing proper from the raw materials and before its trans- formation into beer by fermentation. As to where the fluid ceases to be wort and begins to be beer, no hard and fast line has been established. The materials from which the wort is made are malt and malt adjuncts, hops and hop preparations, and water. INGREDIENTS DERIVED. The ingredients of the wort arc derived as follows: BSu"?extrin :: ! ^T,.f,'l!!''' ^ '*^'**" "^ 1 ^ I C4' a Si list ........•..•.• I ^^ ! Enzymes gcner- . ., , alcd in barley hv Amides ! : ,,,qi#;,,jr Peptones from albumen of malt by * *' Albumoses action of peptase Proteids Caramel — funiicd tn)ni sugar in kiln-drying ■ of malt. , Lactic acid — formed during germination by ; action of lactic acid ferment and at low ' p^frnctcd bv temperature in mash. w-iter Mineral substances — from malt or adjunct^ ' to malt. S^P^*^ (from hops. Hop resm ^ * PRINXIPLKS OF M.XSHING. Mashing is the process of extracting the poods by mixing them with water at suitahle tiiiiperatures and in proper relative quan- tities, preparatory to boiling in the kettle. flKiiMcally. it proceeds in the main by the inversion of the starch into maltose, malto-iK xtrin. and dextrin, and the modifica- tion of the insoluble albuminoids into a soluble form. These changes are brought about by the agency of two substances which are cuntained in the mall. aneratures. These suhstnnccs arc called diastase and peptase. They were formerly called c/ieniical ferments as d\stm€^\^Vv^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^- BREWING OPERATIONS. 703 ganic ferments which are responsible for fermentation. At the present day the term enzymes, or soluble ferments^ is more com- monly applied to them. It is the function of the diastase to in- vert the starch, of the peptase to modify the albuminoids of malt, as above indicated. The amounts, both absolute and relative, of dextrin, malto- dextrins and maltose, as well as of the modified albuminoids like albumoscs, peptones and amides, finally present in the wort, are materially affected by the conditions ' under which the enzymes do their work. Hence, it is in the power of the brewer to control the composition of the wort, within certain limits, by modifying such conditions. DIASTASE AND STARCH. (See also Chemistry.) Diastase is a body having many properties in common with vegetable albumen of the type of proteids. It is readily soluble in water. A solution heated to 178** F. (65° R.) precipi- tates, like proteids, flakes of albumen, the diastase coagulates and loses its power of inverting starch. A solution of diastase, upon being introduced into starch gelatinized by heating in water, liquefies the starch, and then inverts it into dextrin, malto-dex- trins, and sugar. Inversion is most rapid between 122° and 140** F. (40° to 48** R.). As the temperature rises up to 167'' F. (60° R.), the inversion of starch proceeds more slowly, its action prac- tically ceasing at 178° F. (65** R.), the ratio of sugar declining, and that of dextrin increasing above 140** F. (48** R.). Below 122® F. (40° R.) the energy of diastase declines more and more, but remains to some extent even at 32° F. (0° R.). This fact is utilized for the purpose of clarifying beers in case of starch turbidity by adding malt extract. Diastase acts but slowly on starch that has not been gelatinized. Gelatinization must therefore precede inversion. GELATINIZATION OF STARCH. Starch being mixed with water, and the mixture heated, at a certain temperature the starch granules begin to swell and finally burst, and a gelatinous mass or starch-paste results. For crushed malt, this process goes on rather slowly in the mash at tempera- tures between 122 and 144° F. (40-48° R.), and more rapidly as lb.>>^ under JOO° F. (30"" R.). 704 BREWING OI'ERATIONS. ■Hies wotL GaAtiH luiro staich. The following general rales can be given for the geTatinization of starch when brought together with water. I. — The higher the temperature, the more quickly will the starch gelatinize. In boiling water (aia* F.) the starch will gcla- tuiize, for instance, more qniddy than in water of 167** P. (60* IL)» and in water of 250* P. (97^ R.)— when heated under pres- sure — more quickly than at the boiling point. 7. — The more finely divided the starch, the more quickly will it gelatinize. Corn meal will gelatinize more quickly than coarse grits at the same temperature; com flour more quickly than corn meal. 3. — The more flinty the starch, the slower will it gelatinize. The starch in crashed malt will gelatinize more quickly than the starch in corn meal of the same degree of fineness, the starch in com meal being more flinty. In malt we have the starch, generally speaking, in different degrees of mellowness and fineness. Some of this starch will be readily soluble at comparatively low temperature, i. c. between 12a and 144* F. (40-48" R.), while the coarser and more flinty particles need higher temperatures for gelatinization ; the dias- tase acting practically only upon gelatinized starch. The time required for complete inversion of the starch depends upon the ra- pidity of gelatinization and upon the energy of the diastase at cer- tain temperatures. Thus, although at 133* F. (45° R.), the energy of the diastase is very great, the diastase inverting the gelatinized starch almost instantaneously, complete inversion is not so quickly attained, in a malt mash, for instance, at this temperature, as it is at 167'' F. (60" R.), where the energy of the diastase is greatly diminished, but the rapidity of gelatinization much in- creased. The time required for the complete inversion of the starch in a malt mash, when kept at certain temperatures, has been found to be : At degrees F 100 129 140 149 158 167 176 At degrees R 30 40 48 52 56 60 64 Time for complete gela- **'<> tinization and inver- iSvenSoJi sion in hours irfiuinvu. 24 6 i % i 2 The time will, of course, vary with the character of malt, no /nro mashes giving exactly the same figate&. BREWING OPERATIONS 705 When holding corn meal at various temperatures, gelatuiiia- tion has been found to proceed as follows : At degrees F. . 30 122 150 190 212 300 very more very none. slow. slow. rapid, rapid, rapid. INFLUENCE OF DIASTASE ON GELATINIZED STARCH IN SESPECr TO PRODUCTS FORMED. Diastase acting upon gelatinized starch transforms or inverts this substance into other products, of which the important ones are the different forms or tjrpes of Dextrins, Malto-dextrins, Sugars. DEXTRINS. (Sec also "Chemistry.") The "amylo-dextrin" and "erythro-dextrin" are undesirable. They are not soluble at low temperatures and give rise to so- called starch turbidities when present in the beer. The desirable type among dextrins is the achroodextrin, which is the one commonly designated as dextrin. The dextrins are practically un fermentable by culture yeast, and are found in the extract of the beer in the same amount as contained in the wort. SUGARS. Of the different types of sugars contained in wort, the one known as "maltose" is the most important. Besides this, small amounts of saccharose (ordinarily termed cane sugar) and dex- trose (ordinarily termed grape sugar) and levulose (ordinarily termed fruit sugar) are also present. All these sugars are readily fermented. Their amount de- termines the percentage of alcohol in the fermented beer, and the degree of fermentation. MALTO-DEXTRINS. The malto-dextrins represent substances that may be considered as in a state of transition from the dextrins to maltose. They do not ferment with the same facility as the sugars, and are not found in tlic fermented beer in their entire quantity like, tlwrtlextrfSis. They are called the "not readily fermentable" sugars. Some species of yeast, the so-called high-fermenting types, ferment these malto-dextrins more readily than othei^, \\\^ ^^-^''^^^ ^"^^^ fermenting types.— (See also "Yeasts 2lw^ '^txTcv^xvX.^'CvycvV^ 46 706 BREWING OPERATIONS. FROFORTIONS OF DEXTKIN, MALTOSE AND MACTO-DEXTRINS. According to the conditions under which inversion- takes place, which are mainly those of temperatures and periods of action, the proportions of these different carbohydrates to each other may vary considerably. At temperatures where the diastatic energy is not weakened there is a tendency to form more maltose and less dextrin than at temperatures where the diastatic energy has become affected by high heats. Thus below 140* F. (48* R.) the proportion of maltose to dextrin is greater than above 140° F. (48^ R.), and the higher the temperature is selected for inversion above 140® F. (48* R.), the greater will bo the relative amount of dextrin. The diastase continues to act on the dcxtrins and malto-dextrins already formed, changing them to maltose. The longer the mash is held at certain temperatures, the greater will be the amount of maltose in proportion to the amount of dextrin. The absolute amount of dextrin formed may approximate that of the maltose, but is never found to be higher under the condi- tions obtaining in the brewery. The relative amounts of sugar and non-sug^r found in the mash, when the mixture of malt and water is held at certain tem- peratures until inversion is complete, is about as follows : At degrees F 100 123 140 149 154 158 163 176-178 At degrees R 30 40 48 5-2 54 56 58 64-65 Ratio of sugar to non-sugar 100:.. 20 20 20 40 50 60 70 100 Or percentage of sugar in extract. . S3 83 S3 y\ 67 62.5 59.8 50 In carrying out the mashing process, therefore, we must con- sider : 1. That under 100° F. (30'^ R \ but little starch of the malt is gelatinized. 2. That ab'-ve 150° F. {^2'' R.). the starch of the r.\ilt is gelatinized rapidly. 3. That bc'.'u n>) V. (30'' R.). little siipar or dextrin is fo'niod. 4. That bttwecn 122' F. (40"^ R. ) and 140° F. (48'' R.). ir.iicl' sugar nnd little dextrin is formed. 5 Tliat n'>':'\o 150" F. {^2' R. ». ir«?s sugar and more dextrin is formed ilian between 122 and 140** F. (40 and 48° R.). BREWING OPERATIONS. 707 6. That unmalted cereals, containing starch in a flinly state, must be boiled to gelatinize the starch. PEPTASE AND ALBUMEN. (See also "Chemistry.") The action of this enzyme lies in the direction of making soluble those albuminoids which are insoluble in the ordinary state. It acts only upon the albumen of malted cereals, develops the great- est efficiency at about 100* F. (30* R.), and declines in strength when the temperature rises above 133** F. (45* R.): At degrees F. . .32 55-77 100-133 145-158 158-212 At degrees R. . . o 10-20 30-45 50-56 56-80 very more very no slow. rapid. rapid. slower. action. SOLUBLE ALBUMINOIDS. The soluble albuminoids produced by peptase may be classified as proteids, albumoses, peptones and amides, although there must be conceded to be a number of intermediate products. PROTEIDS. The proteids are not desirable in wort, and should be eliminated therefrom as far as practicable. The hazy appearance of the wort when running from the mash tub is mostly due to proteids. They are only partially eliminated by boiling the wort, a haze generally, and a strong turbidity sometimes, becoming noticeable when the wort is reduced to the temperature for starting fermentation. The nature of the proteids found in wort and beer shows con- siderable differences. From 100° F. (30° R.) to 133° F. (45** R.), proteids are formed that are precipitated easily in the kettle ond storage vat, and produce good hot and cold **breaks." The higher the temperature above 133** F. (45° R.) at which proteids are formed, the less desirable their nature. A wort that breaks well after cooling to 35** to 40** F. (3° to 4° R.), or filters clear at that temperature, retains but small amounts of undesirable proteids. In the finished beer a haze sometimes appears at low cellar tem- peratures, which vanishes when the temperature is raised; or the beer runs clear at the racking bench and develops a sediment in the bottle after pasteurization. In both cases the cause is in the proteids if the beer is otherwise sound and properly Vc^-^v^V 7o8 BREWING OPERATIONS. PEPTONES^ AMIDBS AND ALBUMOSC Albumose, peptones and amides are called desirable albuminoids. They lend foam-holding capacity and palate-fulness, or body, to the beer, especially the amides to a marked degree, the latter sup- plying also nourishment for the yeast, while the peptones are not readily taken up by the yeast, and the albumoses do not famish it with any nourishment Of the total amount of albtmiinoids contained in the wort, about 25 per cent or one-quarter is taken up by the yeast tmder ordi- nary conditions of fermentation. Holding the mash at a low temperature — below 133* F. (45*^ R.) — promotes the formation of desirable albuminoids, whereas a higher initial mashing temperature — not to exceed 167° F. (60° R.) — diminishes the amount of desirable albu- nihioids and correspondingly increases the amounts of the unde- sirable proteids. MASHING METHODS AND CHARACTER OF BEER. The method of mashing to be followed is determined by the requirements as regards the character of beer, etc., and an intel- ligent selection of the method to be adopted in order to obtain the desired result can be made only with a full understanding of the principles above laid down. H it is desired to obtain a beer with a high degree of palate- fulness and foam-holding capacity, the brewer must understand how to incorporate in the wort the desirable albuminoids and unfermentable extractive substances on which these properties de- pend, at the same time avoiding the undesirable albuminoids where durability is an additional requirement. This can be done bv peptonizing at low temperatures, for in- stance, 100° F. (30*^ R.). I<^r one hour, and inverting the starch at higher teniperatur<.s. for instance, between 154 and 167° F. (54 and 60' R.). in 30 minutes, and raising the temperature rapidly between ux)' F. (30" R.) and 154" F. (54° R.) in 20 minutes to a\oid the formation of too much maltose. If we v.isli to obtain beers with a very low percentage of alcolit-l. and a vcr^' high percentage of extract, we can do so by starting the r.ia.-h with a ur.ipcralure above 154^ F. (54** R.) if we do not at tiic same time require the albuminoids for palate-fulness, etc. If wc wi^li to obtain beers with a high percentage of alcohol, lie should hold the mash long enough between 122 and 140° F. (40 and 48'' R.),at which tempcralute m^Xvose \^ m7i\v\>j -^x^v^uced. BREWING OPERATIONS. 709 ECONOMY. The selection of the proper brewing methods should not be gov> erned altogether by the composition of wort and quality of beer to be produced, but due regard should be had to economy of opera- tion. Especially should it be the endeavor of the brewer to minimize any and every waste, be it of materials, coal or labor. By waste of material is meant the loss occasioned by insuffi- ciently extracting the materials, especially malt and cereals, thereby allowing too much of the valuable constituents to remain in the grains. By waste of coal in this connection is meant the loss occasioned by* adopting unscientific methods of brewing that call for an excessive expenditure of heat, for instance, boiling the brewing water or the wort longer than necessary, or cooling the wort be- fore the addition of yeast to an excessively low temperature. TO OBTAIN A HIGH YIELD. In order to keep down the waste of malt and cereals, the most perfect yield possible ought to be obtained from the materials. Three different operations are essential to accomplish this result : I. To prepare the starch and the albumen for inversion as completely as possible. 3. To invert the starch and albumen, so prepared, as completely as possible. 3. To extract the grains as completely as possible. In fulfilling the first requirement, .viz., the preparation for in- version, it should be borne in mind that the albumen can be made invertible only by the process of germination of the gniin. The starch can be made invertible by the following means and pro- cesses : 1. Malting (cereals, especially barley). 2. Crushing (malt). 3. Rolling (cereals with mealy endosperms or starchy part, especially wheat). 4. Grinding (corn, rice). 5. Boiling (corn, rice, flinty malt). 6. Boiling under pressure (corn). 7. Steaming and rolling (corn, by which method corn flakes are produced). With regard to the second requirement lot %. v^tV^^\.Nf\^^,'*^T--> the complete inversion of the prepared slaxcVv ^xA ^JCcavkv^xv, \v >>* 7IO BREWING OPERATIONS. to be said that inversion should take place in the mash tub at loc- 133** F. (30-45* R-) ^or albumen and 153-167* F. (54-60° R.) for starch. With regard to the third requirement for a perfect yield, viz^ the complete extraction of the grains, this is done by washing out the extract with water (sparging). In order to extract the grains most completely it is necessary to reserve as much water for sparging as possible. Generally the brewer should be able to reserve at least one-half of the water employed for the brew for this purpose. MASHING OPERATIONS. The mash should be so conducted as to secure the desired coni- po&ition of the wort and obtain the largest possible yield of ex- tn^ci from the goods employed. With respect to securing the desired composition, the condi- tions which control the ratio of sugar to dextrin and the produc- tion of desirable albuminoids should be observed. With a view of obtaining the full yield which the goods can afford, it is necessary to prepare fur inversion, and invert, the starch in the brc>ving materials, and to wash out the grains, most completely. It is with an eye to these requirements that the malt should be prepared so as to possess a proper degree of mellowness and f liability and no vitreous or flinty quality. Such a malt will af- ford the mash liquor ready access to all its parts, subjecting them to the action of the enzymes. The same purpose is served by crushing or grinding the malt, which is always done before running it into the mash tun. The* more mellow the malt, as to consistency, the less fine need the grist be. and. on the other hand, the less mellow the malt, ihe finer should the griit l-c. Where the degree of mellowness is quite low. the crushed malt may wiih profit Ijc prepared in the rice cooker, with or with- out raw graiu. :.s it is apt 10 give rise to dithculiies of drainage if p'.it into the .'iiafh without preparation. Any malt should be i}'.:uid pA>o bo taken to remove ^\\ \.W ^>^xviw\% s\\\^^ >3wej ' contain //j.wn undesirable proVeids.— v^Svx: ''C\v:vvv:\\\^ ^VAS:^ vev "Malt i/c*u-e cjuifit/') BREWING OPERATIONS. 7II MASHING SYSTEMS. Different methods of applying temperatures to a mash supply the following systems: 1. Infusion or water mash: American Malt Beers. — From lower initial temper- ature to higher final temperature. English Beers. — ^High initial temperature. 2. Decoction or Thick Mash. — German beers. 3. Double Mash. — American raw cereal beers. By the infusion method, the mash is brought to its final tempera- ture by the admixture of water of suitably high temperature. By the decoction method, part of the mash itself is raised to a boil and then returned to the mash-tun. By the American raw cereal mash the raw grain is boiled separately and run into the malt mash to produce the final temperature. Malt contains diastase in quantities sufficient to convert into maltose more starch than that which is stored up in the malt itself. This fact, which was known for many years, naturally led to efforts to put this valuable substance to practical use. Brewing experts, among them Balling, years ago utilized the ex- cess diastase in malt for the purpose of converting the starch of unmalted grain, or raw cereals, into such materials as were useful to brewers, but owing to legal restrictions the utilization of un- malted cereals never acquired any importance in Germany. American malts on an average possess a much greater diastatic strength than German malts, in fact, their power in this respect is so great that there is danger of carrying saccharification too far, if the mashing temperatures that are customary in Germany were retained. Hence, the principles of raw cereal brewing be-- came the subject of closer study in this country. INTRODUCTION OF RICE ANI) CORN. It was Anton Schwarz who first advised the employment of rice and subsequently of Indian corn, which is so abundant in this country. The stubborn perseverance with which he sought to convert the conservative brewers to his ideas and finally suc- ceeded in so doing and, last, not least, \\\e ^\?»con^t^ cA ^>\\\."^<^^ methods for scientidcdWy applying tV\cvT\, tT\t\\\^ Vatcv V^ ''^^^ ^^^^^ the founder of mw cereal brewing in lV\e \3t\\\.ased >^VQVv v\v^ ^^""^ 712 BREWING OPERATIONS. doughing-in the raw grain with a little malt in a separate vessel, making the starch of this ravr* cereal as nearly as possible en- tirely soluble by boiling, and running this mash into the malt mash, thereby raising the temperature of the latter to the desired degree, and utilizing the excess diastatic strength of the malt for the qpmplete inversion of the starch in the raw cereals. It was soon discovered by the brewers that the use of raw cereal adjuncts not only gave a paler color, greater stability and other valuable properties to the beer, but also enabled beers to be produced more cheaply, and its adoption speedily became general. Schwarz never advised using too much nfw cereal, but rather opposed it. One-third of the materials figured for malt seemed to him quite sufficient, for with this wise restriction no injurious change in taste need be feared. He also successfully opposed the erroneous opinion that raw cereal worts required more hops than all-malt worts, whereby the saving would be about neutral i?ed. In 1881 Siebel wrote a treatise (Verbrauen von Rohfrucht. Western Brewer, 1881, page 1463) on the employment of malt adjuncts, like corn, rice and sugar, from which it appears that the methods then employed in the treatment of corn remained subsequently practically unchanged until the introduction of the pressure cooker. PREP.^RED CORN. The increase in plant from the necessity of having two mash tubs \\as met by preparing the corn by steaming, rolling, etc., so that it was readily convertible in the mash-tun. This led to the introduction of corn tlakcs, first among which was "Cerealine." It cannot be denied that there are advantages in using these goods, which can bo added directly in the niash-tun, especially in small breweries having only one mash-tun (see also ''Mash- ing Operations"). In 1887 ilic United States Brewers* Association offered a prize for a pamphlet describing the known methods of raw cereal browing, pointing out the best ones and giving reasons for recom- mending tho:n. tlie rapid development of the matter having given rise to a need of tiirowing light on some of the less suitable meth- ods. The task was performed satisfactorily by A. Weingaertner. nho kept within the limits of t\\e ptesciWicd SM\i\^ic\. \\\\\Ocv ic^ BREWING OPERATIONS. 7I3 quired a critidsm of existing methods, and only adding that where the taste and odor of the goods employed were not quite perfect an addition of some bone-black (1:1000) to the raw grain would do good service. It having been discovered that the composition of wort did not always come up to what might be expected in practical work, A. Schwarz, about a year afterward, proposed to >*ithhold part of the malt and add it to the total mash after the raw cereal wort had been run in, proper temperatures being observed. The proposition met with approval and proved successful. Mention may here be made of an improvement in this process, which was made by R. Wahl. A greater degree of stability had come to be required, of late, in beer, and a slight haze was often found in beers made according to this method, or bottle beer became turbid readily. Wahl attributed this precipitate to the albuminoids of the malt last added, which could not be properly converted at the high temperatures at which they entered the mash. It is, therefore, advisable for bottle beers to dough-in all the malt at low temperatures, or to run off the liquid part of the mash at a low temperature and add it once more at a higher degree of heat. Distilleries had long been employing steam pressure for the purpose of dissolving the starch of their raw material, potatoes and corn, and it was natural to introduce the same process into raw cereal bre\iing. Thausing referred to experiments in this line in 1882, mentioning the Maccrator and the Hollcfrcund apparatus. Some experiments were also made in the United States, but no results obtained until, in 1887, L. Frisch carried these experiments out practically and by pursuing the idea made an unquestioned success of it. He was followed by Rach, whose process differed from that of Frisch, in that he combined with the dissolution of the raw cereal starch under steam pressure, a mashing method for obtaining worts with a relatively low per- centage of sugar and high percentage of dextrin. The extract obtained by Frisch from corn \\as much higher than this material had been kno\iii to yield before. It was sub- sequently found that by boiling the corn a longer time than had been recommended prior to this period C^^^ S>\^^, x'^x^ -s^:^^ Wein^aer/ner, j88y, both of whom metv\\oTv ^ TcvYcv>a\.t'i ^-^ '^ 714 BREWING OPERATIONS. ■■■^■■■Mim tune of boUtng) ^ipcoxiiiiatcly the suiie jrtdd ooukl be 'ObtatiMsd in the ordtufy oooloer. PUBE STAKCH AS A MALT ADJUNCT. Pnre starch naturally was considered the nu>st perfect raw adjunct for malt, and considerable quantities oi wet or green starch were used in breweries, but with little success. Such at- tends '^ere frequently attended with deposits under the false bottom and consequent starch turbidity of wort and beer. Recently, M. Henius succeeded in elaborating a method whercl^ the diflkulties that prevented the use of pure starch in brewing are removed. Henius' method of treatment will be found in de- tail under "Treatment of Uamalted Cereals." AMERICAN LACOt BBIRS. Materials, — In America pale malt is generally used for pale, as well as dark beers, for the latter an addition being made of caramel malt, black malt, roasted malt, roasted com or sugar color. (See Brewing Materials.) For pale beers, malt, together with nnmalted cereals usually to the amount of one-third of the grist, but varying from 10 to 50 per cent, are used. The most popular material in an unmalted condition is prepared com in the form of corn grits, or com meal, while flakes are also largely employed, and have the ad- vantage of direct addition to malt-mash, not necessitating any previous treatment whatsoever by the brewer. Corn flakes, rice and, lately, cornstarch share the favor of the brewer in the pro- duction of a high class bottle beer, and sugars, like anhydrous and glucose, may be used for krausening purposes. Unmalted wheat is also employed locally. As to the advantages of unmalted cereals, as compared with malt, it may be said that, aside from the point of view of economy, the character of the beer as produced by their aid meets with greater favor with the American public on account of lighter color, greater brilliancy and stability, and lighter body than all- malt beers. As to the respective merits of the various unmalted cereals, cornstarch and other corn goods, like corn flakes, corn grits or meal can be used equally as well as rice, if the amount of com oiJ docs not exceed that of rice. Wheat has the advantage of a er amount of desirable albuminoids, V>u\. \.\v^ ^\^aL^N^wVa.\yt qI ^ BREWING OPERATIONS. 71 5 larger amount of undesirable albuminoids also. Consequently, beers produced with the aid of wheat, instead of com or rice, will show increased palate-fulness, but a decreased stability of the bottled goods. The amount of materials to be used per barrel of beer depends upon the gravity or strength of the wort, and the yield of the material. The brewery yield will never be so high as the labora- tory yield, but should approach it within 2 to 3 per cent. A good quality of malt should yield 64 to 65 per cent of extract, a good quality of corn grits, corn meal, 75 per cent, com flakes and rice 78 per cent Malt Beers are brewed from 12 to 15 per cent Bllg., and re- quire from 50 to 65 pounds of malt. Pale lager beer should be brewed from 12 to 13 per cent Bllg., and require from 48 to 53 pounds, of which one-third xnay be un- malted cereals. Pale bottled lager beers should be brewed 13 to 15 per cent Bllg., and require from 52 to 60 pounds of material, two-thirds of which may be malt and one-third unmalted cereals. Temperance beers are brewed about 7 to 8 per cent Bllg. Malt tonics are brewed about 15 to 18 per cent Bllg. For details of the manufacture of bottle beers, temperance beers and tonics, see "Special Beers." Water, — ^The amount of water to be employed in the production of one hundred barrels of wort is approximately 135 barrels. Some of the water employed is left in the grains (about 20 bar- rels), some is evaporated in boiling (about 10 barrels), some is evaporated on the surface cooler (about 5 barrels). In the production of all-malt beers, one-half of the water em- ployed in making a brew should be reserved for sparging. Where unmalted cereals, like corn and rice, are employed, three-fifths of the water may be reserved for this purpose. MALT LAGER BEERS. Strength of wort, 12 to 15 per cent, Balling. Materials, 50 to 65 pounds of pale malt per barrel for pale malt beers. If beer is to have dark color use, along with the pale malt, a mixture of caramel and black malt to the amount of 6 to 12 pounds per barrel. Take one barrel of water to 100 to 125 Qound^ Okl vcv^sSx \wv doughing-in; initial temperature 100^ ¥. i^2>^'* '^.^. V^^^ ^^'^'^ /Ml BREWING OPERATIONS. tMBfKntmc 30 to 66 mluulu^ mn op to 154* ^« (54* R-) it 15 mhiitfri witii live tteam ind bot water, hold this tempenture 15 mfartite*, mn up to 1613^ F. (58* R.) in 15 minutes. lire steam can be emplojed directly lor heating the mash, if the water nscd for boiler feeding is of good or medium parity, i. e., if ft does not impart to the steam any obnoxio us substances. Care shoald also be taken in the sdection of a proper boiler com p o o nd for the same icasoo. Instead of heating with live steam the masli-tnn nuQr be pro- vided with a steam jadnt or coil. Not more than one-half of the water to go into the mash shonld be used in donghing-in, leaving the other half for sparging. Where live steam is not availaUe and liot water must be used, the mash should ordinarily be started not lower than 153* R (40* R.) in order to obtain a final temp erature of 163* P. (58* R.) with enough water available for sparging. Were the mash to be started below 133* F. (45*^ R.) too much water would be used for the mash liquor in raising the tem- perature of the mash, leaving correspondingly less for sparging. An initial temperature in excess of 145** F. (50* R.) is not advisable in any case, as it interferes with the conversion of the albumen into peptones and amides. Caramel and black malts are crushed and added to the malt mash when the temperature has reached 154* F. (54* R.)* PALE LAGER BEERS. Strength of wort, 12 to 13 per cent, Balling. Material, 50 to 55 pounds per barrel, of which about two-thirds should be pale malt and one-third may be unmalted cereals, like com grits, corn meal, com flakes, comstarch or rice. Sugars like glucose may also be employed to the amount of about 25 per cent in place of unmalted cereals. TREATMENT OF UNMALTED CEREALS. The Starch of raw cereals being more refractory than that of malt, requires longer boiling, together with malt or under high pressure. The common practice is to treat the raw fi^ds in a separate vessel and run them in on the malt mash in the mash tub which has been previously started. With grits and meal use: For 100 pounds of material in rice tab, one barrel of water; for 100 pounds of corn, 30 pounds of •t/f. Boil grits 75 minutes, meal 4S tmiwiv^?.. BREWING OPERATIONS. ^X^ With rice use: For 75 pounds of material in rice tub, one barrel of water; for too pounds of rice, 25 pounds of malt Boil 30 minutes. Start the malt mash as for a pure malt brew. Then start raw cereal mash in rice tank. Initial temperature, 100° F. (30^ R.) in rice tank, hold this temperature 15 minutes, run up to isS"" F. (56** R.) rapidly, hold this temperature 30 minutes, run rapidly to boiling point, boil for a time as indicated for the different materials, run mash into mash tub, so as to get a temperature of 154* F. (54® R.), when all is down. Hold this temperature in mash tub 15 minutes, raise to 163** F. (58° R.) with steam and hot water in 15 minutes. After running down the raw cereal mash to the malt mash, a few barrels of water should always be forced in under the false bottom through the underlet, to clear the openings. The more finely the goods are distributed and the longer they are cooked, the more completely will the starch be opened up. Corn or rice may yield 70 to 80 per cent of extract, malt, 64 to 68 per cent With corn flakes of good quality, that have been previously prepared in their manufacture so as to have the starch opened up, no cooking is necessary. Add these dry in mash tub, when tem- perature has reached 154* F (54* R.). Hold temperature 15 to 30 minutes (until saccharification) after addition, and run up to i^s'" F. (58° R.) in 15 minutes. Corn starch should be treated in rice tank, as follows : For each 100 pounds of corn starch, use 30 pounds of malt. Dough-in with cold water, using one barrel for each 125 pounds of material; raise temperature to 160** F. (57** R.) in about 30 minutes, mash at this temperature for 30 minutes, go to 178** F. (65® R.) in 20 minutes, then rapidly to boiling, boil for five minutes and run down to malt mash. Wheat and wheat malts are mashed together with the barley malt. Not more than 25 per cent should be employed, on ac- count of the larger amount of undesirable proteids. Sugars like glucose or grape-sugar are added in the kettle. wahl's "lauter-mash" method. In order to get worts richer in extract and with less alcohol than ordinary v»orts, use initial temperature of loci** ^. V^ '^>>- Hold here 30 to 60 minutes, draw oft vVv^t V«^\^ -^o^naow— ^'\'^i»N-"^'^ 7l8 BREWING OPERATIONS. lids at onUnafy tamperitnre, ran Uk mah flush with the mash from the rke tank or with ileain and hot water np to any point between i(^* to lye" F. (60* to 64* R.)» hold 15 rainates, and mn in the "laQter-mash.** The mash b now held at 167* F. (60^ R.), and rapidly conrerted. The more akohol and more extract is wanted, the higher is the temperatnre varied be- fore addition of the "lauter-mash." This "lauter-mash*' may also be used in the rice tank instead of malt, especially to good effect when a high percentage of grits, meal or rice is employed in which case there is an insnliiciency of malt husk in the mash* twi. The rice tank mash may be con- ducted as follows : Rmi water of ordinary tcmperatore into rice tank, one barrel to no pounds of material, torn on steam, run in material, raising temperature to 158* F. (56** R.), mn in lauter-mash, holding temperature at 158** F. (56^ R.) for 30 minutes, go slowly in 30 minutes to 176** F. (64* R.), then rapidly to boiling point, boil and continue as usual. ANTON SCHWARZ'S AFTER-MASH METHOD. . Another method aiming to increase the percentage of unfer- mentablc extract of the wort, is to reserve about one-third of the malt and add it to the mash after it has reached about 54** R., without necessitating the addition of any more water. This method can be rccomnicnded for unsteamed beers. It not only increases the percentage of un ferment able extract, but permits of the employment of more sparging water. BONE-BLACK. This is used in the mash at times to cure a mouldy odor of the goods. If brewing materials — malt, com, grits — have a mouldy or other ofF-smell, five pounds of bone-black, of the quality u.«ed in siigar refineries, run into the mash with the malt for every 1,000 pounds of material, will give. a good result. For raw cereal beers, add the bone-black while the raw cereal mash is running down into the malt mash. RAW CEREAL MASH UNDER PRESSURE. An increased yield will be obtained from raw cereals if they arc cooked under pressure. There are two apparatus for this operation, in common use, the HoUeitcund «vd \.\\e Henze. BREWING OPERATIONS. 719 The "Holtefreund" is an horizontal cooker, and was first op- crated according to Frisch's method, as follows: Cold water is run into the cooker, then the com goods. The temperature is raised to boiling point, the air is allowed to es- cape, the cooker is closed, the pressure is raised to 60 pounds 300** F. (120® R.). Hold here 15 minutes. Now blow off care- fully, until 212** F. (80° R.) is reached, then connect with vacuum pump and reduce temperature to 158** F. (56** R.). Run in 15 per cent of malt, and after inversion, run up to 192° F. (71° R.) and run the raw cereal mash into mash tub. The "Henzc" apparatus is an upright cooker, and was first op- erated by Rach's method, as follows: Water, corn and malt are run in, temperature is raised to boiling point, air is allowed to escape, then the cooker is closed, pressure raised to 30 pounds and the raw cereal mash forced into the mash tub. The temperature of the entire mash is usually raised to 181** F. (66** R.), then a "diastase solution," which was drawn at a lower temperature, is added, together with some cold water, to reduce the temperature to 172** F. (62® R.), where in- version takes place. Either method, however, can be modified according to circumstances. Rach's method is based upon the principle of brewing beers with a low percentage of alcohol and high percentage of un- fermentablc extract. Both horizontal and vertical cookers can be used in connection with or without vacuum pump, and the same method of operation can be carried out in cither. It is not advisable to raise the pressure higher than 30 pounds, as this is quite sufficient, unless darker worts arc desirable. In conduct- ing the malt mash and in running the cooker mash into the mash-tun, the temperatures in the mash-tun may be taken as given under "Pale Lager Beers" if a* low percentage of alcohol in the beer is not desired. Yield with pressure cooker — From malt 64 per cent to 70 per cent From corn or rice 75 per cent to 80 per cent Yield without pressure cooker — From malt 64 per cent to 68 per cent From corn or rice 70 per cent to 'Z^\»<^'^ ^v^wv 720 BREWING OPERATIONS. PALE EXPORT LAGER BEERS. (BOTTLED OR DRAUGHT.) Export beers should be of a high grade. The amount of alcohol should be somewhat higher than in pale beers for the city trade on account of the greater requirements as to stability that the beers must meet, especially when not steamed. Strength of wort, 13 to 15 per cent Balling. Materials, 52 to 60 pounds per barrel, of which two-thirds may be malt and one-third fine quality of com, rice, corn flakes, or cornstarch. Use low initial temperature, peptonize well by hold- ing one hour and mash as usual. Details of export bottled and draught beer production, see under ''Special American Beers," where vtiW also be found temperance beers, tonics, common beer, steam beer, and others. EXTRA PALE LAGER BEERS (BOTTLED OR DRAUGHT). Strength of wort, 13 to 15 per cent Balling. Materials, 50 to 56 pounds per barrel. Use 50 per cent low dried malt, 30 per cent grits, rice or cornstarch, and 20 per cent anhydrous grape sugar or glucose; Or use 50 per cent low dried malt, 30 per cent grits, rice, or cornstarch, and 20 per cent com flakes. The brewing water should be of medium hardness. If quite soft, darker color of wort and beer will result. If the water is too soft, it should be hardened by adding proper amounts of sulphate of lime. Alkali waters should be treated by adding chloride of calcium or plaster of Paris. Stan mash at 122° F. (40* R.) instead of 100* F. <;?o^ R ), hold for about 15 minutes, and then proceed a> ii^ual. THE MASH AT REST. When the end temperature is reached, a sample of the mash should not show any starch by the iodine test. If it does, we should continue to run the machine until all starch ha? disa;.- pcared, or, if we have reason to assume that this would require too long a time, we should cool the mash to 158° F. (56' R.) with water — in case of malt poor in diastase — and add some more crushed malt. The last few degrees should bo obt:iiiK«l by running hot water through the underlet or "pfafT." The stirrer is now stopped, or, in the mashing machims of modern construction, lifted out of the mash. Shortly after the stirring has stopped, the surlace oi Ihe mash should appear BREWING OPERATIONS. 721 grained or mottled. The taps are now opened, one after the other, the wort is allowed to rush out for a few seconds, and the taps are again closed. This is done to remove under- dough. Let the malt mash rest 30 minutes and the raw cereal mash 45 minutes. If allowed to remain standing too long the grains will settle too firmly. RUNNING OFF THE WORT. Open the taps wide, one by one, for a few seconds, and close them again; the recoil of the liquor will rinse out more under- dough. Then open the taps gradually until a proper flow of wort is obtained. Pump the wort back into the mash tub as long as it runs turbid, which usually lasts 8-15 minutes. As soon as the surface of the grains has run dry, remove the upperdough. or stir it up with crutch or machine to prevent chan- nels being formed in the goods, which would prevent the sparg- ing liquor percolating uniformly through the grains. The wort should flow quite bright. If it remains hazy aftei all suspended matter has disappeared, there are undesirable albu minoids present, caused either by imperfect malt or faulty mashing. SPARGING. This process consists in sprinkling hot water over the grains to wash out as much as possible of the valuable constituents remaining in them. The amount of sparging water should be considered when starting the mash, with refcr'ence to the total amount of wort desired. When so much wort has been drawn off that the grains are barely covered by the liquid, sparging should begin. Sparge four to five times, using for each 100 barrels of sparging water: For first sparging 30 bbls. For second spar|ftng 2$' bbls. For third sparging ao bbls. For fourth sparging 15 bbls. For fifth sparging 10 bbls. Or, the sparging water can be sprinkled on continually as fast a;" the wort runs off, keeping the grains covered about one inch with water. The temperature of the sparging water should be 167-17/ F. (60-62* R.). Higher temperature may lead to starchy turbid ity, lower temperature to souring. The Si^?Lt%v(\%*Sk ^cA3\^\i^ n^^^^ from time to time for sUrch. Tht ^tsV >mo\\. xwsci '^ot '^'y^>^v^^ 4t /tt BKEWINO OPESATIONS. ftvte from Mafch wUle Ae ip aigii i gs may iliow comiderable amomita of ttarcli* genenllj doe to Ac emp toy m ciit of M^ spwg- img heats. If the first wort nnis off too slowly, let it ran off en- tirely, tfaen start machnie^ mixiiig tiie grains thorooglily while the first sparging water is forced in through the nnderlet The first wort should have a gravity of i8 to ao per cent Ball- ing, varying with the amoont of water used for malt and cereal mashes. Enough sparging water having heen added and the wort having ran off ahnost entirely, the last run will he turhid, hut should have no greater density than -i per cent by the saccharo- meter. The loss due to incomplete washing out of the grains is ap- proximatdy equal in per cent to iSbt percentage that the water pressed from the grains shows. In order to compute the loss from this source, take a sample of grains from the grains-box, press it. and find the amount of extract in the water by means of a saccharometer. If this were found to be i per cent, then the amount of loss, would be i per cent of the weight of the material employed, since' the amount of water in the grains is approxi- mately equal to the weight of the grist If, f- U 8,000 pounds of malt and 4,000 pounds of com were used for a brewing, and the weight of the water pressed from the grains was 2 per cent, then the loss would be 12,000 X a per cent = 240 pounds, or about seven barrels of wort of 13 per cent. SLOW FLOW OF WORT. If the wort flows too slowly it is generally an indication that the goods have not been completely opened up, but it may also be due to one or more of the following causes: I. — ^EXCESS OF UNDERDOUGH. By underdough we mean those substances which gather between the false bottom and the real bottom of the mash-tun. Were this space to fill up completely, the wort and spargings could not run off at all. Where this space is filled up partly, the grains lying above the clogged section will not drain properly. The underdough is mainly composed of starch. The following conditions promote the formation of under- dough: 3. — Crushing the malt too finely. The malt should not be ground fine, but each kernel shou\d be s\t«vv^^ c\\\s>\^4. TK^ BREWING OPERATIONS. 723 less malt flour finds its way readily through openings of the false bottom, the better. b. — Running mash machine too long, especially at low tem- perature. The longer the mash machine is run, f. i., at 100- 122** F. (30^40* R.), at which temperature the starch remains practically unchanged, the more of this starch will work its way under the false bottom. If the mash is to be held at a low temperature for some time, the machine should be stopped. c. — If little or no water is run under the underlet while the mash machine is in operation, more solid particles will find their way under the false bottom, the upward current of water checking, in part, the downward motion due to gravita- tion. d. — If the holes in the false bottom are large, underdough will be formed more readily. e. — If the space is high below the false bottom, underdough will form more readily. (See also Brewing Outfit.) 2.— EXCESS OP UPPERDOUGH. By upperdough we mean the layer of finely divided light par- ticles uppermost in the grains. This layer is, in the main, com- posed of particles of cellulose and albumen, and the more of it forms, a. — The finer the malt is crushed, b. — If the mash machine is run too long, resulting in more particles being scraped off the husks, etc. c. — If a large proportion of unmalted cereals is used. This upperdough should always be removed by chopping and mixing it into the body of the grains before sparging. 3. — GRAINS SETTLING TOO COMPACTLY. This may be due to: a. — Letting the mash rest too long before tapping; 30 to 45 minutes should be sufficient. b.— Draining the first wort, or sparging^, too rapidly, in which case the liquor not being able to percolate through the grains 3s fast as it runs from under the false bottom, has the effect of compressing the grains, in proportion to the height of the liquid column. c. — Running too much sparging water on the grains, this water acting as so much weight, d. — If maJt is flinty, 724 BREWING OPERATIONS. e. — If the mash- tun is too high in comparison to diameter; the mash in the tun should be about 36 inches high, the grains after draining about 18 inches. 4. — SCASOTY OF FILTEKING MATERIAL. a. — When using large amount of umnalted cereals, b. — When using malt with thin husk, c. — When using much malt in rice kettle. d. — If the diameter of the mash-tun is too large compared with its height, in which case the layer of filtering material (grains) will be too low. 5. — GRAINS STOPPED UP. If the body of the grains becomes stopped up by unconverted starch in a semi -paste form, or by undesirable proteids. BOILING THE WORT. PRINCIPLES OF BOILINa The wort obtained by mashing is boiled for a certain period for the purpose of eliminating or rendering harmless certain undesirable constituents, and introducing other new bodies by extraction from the hops. These changes taking place during heating and boiling are the following: I. — Destruction of the diastase aboz'e 178** F. (65° R.), 2. — Precipitation of the proteids, which is ihe more complete; a. — If mash is well peptonized, that is. if the mash was held sufficiently long at lower tempeniture. in which case there is a larger amount of precipitation, and this precipitation is more tiocculent than when employing high initial mashing temperaturcb. b. — If the wort is boiled the proper length of time. The pro- teids are not precipitated at once when boiling temperature is reached. They continue to be precipitated on extended boiling. It seems, however, that certain forms of albuminoids, probably the annnn«»sos, arc changed to proteids of a type that is not read- ily precipitated on boiling, but remains in the wort and gives rise to prc»teid turbidity in the wort or beer on cooling. At any rate, it has been observed that prolonged boiling results in Nntlfd I'ctrs oi decreased stahiiity when steanuii. c. — If boiling temperature is below 212°. less protciil nutter will be precipitated than at 212' boilin^: piiint. (">n ihi< account it i^ dithcult to breu beers of good keeping qiiaiify in brew- cr/cs h 'Cited nt lii^h altitudes ^in the Rocky M.ui.iiains. 1. i.). T/ie copper kettles in such breweries >\\*.a\\v\ V- >*n v:*MN-vvv\ct.c«ci\V ^<^n:^^^ "^^^ a good first break. Then add % ol \.\i^ Viov^ ^'^^^^ ^>^';^nN-^^ ^ ^^^ 726 BREWING OPERATIONS. 40 minutes, when the wort ihotild show a good second break. Add' % of hops of a better Qoaltty, boil so minutes. Add % hops of the finest quality, and run out immediately. If the first or second break does not set in within the given time, do not use the beer for bottling. For ordinary beers, boil until the wort is broken, and add first % of hops; otherwise proceed the same as for bottle beer. HOPPING THE WORT. The active agents extracted from the hops by boiling are the 'Vesins,'* ''oil,'' tad 'tanmn." The hop-resins impart the bitter taste, tend to preserve the beer, and protect the yeast The hop^oil gives the aroma of hops. The tannin contributes to the predpitatioa of the albuminoids from the boiling wort. An extension of the boiling period means the extraction of more hop-resin and tannin and the volatilization of more essen- tial oils, causing a loss of aroma. The door of the copper is kept open while the wort is boiling, in order to admit air, which promotes the elimination of albuminoids. The hops are added in portions, in order to secure both the desired bitter and aroma. The allowance of hops should be increased with a greater concentration of the wort. The inferior quality of hops should be added in the first portion. The quantity of hops that ought to be used per 100 barrels of wort of 13 per cent B. is about 100 pounds ; for lighter beers, less; for stronger ones, and for bottled beers, more. HOP FREPAKATIONS. There are certain preparations made from hops which may be used to good ad\'antage instead of the whole cone. Such prepa- rations are hop extract and lupulin. A hop extract is produced by extraction in naphtha, which is the dissolving agent usually employed. This naphtha is afterward driven off by evaporation. Lupulin from good hops, and unadulterated, is quite unob- jectionable, but care should here be taken, as the high price of the product is a temptation to adulterate it, and it occurs in the market mixed with sand, tannin, brickdust, etc.. or it is taken from old hops. Only 25 per cent of the hops should be replaced hy these facts, employing one pound 0! \vop txvracx lox \i ^mtA% BREWING OPERATIONS. 727 of hops of the first portion of two-fifths, or one pound of lupuHn for 12 pounds of the second portion of two-fifths, or the third portion of one-fifth. The can containing the hop* extract is punc- tured^ tied to a chain and hung into the boiling wort near the bottom. Under these circumstances the extract will be dissolved more readily. AIDS FOR ELIMINATING ALBUMINOIDS. "Irish moss" is often added in the kettle. It should be washed with cold water and 2.5 pounds taken for 100 barrels of wort, adding the same ten minutes before running out. Long boiling weakens the effect of the moss. The effect of the moss is due to a glue-like substaiice, which acts in a similar manner to isinglass. It operates after the wort has cooled, by coagulating, aqd enveloping the floating albu- minoids, causing them to ball up more readily and seek elimi- nation, either by rising to the surface or settling. Fifty pounds of "common table salt" added for 100 barrels of wort is recommended where the brewing water contains no salt. It not only aids ihc "breaking" of the wort, but also improves the taste of the beer. It should be added about half an hour before running off the wort from the copper. COOLING. F/om the copper, the wort runs into the hop jack, where it is allowed to stand for a period, to permit the hops and albu- minoids to settle. The wort should not be allowed to rest longer than 15 minutes, as a dark color or rank, Wtter taste may result if wort is left in contact with hops too long. Where the wort cannot be taken care of by the coolers within a reasonable time, it would be advisable to provide a suitable storage tank for the hot wort, or to place the false bottom of the hop-jack higher up, or else provide the kettle with a hop strainer. The hops should be sparged with about five barrels of hot water per 100 pounds of hops. As the hops form but a thin layer in the hop-jack, they could be profitably taken out, placed in a separate strainer with smaller diameter — ^a hop press with a metal shell instead of basket would answer — where sparging would be more effective. (See Brewery Outfit.) The hops should not be pressed, as is often done, ^.«^ 'resi- stances are thereby embodied in \Ke v^oiX >^^X X^-cv^ X^ vto^v*^"^ a rank, bitter after-taste to the \>eet. 798 BREWING OPERATIONS. TUB WW ON TBM SUIFACK CPOfJO. The wort is next nm or pmnped to the sorface cooler for the purpose of preliminary cooling. The wort riionld be cooled to 145* F. (50* R.), and not lower, on the surface cooler, and receive proper aeration dur- ing cooling, avoiding all so ur ces of contamination in the mean- time. Aeration of the wort dtning cooling has the effect of far- ther lutcqutating undesirable albuminoids. Besides, the wort ab- sorbs air, which is utilized by the yeast later on. Most of the microbes that reach the wort below 145* F. (50* R.) will remain alive, the most common ones being butyric and lactic add fer- ments and wild yeasts. The wort cools the more r^idly: 1. The lower the temperature of the air; 2. The better the aeration; Theurer's apparatus dis- penses with the surface cooler altogether. The wort is pumped into a vat and thence runs straight over the Baudelot cooler, which is supplied with filtered air. Aeration is complete, and the danger of infection minimized; 3. The more the wort is agitated, for which purpose stirrers may be employed; 4. The larger the surface of the wort compared with its depth; 5. When atomized; for this purpose the wort may be sprayed on to the surface cooler, the wort thus coming in contact with a large quantity of air, which increases aeration and accelerates cooling. The danger of infection, however, must not be ignored. If a spraying system of cooling and aerating be adopted, the air that has access to the surface cooler should be filtered; 6w When the sky is dear, more rapidly than when cloudy; 7. When the surface cooler is constructed of metal, more rapidly than when made of wood. Tf the wort looks foxy on the surface cooler, it contain? in sus- pension bodies that will not settle readily. After the prelim inar>' cooling the wort is sent oyer the Bau- de/ot cooler, where it should be coo\ed Aon>iTv \o ^* F. C7* R), BREWING OPERATIONS. 729 which is sufficiently low. Formerly it was a general rule, however, to cool the wort to as low a temperature as 42** F. (4.5* R.). At this temperature in the settling tank it should show a good, cold "break/' and a sample should filter clear at the temperature of the fermenting cellar. If it does not, the causes may be as follows: CAUSES OF UNSATISFACTORY "bREAK" OF WORT. 1. Starchy turbidity from incomplete inversion of the starch. 2. Proteid turbidity from incomplete inversion of the albu- niinoids or incomplete precipitation of the proteids. 3. Bacteria or yeast turbidity from infection. A good cold break is an indication of a perfect wort LOSS IN VOLUME IN PREUMINARY COOUNG OF WORT. A certain loss in volume will occur on the passage of the wort from kettle to settling tank, due to the following elements: J. Contraction in cooling 4.5 p. c. 2. Evaporation of water 4.5 — 5.0 p. c. 3. Adhesion of liquid to surfaces of ket- tle, hop-jack, cooler, etc % p. c. 4. Wort adhering to hops in hop-jack when not pressed or sparged two bar- rels and one-half per 100 pounds of hops or approximately 2.5 p. c. Total loss when hops are not sparged or pressed, approximately 12% p. c. 5. By sparging with five barrels of water per 100 pounds of hops, the total loss will be reduced to about 'jVi p. c. Thus, 92^/^ barrels will reach the settling tank out of every 100 barrels leaving the kettle, if five barrels of water are employed for sparging 100 pounds of hops. By contraction in cooling and by evaporation no valuable substances are lost, excepting hop-oil. (For German lager beers, ale, stout, weiss beer, common beer, see end of this chapter.) INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS AND MASHING METHODS ON THE COMPOSITION OF WORT. The table on the next two pages shows the influence of differ- ent materials and mashing methods on the composition of wort which in a great measure determine the c\\;jlt;5ic\vix oV >>cvvl \ivi^^ . X\- is very interesting to note tliat from tVvt s^m^ w\aNv, vjc^xVs* ^^^ ■■■IIIMCE OP DIFPnKNT i AlALS AMD HASBINC METHODS OM . BY If. HUnUS. THB BRTWS BXmiMSKT BUWESY OP HEWIHG ACAKHT W CHKMO. •- MaMtbil. Water. ¥. R. llaaUiiK MaiUod. •■ AllMUt. nr ' (W- «!• R) 1. All malt. w ' ■Hfe*< at inr P. (W B.I : bourm. [noM-wr boar w 1W° P. (M° K.) >. AUnatl. mr ^ KMbad at l«n° P. Itr R.) n minuie). Wllh^m'to'^P. («FB.)lii''»«ilii wiibii«Bioisrp.rii'B.)iBa) mm HaabBi lU* r. (U° K.) 10 mtnulcs Wlib water torn' F' iW B.) m luniln Ira. ie> 1- mi KTlls' IW »■ Haihgd Bl inr p. (W° H.) It minute^. Rut ma-Hb ai li«" y. lao- k.) i hour. Wllh prill mwh to IKI> r (U' R.) In Ai Uafhalisr V. IM- H.i imnlniiiv. Wlfhstvam to W K. [W K.) In iUoiLui minulei. - ffif DIOII. »S Krlls- ,« ffl^ Va*bedai lOO' F.pO^ R-l l.Smlt.uus BMt mash ai 10i>' #■. (».- B.I 1 hour. Draw Laniec-masli. Wlib *1«»ID to H0= P. t«=B.)mson.mu Willi ,;rHsin«.hlo ITfl^ F.fW R.llnOn .Mid Lanter-ioash. rediiclni: icini'. lo IS. J-.fM B) tor mBli. lii Hashed at t£!' F. IM' B.) lU mlnutos. R«sl masb at it!' F. («!>' R.) 4 hour. With rice math to IM- V. <-■*' B.) In » m nu.es. ihiteam ' F. i.W' R.> Mashi-Oai IH' F. <«.' R.) IKiDinuic Rt'iit msi-hal IK" (■■-iW R.taimlii .Xddii»ke*a! l^^-■ F. i.W B. iii l.i'n MsKh Bl ISt- V. IM- H > III mlnu^Cd'. U'llh-leamiolffi' F. iSU' R.l In Iv Mash< .1 Bl INFLUKNCB OP DIFFEKENT MATEBIALS AND HASHING UETHODS OK THE courosmoit of wort, bv m hesius. the beews WERE UADC I» THE .EXrEKIMF.NT 1 THE AWtBlcAN BkEWING ACADEl MaloiM. Orlfflotl Per cent ll>g) III E strict H^ Albumln- won. AlbumTn- K^mltkii. Won run. H> ii.a fl M '«"■" 0.9 51 Inn. Wort niiu ei 11.7 Hit M IOI):«l o.« S.S ESf. .S nrier caol- 03 lat W in):W O.Sfi S ^' " krtvr cool- ing. (7 „,. U.fifl Wort ruDo tafi. WS ,.. ,«» o,.ss iVorl mnb cl«r. Good 87.8 i3.a ... . luO:4S o.sa lleiiLi' and ... „,, .. W.T 100:50 007 48 Wort [unH W.l », .. ,. 1«:3K " 1 " liii'al! In 73« BREWING OPERATIONS. obtained in which the imoimt of litigftr varied from 51 to 81 per cent of the weight of the extract, while the albaminoids varied from 9^1 to 7.2 per cent. High initial temperatures yielded ^x>rt8 with a low percentage of sugar and low percentage of alhumi- noids. The malt mash held at 30* R. one hour was shown to give the best results regarding amount of albuminoids. Whenever un- mahed cereals were employed the amount of albuminoids was re- duced proportionally with their amount Wheat malt yielded an equal amount of albuminoids as barley malt. The worts from the high initial temperature mash Na i and from No. 2 where the machine was run abnormally long, ran turbid or fair from the grains and did not break well in the kettle and after cooling, and the beer from No. i did not clarify. The wheat malt wort acted in the same way, only it ran clearer from the grains. All other worts ran brilliant from the grains, broke well in the kettle and after cooling, and the beers clarified properly. Mashes i and 2 were made with a view to determine the ex- tremes of dextrin and sugar percentages in the extract of the wort, and have no practical significance. Mashes 4 and 5, which were produced with the same properties and qualities of malt and grits, show that the percentages of sugar can be materially lowered by raising the temperature more rapidly from the initial to the final temperature, especially when Wahl's Lauter-mash is employed, as is the case in Mash 5. Mash 7 shows the reduc- tion of sugar and a corresponding increase of dextrin by the addi- tion of corn-flakes at a higher temperature as compared with Mash. 4. PBRMBNTINQ CELLAR OPERATIONS. METHODS OF FERMENTATION. With reference to the character of the beer to be produced, as far as it is determined by the process of fermentation, three methods of conducting fermentation are distinguished: 1. Top fermentation, for ale, stout, porter, weissbeer. 2. Bottom fermentation, for lager beer and American steam beer. 3. Spontaneous fermentation, for Belgian beers (Lambic, Faro). Bottom fermentation proceeds at low temperature, viz., 42- 51** F. (4.5-8.5** R.) ; top fermentation at higher stages, as 57-73*' F. (11-18° R.). In bottom fermentation, the temperature during the process rises 7 to 11 degrees F. (3-5° R.); in top fermentation, 11-16 degrees F. (5-7" R.). The designations of the two types of fermentation are derived from the fact that in bottom fermentation the yeast for the most part settles on the bottom, whereas, in top fermentation, it rises to the surface. Bottom fermentation takes 8-16 days; top fermentation but a few days. STAGES OF FERMENTATION. Fermentation in the brewery proceeds in two distinct stages: 1. "Principal," "primary," or "main fermentation," con- sisting in the splitting of maltose at relatively higher temperature, for bottom fermentation, 42° to 51* F. (4.5° to 8.5** R.) ; for top fermentation, 57** to 73** F. (II* to i8* R.). 2. "Secondary," or "after-fermentation," consisting in the splitting of the malto-dextrin at lower tempera- tures, in bottom fermentation by culture yeast -At 34-37° F. (1-2* R.) ; in top iwm^xvVaXxoxvVi ^ \\\\\<:\\ ^oxxv^vVtv^ FERME^rriNG CELLAR OPERATIONS. 735 the yeast, the wort should bfe roused either with crutches or it may be roused and aerated at the same time by blowing in filtered air. DOUBUN& The wort is pitched as usual with the refreshed and developed yeast. When the beer in the vat has come into Krausen it is di- vided into two parts, and each vat is filled up again with wort; when this is in Krausen, it may be again divided, and the vats filled up. Then the fermentation is allowed to proceed as usual, but the operation may be repeated a number of times more with good results. This method may be well employed when the yeast is changed and it is desired quickly to propagate a new crop of yeast from a small quantity introduced; 50 to 60 pounds of yeast will give a new crop of 150 to 200. pounds of new yeast from every 50-barrel vat. AMOUNT O? YEAST FOR PITCHING. The amount of yeast per barrel required to secure a normal fermentation is governed by the density of the wort, the pitching temperature, the condition and properties of the yeast, and the treatment of the same. The stronger the yeast, the weaker the beer is brewed in, the better the aeration and the higher the pitching temperature (within reasonable limits), the smaller will be the quantity of yeast necessary for pitching; ordinarily i^ pounds per barrel will be found sufficient where the original gravity of the wort is 13 per cent B., the pitching temperature 42' F. (4.5® R.), and the yeast thick and strong. If boiling fermentation sets in, more should be used. Where the yeast is added dry without refreshing and de- veloping, more yeast is required. The smallest amount is needed where the wort is run in on the refreshed yeast. FERMENTATION PHENOMENA. Within 15-24 hours, according to the pitching temperature, little white bubbles appear around the sides of the vessel.. The wort at this time is covered with a head of a thick, lumpy con- sistency, composed largely of albuminoid matter, coagulated during the boiling period. Upon blowing aside this head, a fine white froth will be observed underneath, indicating tl\;\t. ^.v:.^- mcntation is sotting in. The head ol \n\v\\V\\\^^ \i€\w^ *^\\\\vc\^^ off, the whole surface is found to become ^v^xcVVj ^Lc^N^'t^Cs. ^>^^ 736 FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. a fine white froth ("whitening over"), rather higher aroand the rim than in the middle. This shows that fermentation haa become active, and takes place 18-30 hours after pitching. KRAEUSEN. The head of froth begins to move from the sides of the vessd to the middle, and assumes a frizzled appearance, small cockle- shaped mounds beginning to rise all'ovcr the surface. This is the stage of **Krausen," answering to what the English brewer call the "cauliflower" stage. At the expiration of 20 to 40 hoars after pitching, the surface should be curly and pure white. ("Young Krausen"). From the time the froth head begins to move toward the middle, fermentation becomes more active, the head rising higher all the time ("High Krausen'*). At the same time the temperature rises, slowly at first, more rapidly as the activity of fermentation increases, while the saccharometcr falls with increasing rapidity, the drop amounting to one-fourth to one-half of one per cent, a day in the early part, and reaching one to one and one-half trward the high Krausen stage. The curly head of froth turns a darker color while rising in height. The dark secretions commonly collect at one point and form a cap. The high Krausen stage is reached 70 to 80 hours after pitching and is maintained for a period of 48-72 hours, varying accord- ing to different inlluenccs. During this time the heer is kept at a certain low temperature. 48^ to 50** F ,'7" to 0° RV by means of attcinperators. and when the head ^•gins to collapse is cooled slowly to 39° F. (3"^ R.). The saccYiarometer falls more slowly as the end of the principal fermentatioiv draws near. When the end is reached, the fall of the sacchap.inirtiT should he ,rt to s\, per cent in 24 hours. COLOR AND "break " The c(AoT of the beer begins to deepen from the time of the . Krausen collapsing. ?au\ from a fnxy npiH;i:;:nri- it gradually passes" into a deep black, about 8 to 16 days after pitching. At that jieriod. if a sample is taken in a sample cl.'.^s. tlie yeast particles suspended in it sht^uld be visi^^lc :.< tl.c naked eye. The yca^t sh"iiM I'lmcli togotln/r. the- beer si'-kM ""Iv-^^k" v.c!:. In a snn}p)c ^lass the impurities should settle in 2 to 3 liours in a warm room, nml in .'.| hours in l\\e kTmcm\\\\; \v^'^^\^. WavIu-jl the FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 737 becT perfectly clear. These conditions existing, the principal fermentation is completed. THE YEAST CROP. When the beer is ripfe for tanking (racking on Ruh), the beer should be drawn or pumped from the fermenting vat, avoiding all agitation, as the yeast has a tendency to rise by the escape of carbonic acid gas under the yeast. The quantity and soundness of the yeast crop are largely in- fluenced by operations during the progress of fermentation. In the beginning the matter in suspension in the wort, composed mainly of protcids, will partly settle and partly gather at the surface in the fermenting ttib. In order to obtain the yeast as free as possible from this suspended matter, hop-resin and other substances like hop-resin that appear in the Krausen : 1. Skim off the dark head after the appearance of Krausen, or run the beer into another vat as soon as in Krausen. 2. Remove the dark particles of hop- resin from the Krausen while the latter are falling back. 3. Skim off the cover before racking on storage ("Ruh"). The bulk of the yeast will be found settled on the bottom. The top, which is darker from admixtures of hop-resin, is apt to contain more light yeast, and sniall cell types, like wild yeast, if present in the beer at all. are found in greater quan- tities in the top layer. This dark layer should be skimmed off. The middle layer will be found to be lightest in color, and this part only should be preserved for future fermentations, leaving the bottom stratum, which again has a deeper color, and, hav- ing been first deposited, contains larger quantities of old, dead, and weak yeast cells, to go among the refuse. The middle layer which is conveyed to a yeast tub, may be at "once refreshed and developed for pitching or left standing with- out watering for a few days if properly kept cool by "swim- mers," or attemperator pipes, not by ice directly, since ice may contain impurities. The yeast may also be watered, which is preferably done the day before using. Next morning the surface water with the yeast particles floating on it is drained off, and the yeast refreshed and developed as for a new fermentation. The new yeast crop should be most carefully examined before being used again, and if found in any way utvsovsxv^ ^\ ^^^- taminated. should be treated as dlrccled \m^w ^^^^ \^"5»\»^^*Cv4' heads. 47 738 FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. FERMENTATION PHENOMENA EXPLAINED. The fermentation phenonfiena may be explained as follows: As soon as the yeast is stirred into the wort it begins to split up the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, thereby develop- ing heat, in consequence of which the temperature of the fer- menting liquid rises, and the indication of the saccharometer becomes lower as the sugar is decomposed. The carbonic acid escapes, with the exception of about % per cent, which remains in the beer, part of the escaping gas raising the head of Krausen. This escaping gas carries to the surface all the flocculent particles in suspension, like the coagulated albuminoids, giving rise, in the first stages of fermentation, to the thick, dark cover of scum. The hop-resin, which is held in solution chiefly by the sugar, becomes less soluble as the sugar decreases, and is carried, together with coagulated albumen, to the surface of the beer, where it discolors the Krausen, or settles on the bottom, discoloring the yeast. The yeast multiplies during fermenta- tion, is kept suspended by the escaping carbonic acid gas. and thus gives the beer a somewhat reddish appearance. The activity of the yeast increases up to the high Kriiu5cn ptriod, then grad- ually settles, and as fermentation draws to a close the beer appears darker in the vat. When the head collapses, there is conipara- lively little sugar left in the wort. Hence, the saccharometer falls with increasing rapidity up to the collapse of the head, and the temperature rises, whereas, after that time, the saccharometer falls more slowly, and the temperature decreases, owinjj to the atmosphere of the fermenting room being about 41° F. (4" R.) and cooling the liquid more rapidly than the diminishing activity of the yeast serves to heat it, even without the use of aiiem- perators. The higher the temperature, and the larger the quantity of yeast in the beer, the quicker will the sugar ferment, the quicker will the temperature rise, the quicker will the saccharometer fall, the quicker carbonic acid will develop, the higher will the Krau- sen rise. The fall of the saccharometer indication, according to Balling. is called "apparent attenuation," and the percentage of this fall, the "apparent degree of attenuation." The indication of the saccharometer itself at the end of the fermentation period is called the "apparent extract ol bcci." T;iVNaH FERMENTING CELI^R OPERATIONS. 739 [he original gravity of the warl, the apparent attunualion t^n.nblcs the calculation of the percentage of alcohol, from which, in turn, is determined the real attenuation, the "real degree of attenuation." 3n4 the Balling of beer. (See "Figuring in the Brewery.") The consistency of ihe Kriiusen head is due largely lo the vis- cousncss of the albuminoids by which the high volutes of foann are hfid together, to collapse after the generation of carbonic acid has fallen below the amount necessary lo support the foam. The yeast does not ferment all the sugar in the wort, but leaves an average of 1.5 per cent after the principal fermenta- tion, of which about one-half per cent is maltose aud one per crnt malto-dcxtrin. (See "Bottom Yeast.") AD Indlcilod by I b r - Et'1 lly s»ctb»ro- W Ik aw J M lOM in *n hH »M ^ m iA «A torpUehlnB ' s • * 7 i • 10 11 11 .1 HIGHER PITCHING TEMPERATURES. The wort, upon reaching the starling tub, always i foreign germs which it took up on the surface and Baudelot cool- ers. Before fermentation starts, these foreign germs will multiply with comparative rapidity, and after fermentation has started. are suppressed the more effectively, the more quickly fermentation reaches the high Kiiusen stage, at which the fermenting action of the yeast is at ils height, as is the temperature of the fermenting The old practice is lo cool the wort to 42' F. (4.5* R.) and to allow hours to pass before pitching, sometimes waiting over night. This is not in accordance with scientific principles, and. consequently, Wahl. on the occasion of a convention of the United Slates Brewmastcrs' Association, held at BB.U,vw,cret, ^■ti- proscd Ihe following treatment ior use vn ^.^^M^Ka.T\ ^jxt-"""*-^- 740 FERMENTING CELLAK OPERATIONS. Refresh and develop the yeast witb first wort of 59* F. (12° R.) and put in the starting tub. timing this preparation so that thi mass is just beginning to ferment at the niotnent when Ihe 6rst wort reaches the starting tub from the Bau'jeloi cooler. The wort should run on tbe yeast, instead of tlie yeast being put into the wort. The wort is cooled down tu 49° F, (7.5' R-) instead of 40-42° F. (3-5-4-5' R-)- When in Knusen— which will be in Jo to 24 liours instcatl of 40 to 45 as by the old practice — pump the wort into another vat or distribute among the fermeDters. The temperature will have reached 51* F. (8.5° R.) by this lime. Keep it at this height by means of "swimmers," or attemperalors until the Krausen have fallen down sufficiently, and cool in about three days down to 39° F. (3° R.), working so that the decrease of the sac- charonieier in the last 34 hours will not exceed 0,1 per cent. The advantages of this practice arc many: 1. The wort need not be cooled down si) low, that is. re- frigeration is saved. 2. The wort is ready for pitching sooner. 3. Fermentation sets in sooner. 4. Fermentation is finished 2 to 4 days earlier. 5. The development of the yeast is more vigorous. fi. The yeast remains purer. 7. Less Krausen arc needed, their temperature being higher ; or, equal amounts of Krausen do more work and give iiic.>re life to the beer in a shorter time than colder Kriiusen The new practice has nict with a speedy recognilion. having been introduced with goi.uI rcsuhs in ninny breweries. Fermentation of a won pitched at high temperature : FERMENTING CF.LI.AR OPERATIONS. 74I BOTTOM YEAST. (See iilso Yeasts and Fermentation.) The substance, by the agency of whicb fermentation is carried on is called yeast. The course of the fermentation as performed by the yeast de- pends not only on the viiality and environment of the yeast, as age of yeast, temperature, aeration, composition of nutritive medium, presence or absence of other organisms, but also upon the type of yeast employed. Types of cultivated yeast are distinguished by differences in the following properties possessed, or effects produced, by them: 1. Degree of attenuation; 2. Fermentative energy, or rapidity of attenuation ; li. Reproductive energy, or growth of yeast ; 4. Rapidity of settling of yeast, or clarilicalion of beer; 5. Qualities of beer obtained, as taste, odor, and dur- ability. (See "'Yeasis and Fermentation.") The closest attention should be devoted to the yeast, as only by a sound, that is. pure and strong, yeast can a sound lH:cr be produced. CHARACTEHISTtCS OF A GOOD IIOTTOM YEAST. It has a thick, stiff, pasly consistency, not watery or slimy, a yellow lo brownish color, a bitter taste due to hop-resin, and a characteristic odor. It consists, for the mo.'t part, of single cell organisms of the class saccharoniyces and species cerevisix. Yeast mechanically encloses a large amount of water, or beer — about 20 per cent — through which are dispersed minute bubbles of car- bonic acid gas, that escapes when the yeast is stirred, emitting a rustling sound. After the beer has tun from the fermenter, the yeast sediment should be quite firm and thick. However, unless an absolutely {jure culture, every yeast has an admixture of for- eign organisms, as bacteria, wild yeasts, and mycodernia. All these impurities may be classified as "potentially dangerous," Since wild yeast or mycoderma cells do not settle so readily as culture yeast, the different layers oi ■yeasX. to a. \e'^■ct«:■cl.v\l^.% ■*'»'^ iviJ/ nol he found jjencrally to contain "w\\A ^ca^^ <« ^wjccAe'^ma in uniform numbers. Nor is the brewev salt \"n \Mi«vvv% \-io'«^ ^ absence of nild yeast or mycoderma in tt\* -se**^ scaiwctvv 743 FERMENTING CELLAR OPESATIONS. the beer is Iree from ihew ofanoxioni foreisn organisms. There- fore an examination of the beer should always be made at the same time; There are some admixtures that may be conndered "hanninc," as hop-resin and proteids, which give a deeper color, and ciTslali of oxalate of lime. (See "Micro-orsaninni.") For microscopical examination of yeast as to strength and purity, see "Iklicroscopical Laboratory." KEEPIHG VKAST EOUMD AND PVEE. Four essential p^nta are lo be considered in this respect. Prc^r nourishment, proper temperature, auilicient air, exclusion of adverse influences generally. Neglect of these requisites may ncces-sitatc a change of yeast, (hat is, the introduction of an entirely new yeast by the brewer, the old yeast failing to perform its functions as desired, sinci: the yeast may degenerate and become cither too weak or ton strongly contatninated to serve its purposes. WEAK YEAST. Symptoms of weak yeast are: 1. Watery or smeary condition, due lo lack of carliniiic 2. Slow settling of Ihe yeast in llic val. in llic -;.iii;i'li' glass, and when watering or wnihing: 3. Poor "break" of beer; 4. Sliiw progress of fermentation: 5. Rim fermentation; 0. Rest fermentation ; 7. Foxy fermentation ; 8. Cold anil bare spots in the Kr.Hdsrn. (See '"Abnor- mal Fermentations.") It should be borne in mind that abnormal fermentations are not necessarily due to the weakness or impurity of the yeast. A microstiipii-al examination is needed to decide this point. NOVRISIIMF.KT OF \-C.\ST. The principal yeast foods in beer wort are the albuminoids and certain mineral s.ilts. Of the a\b\\n\ti\otds the amides are the 'nost readily digeitihk. the peptones ne^.V. v\w aWwuw-se m\* to- w/ubJe aiK'g no[ heing availaUe at. a\\ ^ot vVv* vw^^^^i. V^t* "Nutrition" under "Yeasts and FMmcn\i\\ov\r~) FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 743 Unfavorable conditions of yeast nutrition, that is, such as tend lo increase the relative quantity of sugar or diminish the relative quantity of amides and phosphates, may be brought about by the f. Changing the temperature rapidly, for instance, pitching cold wort with yeast thai wa^ started in a warmer wort. The proper temperatures for bottom fermentation are 42° F. (4-5° R.) to 51° F. (8.5= R.), " (S.,S° R.). (See also Tempcralurt Veast requires air to carry on its vital functions. Oxygen should be supplied 10 the yeast in the wort to hasten fermentation, increase the yeast crop, and prevent degeneration. Yeasl seems to absorB a large amount of oxygen which it holds in reserve and utilizes during fermentation as it needs it. This free oxygen seems to be absolutely necessary for the yeast to carry on fermentation, and if not absolutely necessary for reproduction it Cfrtainly stimulates it and has generally a beneficial effect on the yeast. Excessive aeration is to be avoided, however, as under its stimulating effect the yeast may multiply excessively and take a corresponding amount of valuable subslai\tt^ o"^ 'A •Ovit wort, which, like the amides, aid m %vivtt% \itM ^\:&^«l^^ '^"^ "^J*""*. and foam-holding capacity. (See a\so Res^.wa.'CvQtv ^iv.'i.*^ '^'^ and I'ennentation.) ^44 FERHENTIHG CELLAR OPERATIONS. A2r«tion can be tap|died by: Aerating the wort on the snrfaM cooler or the Bandetof cooler. AeratiRK the yeast directly, or aerating the wort after pitching, or during fermentation. lo all cases care should be taken to supply the yeast with pure E IITFLUENCES CENDULLY. Adverse influences to which yeast is most commonly exposed Frequent washing of the yeast especially with large quan- tities of water, or soft water. Long duration of fermentation. Letting the yeast stand nnder the beer or water too long. Keeping yeatt in an Jnadive state too long from i>ne fer- mentation to another. Employment of salicylic acid or other antiseptics in ex- cessive quantities. (Sec also Inlluence of Fermi-ntation Proilucls iimlcr Vi-a'l ;^riil Fermentation.) STRENGTH FN I N"G THE YEAST. .•\ yeast ihat lias become weakened may l»e strcngihened by one of the following methods : It should be put llirough fermentation in n pure mail wort from lime to time. This is the most appropriate renite a higher degree of nllcnun- tion, accompanied by a tendency to weaken the yeasl. VEAST WATKR OH BOUILLON. A yeast water or yeast bouillon, or soup, may be used lo ad- ■ vanlage for strengthening purposes. To prepare it, boil six ga'lons of yeast with six gallons of water for half an hour, cool, let set- tle, pour off the yeast-water, about one-halt of whole qiianlily, boil nnlil flavor becomes agreeable, which may take a few hours. and add to six gallons of yeast, together with six gallons of first wort of a temperature of about 59° F. (i2° R.), or finished worl. The active elements for the present purpose in this solu- linn are large quantities of phosphates of potash and amides, ( U. S. Palent of June 4, 1895. issued to R. Wahl and M. HcniusV ABUNDANT AERAnOH. Finally, abundant aeration should be provided for the wort on ilic surface or Baudelot cooler, in the collecting or starting tub. Iwfore and just after pitching, or while refreshing the yeast for pilching. This aeration is not to be contitmed after ihe beer has come into Krausen. CONTAMINATIONS OF YEAST, The principal agents of contamination are bacteria, mycoderma. and wild yeast. Such cont.miination may be indicated in the hrev^ery by: (i> Bad odor of fermentation. (2) Bubble fermentation. (3) Fo\y fermentation. (4) Ropy feTmtt\\a\:\oi\. W^ \wiJ^"^'= e)arificaiioii of the beer in sample ■g\as5 ot cVa? t^^- "-.^^^ ^^ odor and taste of finished beer, (j) \mpaiTc4 W\\Viwc\c-i -!.^*> , ability of the beer. 74» FERMENTING CELLAK OPEKATION5. Foreign organunu reach the yemit from the air, from drippiiigs from ceilings, -through unclean vessels or ntcnsils with which beer cornea in contacL There is danger of infection wbereveC nnfiltered air is permitted to reach the woit or beer, or wbere vessels are left uncovered, aa fennenters, affording an oppor- tunity for foreign matter to drop in. □eanliness, therefore, of the most scrupulous and exacting kind, is a prime necesiily and the safest precaution for keeping jeast pure and aoand. r CONTAUf NATION. Rtm the wort from the snrface cooler as soon as it has cooled to 145* F. (so* R.). To leave it on the surface cooler after that point has been reached is to promote the development of forrign ferments, which have easy access to the beer, owing to the great surface exposure, and multiply rapidly at favorable temperatures, from 145-77" F. (50-20° R.). The air in the cooler rooms should be as pure as possible. Malt dust, street dust. etc.. may become very dangerous at this point. High fermenting varieties of yeast are not infected so readily as low fermenting. Pitch with yeast directly after cooling. Keep the yeast cool by attemperators or "swimmers" or brine pipes, never directly by addition of ice, which often contains im- Protect the yeast, beer and wort from contact with impure air. Prevent the drippings from the ceiling of the surface cooler room, and of the fermenting cellar, gettiiiR into (lie wort or beer. Protect the beer by inclined covers of canvas, wood or sheet iron hung over the fermenting vats. Observe the strictest cleanliness. Thoroughly clean all pipes, conduits, vessels, floors, walls, etc. (See "Cleansing Opera- tions.") Low temperature is another important safeguard. The temper- ature shoiild be kept down as much as practicable in all cellars. Besides clcmliness and low temperatures, alcohol, carbonic icid, lactic acid and hop-rcs'm arc \.\\c ^awnV v'^^^^'^aiives of the yeast and l»ccr, nmong whk\\ a\co\wA \\as ^vc';'"^ "wwv^rt^w* fSce "leasts and Fermentation.'") FEBUENTINC CELLAR OPERATfONS. ■ 747 TREATMENT OF CONTAMINATED YEAST. Unless contaminated beyond hope of recovery, a yeasl may be purified by the following means : WATERING. This may be used if (he number of bacteria approximates 15 to 30 per 1,000 yeasl cells. Application; To SO pounds of yeasl add two gallons of pure cold condensed water, unless the natural water is absolutely above suspicion, to which has been added one ounce of gypsum (plaster of Paris). Stir well and pass through a very fine sieve — hair sieve — allow to settle while cooling by means of atlemperator or brine pipes, never liy adding ice. Pour off the water. It the number of bacteria exceed 30 per 1,000 yeast cells, a change of yeast should be resorted to. HIGHER FERMENTATION TEMPERATtJRFS. By employing higher pitching temperature or allowing the tem- perature to rise higher during fermentation, the culture yeast is enabled more effectively to rid itself of mycodemia or wild yc.isl nr hacteri.T. (See "Yeasts and Fermentation.") Several cells are separated from the rest under the microscope. I he most suitable selected and propagated, according to the methods of Hansen, avoiding with absolute certainty infection from all possible causes, besides assuring the maintenance of the typical character of the yeast required for the desired fermenta- tinns. (See Pure Yeast Culture). FACTORS AFFECTING FERMENTATION. Fermentation, as has been repeatedly explained, is subject to modification by various factors, the most important of which 1. Amount of maltose; 2. Temperature, a. al time of pitching. b. as it rises during fermentation; c. time of holding highest temperature. 3. Amount of pitching yeasl'. ,*. Condition of pitching yeast. >«\\e.\V« -Neii^ o^ w^. DIFFERENCES IS A The effects of these factors on practical brewing operations may be again briefl; considered. (a> The larger the amount of maltose in the wort, (b) the higlier the fermenting temperature, (c) the longer ihis tempera- ture is mainlained. (d) the stronger the yeast, unusually p 6 B.. and with nhundaiil aeralimi, high lemperalurc, and >'cast of high atten- uating lypc and extraordinary vigor, may he hroughl down to .'dicuit 4'^i R. -Mtenuaiion dcpt-nds, li.twcvcr, mainly lin^n Ihc aniount of siigar, and, secondarily, on Ihc lypc of yeast employed. The reBidne of sugar left in ihe wort al ihe end of the prin- cipal fiTmcutalion generally amounts to one-h.ilf per cent n( mallnsr and 1 per cent of mnllo-dextrin for worts of average originnl gr.ivily or about 10 per eenl of lire original extraet. A ;easl of liigh aiienualing type, like Frolilierg. gives an appirent degr.v of alleimalitin. which is ahoiu 10 per eent higher in a beer of or.lina;y gravily th;.n «hvre a yea=l .^f the S.i.i7 lype is emplnyi'd. other ihings being ei|ual. The differeuee in ailenuation resulling frr.iu the employment of differeill yea^t tyi)ts is supposed 10 he due \" ihe i)re'.enee of an enzyme in [he yeast of higher aiieiiiiaiiug power, which has ihe properly (if inverting niallo-dexlrin to dexirose, whereas ilie yea-i of low alteiinaiiiig power does mit eoiiiaiii this en;;me, or oonlaiui il in a smaller iiuanlily or Iow.t decree 01 aelieity. All .iildilinn nf tu.ilt lle«ur to t\ie Wct ot vqt^'.v mc^e^it;^ '/<<■ .-titfiinaim,. bcraii.ic the <■ Jc-xlrin of the hccr, ihuinK lermcvrtaVTOn- \t^ vw\w^«. •«^^^* PEKMENTING CELLAR OI'KKATIONS. 74y then ferments. This addition cannot be rccomiiicnikd uii ac- count of the danger of conlaniination, the malt Hour containing 'many bacteria from the niatt husks. BUHATION OF FEB MENTATION, (a) The higher the pitching temperature, (b) the hit^hvr iht fermentation temperature, (c) the better the aeration, (d) the atronger the yeast, (e) the larger ihe quantity of yeast added. (f) the lower the percentage of sugar in ihc wort — the shorter will be the period of fermentation, (a) The higher the pitching temperature, (b) the belter the aeration, (c) the stronger the yeast, (d) the larger the quanlily of pitching yeast — (A) the quicker will the beer go into kriiustu, (B) the quicker will the saccharomeler indication fall, (C) the quicker will the fermentation reach the high Krausen stage, (D) the higher will the Kriiuscn rise. FERMENTATION TEMPEKATUKE, (a) The higher the pitching temperature, (b) the higher the percentage of sugar, (c) the stronger the yeast, (d) ibo greater the quantity of pitching yeast, (e) the belter the aeration — the higher will ihe temperature of fermentation rise, QUANTITY OF YEAST. For every too pounds of extract fcrmcnlcd, about 15 pound™ of new yeast is produced. Part of the yeast, equaling about one pound per barrel, goes with the beer on rub, about i pound of yeast per barrel o[ beer is wasted, being the top and botton' layers of the yeast sediment, while 1 to 2 pounds per barrel is obtained ot a. quality suitable for pitching. The belter the aeration, the larger Ihe percentage of sugar fermented, the more vigorous the yeasi— the greater will be the new yeast crop. The smaller ihe quanlily of pitching yeast, the greater will be the amount of new yeast developed, since a small quantity of pitching yeast will yield as large a ycasi crop ds a large quantity. INreCTION. (a) The longer the wort stands without yeast, especia.!!.-) ■»,*- higher temperatures, (b) the smaUer 'Ave ■^wia.tv'iW^ o\ 'jv'v-On.v-^* yeast, (c) the weaker the yeasl — t\\c tnoTt \3,NaT^^\t ■»■<«, "'^ conditions for the development ol iorwRTi ^wnvtTvV*. rUtMKMTING CSLLAR OPERATIONS. The danger of infectiod ii g re » l e *t before fermentation be- . comes active, since after the -energetic sction of the yeait has set in, foreign ferments have leu freedom of development. It ii therefore duiraUe to have the Kiiuscn rise at qniddy M possible. This can be accomplished by pitching at higher temperatures thstn was cuitomary in former years, starting at .«• F. (7.5° RO. ABNORMAL SYMPTOHS IN FERMENTATION. COUXMBAXE SFOTS. In the stage of low Kraosen the entire surface of the beer is not always covtrei, bnt there may be openings in the hean of foam. The cause is weak yeast, or conditions tending to bring about a lowering of the temperature at the surface, like a cold draught of air. BLADDCRY Oft BUBBLE FnUENIATIOH. Lai^e bubbles may be seen in the krausen while they are collapsing. Cause : Large amounts of finely divided suspended tnatler like starch, proteids and bacteria. When beer contains loo tittle hop-resin, bubble fermentation may show more readily. BEST reailBNTAIIOtl. In this case fermentation progresses but slowly and comes to a standstill while the indication of the sac charo meter remains very high. There may be several causes. I. Too low a percentage of sugar in the wort. It niny occur where the original Balling of tlie wort is high, but the ratio of dextrins is excessive. To pre- vent this, change the mashing method. To restore the defective wort to a normal condition, fill the fermenting vats half full with "green" beer just coming into Krausen. and pump the beer show- ing rest fermentation to the Krausen beer, adding one quart of cold extract of malt (for preparation see Starchy Turbidity of Beer), for every so barrels of beer. The diastase of the malt will first invert the dextrin and make the new sugar amenable to the inHaence of the yeast. Cause 3 may be weakened or dcgcTicT^vti ■^eaw., ^a^sualW . caused by too high a percentasc ol wtP* «i '*■'' *'^^'-' \.wt«Oo«.x FEBUKNTING CELLAR Ol'EBATIONS, 75 1 lack of amides and mineral substances. To pniTni it^ change the yeast and the method of mashing. To the beer that suffers from rest fermemalion due to this , mix it with equal parts of fresh Krausen beer, without ig any malt extract. When the Krausen begin lo fall, the head o£ foam sometimes disappears, and the beer seems lo boil up from the lower side of the fermenting vat, the bubbles of carbonic acid drift swiftly across the surface to the opposite side, the beer in the vat has gone into a rotary motion. Cause; Unequal distribution of the yeast at the bottom of the fermenting vat, generally due to a strong inclination of the vat, and most frequently when the wort contains large cjuan- tities of sugar, also when the pitching temperature was loo low, and too small a quantity of yeast is employed. An unequal dis- tribution of yeast may be caused by rough wood or the presence of any foreign body in the vat. Treatment; Rouse the yeast well from the bottom of the vat. A dressing with malt flour or common salt, which is some- times recommended, is of no value. To prevent this abnormal fermentation occurring again, adopt another mashing method if the wort contains too much sugar, pilch at higher tempera- lures, and use more yeast HIU FERMENTATION. After the Krausen have fallen down, a rim of foam appears around the sides of the vessel, and the beers do not settle well. Cause; Yeast clings to the walls of the fermenting vat. either because of a weak condition of the yeast, or because the wood is rough or not properly planed and varnished. Another cause is too rapid cooling of the beer before the Krausen have prop- erly collapsed, leaving loo much sugar, which the yeast con- tinues to ferment. FOXY FERMENTATION. The beer retains a muddy and reddiah appearance, and will not settle. Cause: Weak, light yeast, or wild yeasl, or mycoderma, or much suspended matter of any kind, as s\m.\\, ^ioVt\*>'i, itA bacteria. Another possible cause is t\\a.\. \.\\e \)ctT v.Na.-i ^■^•^' been cooled loo quickly, when it sliU coalawci \««,e o^-w*^*-"* 75* FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. of siigar, the continaed genenition of i.-arlK>n- ailniilled, uniler pcrfecl rL'tiihilimi lUir- ing the leniifutalion. 4. Fennenlalion being conducted under a jiartinl vacnnni. there U a cominuous removal of carbunic aciil gas as Ui>t m gcner- atcil, which, together with admission ot sterihzed air. causes a continuous rousing of the beer. 5. The fermentation is completed witliiii seven days from the kettle. The s|K'cial apparatus used in the vacuum fermentation sys- tem are as follows (see ilhistrationi : I. Beer in!et with cap,— 2. Pipe support for three. way tixinre. — 3. Gate valves for attemperalor connection-.— 4. .-Vir filler.— 5. .'Mr sight feed with glass.— 6. Air check and stcip cock.— 7. Rack- ing c.jck with strainer (formerly called spring racking valvel. — St. Racking-off cock with cap and chain with liali-inch air pipe connection. — 9. Bracket for yeast valve support, — 10. Manhole cover— II. Beer outlet for bottom elbow. — 12. Yeast strainer. — 13, Top or large ear for manhole crab. — 14. Bof.nm or small ear for manhole crab. — 15. Crab, wheel and screw for manhole pEati —16. Testing cock with rubber luppii'— T- Thermometer. — 18. Air cock with cUk^w for ho.;e c.innecii.-.n,— jc,. Three-way /fix-//-.//, r/ir /mlf-inch lahc in the air pipe ui-i kWv^; ih« air '>/'/ /ri-f/ fixture is not .s/jowii ill tile m;iT!;m-.i\ fevVn^?-. i^M w ^ tcxiififf gi^^^ (bonic). usod on testniB cock. 754 FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. The dimensions of Ibe lonks arc as follow!^: Inside (lianii^ter of all tanks. 7 feci 6 inclics. — Outside iliame- ter of all tanks. 8 feet. — Dish of toits and h"Mtom=. 10 inches. — Height of each ring, 30 inches.— Heigiit of legs, 18 inches. — Bot- lom of tank above floor, 7 inches. — Height of tank over all, three rings. 10 feet 3 inches.— Height of tank over all, four rii^. 1^ feet 6 inches.— Height of tank over al1i five rings, 15 feet 3 The eafacUy of lauks is as follows : Three-ring tanks hold full 85 barrels. — Fcnir-ring tanks hold full tio barrels.— Five- ring tanks hold foil 135 barrels. The following cellar sfoee is required : WCEKl.V FEHMCNTIN'U C.M-.MITY. Three-ring tank 70 barrels I-'our-ring tank 90 barrels Five-ring tank 110 barrels Three-ring lank -I-Soo pounds Four-ring lank .^.500 pounils Five-ring tank 6.?K> pounds .\s far as rt'frigeraticn is concerncil. it will then require ice- iiiachiiie capacity over the cooler 10 y to r'i:~ R.. (or cooling the vacuum cellar 2J,ooo cubic feet at 6' R., fur coolinp llii- beer, say. to 1' R.. and for cooling the racking -riiini jis usual. Estimates by e.\|)ens place the ict-niaoliine ;apaeiiy reqnired. complete, at thirty tons for svdt a plant. The cliif lij'd-s and Ctirb-iuUiiis l>i"ks ;ire llie same as liic vacniim lanks, esecpi iliat llu'y are made iii lieaiier steel and iv infoTced 1" Mand cxceT^sive pres.-ure. Tin- linings of these tank* :irtaUo of bronze, and -pci-LiIly :ul;ipli;il iv ilicir purpose. These i..nks are steel, glass ciiamcicl. The preparation of ilu wort i^ identical wiili tho meibod eiu- ploved for won intended for .--y^-n fer.ncTilali..... 1 he wort is called to 46 lo 4'!' y. ih'y M r'i" Ki- and ruirii :i!o the start- ;nB tub or difectiv into feriiitniing lank. Veast i* a <]iled as soon a> co-.d^nsr i-^ i-'>!i'"'eitced, nnd tin- 'itianlHv := 1 yic - c.-nt of the total ex.r.cl :n «..M m i"-^nd-. -r al...., ^ :■ i ,■ ■.■.",; per bar- re/. 77„. f.r,;j,cr„Mre ei lb. kr:v.Miny .,l'.r i- j (.?' /'.. 7' !<■'■ It ;:i, «..n lui- V.vii rvm -.v.-... .■•■A . -■:'.V.,i.;n -VATt.- •"Still: il ;■-, Mj,] ,.r dnmii I'v \;icimm raV- \V \>':- ^^^^^\v( av =c>q\ '■' thr Kr.,t,>^'„ .nmcar. RCiicrally in \J. t" v. \v!\v ;> \\ \\w ■«Q FERHENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 755 has been run into the fermenter directly from the cooler it need not be drawn into another fermenter until the final stage of fer- mentation. The feniientation may also be finished in one fer- menter only, if desired. When the beer has been collected in the fermenter. the vacuum is regulated to iS to i8 inches, and this is maintained during the fermentation. The amount of filtered air desired to be passed through the fermenlarion can be exactly regulated and observed. The amount of air and the time for which it is to be admitted depend upon various conditions. The general practice is to admit the filtered air as soon as 15 to 18 inches of vacuum has been reached in the fermenter. The ad- mission of air is continued generally for 48 to 96 hours. The temperature of the fermentation is allowed to rise to 51° to 53° F. (S^j* to gW" R.), depending on conditions .ind results desired. When about 90 to 95 per cent of the final apparent attenuation has been reached, lowering of the temperature is proceeded with in the usual way, .The vacuum is maintained until the saccha- rometer indications remain stationary for six hours, when the vacuum is relieved by allowing Altered air to enter at the top of the fenncnler. The fermented beer is allowed to rest from 24 to 48 hours, for the yeast to settle out, and for cooling to the desired temperature before running into the chip-casks, which is generally 36° to 39° F- (2° to 3° R-). SAMPLE ERM NTAT OK. inK Till). 'vi't'ioir" -.1 'Jb=. .it 41h 51 h (Hiaer- VBlion. ^^.. • llH. AtKriiuaen lo V&ouuin T«nk. iff. & Hrs, 0.er Inlo Olhor Hr,- fi BlUIn^....' 7H-R. II.KJ a. IB.8 lO-S On 4 On otr DM S.B 7W oa aw Off ON CRIPS. The trcatmejil on chips is identical with that now' in ordinary practice for stored bper. If the beer is intended for carbouatin^, it is cooled to 33° to 32° F. (Mi" to o" R,>, ani \V\s >,<:t\Mjex's>--v«t niainlaijifd for 48 lo ij6 liours, dcpendwg u^w Ocw- ^ovw^aW^'-'J'' of the beer and tht: character oi the ^ca.sx. O:^^^ 'f*'^'^ ^i-it^^ *^" 7S6 rSKMEMTIMG CELLAR OPERATIONS. ^cqrcd in iti fennenUtioB. After beins held at so tow m tent- penlnrc for the ncccuu? tiine, it ii filtered- Care mnat be taken that the tempeislnre does not rite during filtration. Tbe filtered beer is then forced through the carbonator and charged with the gas collected during the femientation, and is tbca stored for 12 to 24 boun in a cask under pressure, and then racked off. CDLUCnXG dUUUHIC ACID DtlUNG THE F^MUtTATIOM. About 12 to 24 hours before starting to collect gas the air b shut off. but the vacuum kept on. The vacuum-pump convejs the gas to a Btnall cylinder. When the gas pressure in this c]t)m' dcr reaches about 3 to 4 ponads, this pressure opens the (team valve to the compression pump. This pump forces the gas into steel cylinders to a pressure of 150 pounds, or more, if desired. H tite gas pressure in the ttnall cylinder falls belon 3 poondl the steam valve on compression purap closes. In this way the gas collection works quite automatically. CAUONATING. The desired gas pressure in the carbonator. generally 33 to 25 pounds, is regulated by a reducing valve beiwecn the gis storage tanks. The back pressure on the carbonated beer u generally about 15 pounds. Of course, the pressures vary ac- cording to the desired quantity of carbonic acid gas the car- bonated beer is to contain. STORAQB CELLAR OPERATIONS. The beer is ready for tanking when the principal fermentation is virtually finished. The marks by which that stage can be detected are the following: 1. Decrease in the indication oi the saccharometer should still be from 1*^ P^r cent to ^a per cent during the last 24 hours. 2. The beer should have a good cover of fine, more or less dark foam. This protects the beer from contamination by con- tact with cellar air; therefore the cover should not be skimmed off raore than once during or after the collapse of the Krausen. 3. The temperature of the beer should be 39' F. (3° R). This temperature is brought about by attemperators in the fermenters, or by running the beer from the fermenter to the storage vat through a cooler, 4. The beer should show a good break in glass. Held against the light, the small sample glass should show a lumpy condition of the yeast, balled up in little clots, between which the liquid in a thin layer should show translucent. 5. The yeast should settle in the sample glass at cellar temperature within 24 hours, the beer becoming entirely bril- liant. The yeast should not settle on the sides of the glass. In a warm room it ought to settle in 3 to 4 hours. 6. The beer should look black when the cover is blown aside, showing that the yeast has settled well and left the liquid comparatively clear. 7. The beer should siill contain some sugars, i. e,, should not he completely fermented, in order to enable secondary fermentation to take place. During the previous 24 hours before tnnking there should still be a slight attenuation. 8. Beer for export purposes — bottle beer — shr>«.\4 Ticft. ^it ■^- !owed to settle too much, but rather W lackei "escttxv' "C^™ clear ("lauler"). 757 758 STORAGE CELLAR OPERATIONS. Before rniming the beer into the storage vats, the foamy head should be skimmed off with care, and then the liqnid pmnped Wllhont the least concassion or agitation of any kitid. The beer should be distributed into different Ruh tanks in order to secure a more uniform product both u to appemraocc and taste. OK STOftACE ("ruh"). Storage, Itnh," is that alafe iit which the beer is kept after the conclusion of the primary fermentation and prior to final clarification fqr the trade package. The objects of resting the beer are to eliminate certain ma- pended matter, like yeast, securing greater clearness, and cer- tain objectionable matters, like proteids, securing greater dnra-* bilily, especially in pasteurized bottled goods. During ihe "Rnh" or storage period there should be a slight progress of secondary or after-fermentation. The residne of maltose and part of the mftlto-dcxtrin are fermented by stow degrees, the amounts of carbonic acid and alcohol increasing. The yeast settles the more quickly, the less sugar there is present and the smaller the storage vats; and proteids are the more thoroughly eliminated, the better the mash was pepton- ized, the lower the storage temperature, and the longer the period of storage. Hence, long storage at low temperatures en- hances Ihe stability of beer after pasleurizalion. Starch particles do not settle on Ruh. Nor can dependence be placed on improving the beer through long Morage in respect to number of bacteria it contains. On the contrary, bacteria niay increase during storage. Low temperaturel while the beer is in storage, is necessary to precipitate the proteids and to cheek the de^'elopment of bacteria. Keep the storage cellar as near to ,12' F. (0° R.) as possible. If the beer becomes brilliant on Ruh. that is. if after-fermen- tation comes practically to a standstill, bacteria will develop more easily. If tlic beer is 10 be stored for a long lime it should not be al- lowed to liccome si> clc.nr in the fermenting vat as when an ordi- nary beer i* produced, but should. Ik- run into storage casks while still -gr^n." // Ihe beer becomes clear on storage and we intend to store it longer, it should be kr.^tisened with jlosipet ceTAo\'«j\aa«avV«»« STORAGE CELLAR OPERATIONS. 759 and pumped into another Ruh lank. Another plan is to let the principal fermentation proceed as far as usual, and subsequently run in some Krausen beer while ihe beer flows to the storage vats. This plan is recommended for beers designed to be very brilliant and remain in protracted storage. If it is desired to bring the beer quickly on the market (city beer), add chips to the storage beer and also isinglass for pre- liminary fining. For bottle beer, a high attennaling, slowly clarifying yeasl should be employed. For keg beer, a low attenuating, rapidly clarifying yeast is niore suitable. Export botile beer should be stored three months; export draught beer six weeks. During the storage period, hop-oils are partly converted into resins, the hop aroma diminishing accordingly. CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. TBI warn m nn cstr cask. When aufficwnlly toatorc^ in storage, the beer is Tft&i^ pamped into chip casks, so called from 3 method of clarifjiAgJI beer by means of chips (wluch see). Treatincni in the chip cellar has a twofold obieet I. Tri iiii| .iV '1 ihr !iiT (he necessary lite, that is, a stifficicflt . unonnt of carbonic acid gas so that it will foam properly when tapped. This is done — a. by kraasening and bunging, or b. by charging with carbonic acid gas directly (car- bonating) ; or c. by both krausening and carbonating. 3. To make the beer brilliant. This is done— a. by the addition of chips. b. by the addition of isinglass. c. by filtration. KRAEUSENtNG. This consists in the addition of Krausen beer, that is, young beer in the first, or Krausen, st^e of fermerttftion, 24 to 44 hours after pitching, according to pitching temperature and amount of pitching yeast used. As to amount of extract and other cob- stituents it differs but little from fresh wort, hence it changes fj\t composition of the ripened beer. While the addition «f Krausen beer will cause fermentation to continue in th« chip cask owing to the presence of fresh yeast, all of the sngsr introduced by it will not be fermented. The effects of krausening. therefore, are ; I. The krausened beer will have a higher percentage of ex- tract, especially sugar. This has the effect of inipairing tlie durability o( draught beer, sugar beinK favorable to the growth of <»IIP CELLAR OPEBATIONS. 761 a. The krauseiied beer will contain a larger amount of hop- resin, the taste of the beer is accordingly changed, Krausen beer being sweeter on account of sugar and more bitter on account of hop- resin. 3. The krausened beer will contain more proteids which will impair the durability of bottle beer. Use sugar Krausen for bottle beer. 4. The kransened beer will contain a smaller percentage of alcohol. 5. The tetr^ierature of the beer will be raised slightly owing to the revival of fermentation and the higher temperature of the Krausen. €. Carbonic acid will be generated by the contintwd fermenta- tion in the chip cask, which gas accumulates in the beer after bunging. 7. Young yeast cells are added. The more energetic the cask fermentation, the more easily will the beer clarify. The young, vigorous yeast cells readily form clusters or lumps of yeast which will envelop, and, upon settling, carry down with them the smaller ones, together with bacteria and other suspended matters ; ihus. in part, at least, promoting clarification. Kriiusening is based on a principle similar lo thai which leads English brewers lo "prime" beer in the trade casks by adding a strong solution of cane or invert sugar, AMOUNT OF KRAEl.'SEN. This is governed by the properties desired in the finished beer. For shipping beers — draught and bottle beer (sleamed)^that is, beers of which durability is required, not more than 8 to 10 per cent. For common draught beer. 15 per cent of Krausen is gen- erally used. These amounts vary, however, with the demands of the trade. In some cities as much as 25 per cent of Kriiusen is added regularly to the city beer. Where the laste is too bitter, use more Krausen with less hops. Where the taste is flat, also use more Krausen, but have them hopped as usual. If a beer is stubborn of clarification use more Krausen. Let the Krausen foam work out of the bung-hole for ihree or four days. If the beer is bitler, continue for e\i.tv\ &V]%. The formation of a Krausen cap over 0\t \w.wi-V^^c vtAw.'i.'t*" that the Krausen are working piroperty. 76i Cliri' CELLAR OPERATIONS. CLARIFICATION OF BEER. Matter remaining in xasptrnsion at ihe end of the sloKige prriod is eliminated by mechanical means. First among ihem ■1 the introduction of chips. "Beer chips" or "ciarifying chips" are pieces of wood so cc( as to prcMiit a nuximum of >iiTf»ce with ■ miniinam of volane and weight. Giips are made of varying lengthy breadth and thichneat. Some brewers favor the very thin, curly chip^ others prefer th» straight, thicker and smooth chip, others again the cormgated chip. Metal chips have also been introduced, but sioce .it .k known that certain metals will produce cloudiness in beer, th^ should be employed with caution. The chips clarify through the force of adhesion exerciaed ty the surfaces of the same upon the small particles of matter stts- pended in the liquid. PKEPAUKC CHIPS. Chips from young hardwood, beech or maple, are more ef- fective than chips from old or soft wood. The wood should be well seasoned, i. e., well dried before cutting it into chips. The chips should then be boiled in plenty of water to remove coloring matter and woody taste, and one pound of soda is taken per barrel of water to remove the resin and make the wood more porous. Boil again with one-half pound of soda per barrel, a third lime with one-quarter pound per barrel, then whh water alone. If. after boiling for some time, the water remains colorless and without taste, and reacts neutral, the chips, after cooling, are ready for use in the chip cask. Beer can be run twice on the same chips without removing them, then take them out and wash with cold pure water. After running beer on them twice again, wash them, first with cold water, and then with hot water, or boil them. If the beer is infected, the chips must be removed each lime after racking, and boiled each time after washing with coH If chips that have been used are to be dried, they should prci/ously be well washed and spiiivkied liberally with a sola- ion of bisulphite of lime. CHIl' CELLAR OPERATIONS. 763 MUUBER OF CHIPS USED. The number of chips lo be put into the beer depends largely upon the degree of haziness of the beer. As a rule, the number fhould be the greater, (i) the younger the beer, (2) the more particles in suspension, (3) the liner the particles in suspension (Ifactcria. proteids), (4) if no fiher is employed, (5) the larger the quantity of isinglass employed. Without filter the number of chips need not l>c more than 50 per barrel. If beers clarify with difficulty, use double that amount. With filter, use 5-20 chips per barrel, according to size of chip cask. FINING THE BEER. The process of brightening which proceeds naturally in storage, is further assisted artificially by fining the beer by means of substances which will rapidly precipitate suspended matter. For tliis purpose prepared substances that contain animal gela- tin are used. Such substances are obtained from fish sounds or from calf bide. From Fish Sounds. — These are the cleaned and dried swim- ming bladders of fish generally, principally of the sturgeon family; in the United Stales, from the hake. In the process of manufaclnrc, they are first soaked in water, then rolled, and in rare instances starch is .added for better appearance — gloss — and finally dried. This isinglass comes into the market in the form of lliin shreds or ribbons. It varies in color from a deep yellow lo almost white. There should be no odor or taste in- ilicating decay. From the Hide of the Calf.— This isinglass is mannfacturcd ac- cording to Wahl's process. (See Brewing Materials.) There are two principal modes of preparing the article, as supplied by (he dealer, for use in the brewery. Warm Preparation. — Soak one pound of isinglass in iK gal- lons of cold, pure, soft water, renewing the water until every trace of odor has disappeared, washing the isinglass in Ihe mean- time by rubbing it lightly. At the expiration of about an Uqu.c add one-fourth pound of tartaric acid — lot ^^ wy^'^te, — ■KcA.^«t«* stirring until no lumps arc leil. XiA ii\ w^i* (\\i*-«^^'^'3 ^^"^ '^^^ y6i CHIP caixAK opesations. iat water, ronsc wdl. mix widi an cqnl qaaiititjr of beer, itir- rinf to an intimate uiijUiuc, poar into the bony-hole of Ae chip caik, and atir gentlj. With the tartaric add tbe innslaai oa(fat to awdl coniidenUr, and readily diwdve in tbe bot water. It it not advinble to dincdvc it by steam, or to boil it, aa the beat destroys tbe iiin- ^■M rapidly, particdlarly in the pretence of add. CoM PrepanrtiQn.^Soak in cold water and add add and hot water, the mat at for tbe warm preparation. When diuolved. add four gallons of cold Water, route well; add Eradvally more »ater, and repeat tbii at intcrvalt for 4& hours, adding aa much water as the iainglats will take op. A good quality will take 30 gallons of cold water and keep its gelatinous consistency. This solution is mixed wilh beer, poured in through the bung- hole, and the beer stirred. The isinglass may also be gradually thinned down without previous solution by adding small quantities of cold water until up to 30 gallons are obtained. When using the cold process an addition of sulphite of soda should be made as the gelatinous mass is' likely lo mould. Sounds. — If the sounds themselves are used in the brewery, ihey are soaked in cold water which is poured olT, after soften- ing. Then add one-half pound of tartaric add per pound of sounds; when well sofiened cut up by passing through a sausage machine. Add cold water gradually, allow io soak thoroughly, and prepare warm or cold as above. Wahl's Process Isinglass.— This does not call for tartaric acid, but after properly soaking in cold water (one pound per one and one-half gallons) for one hour, should be dissolved in hot wa- ter, after which it may be treated on the warm or colli plan like fish isinglass. OPEHATION OF ISIS CUSS. The process by which the isinglass acts is as follows: The gelatin contained in the isinglass dissolves in warm water and precipitates In (lakes when cooled in beer when the solution is sumcicntly thinned out, but in lumps, w^ien x.\\t wAmvca \% \i« oncentrateii-~therelore the cold preparaUow "\^ TO-iie e5,ttin storage in I'hip "* ..-•»„orc..„,. Before racking from chip cask 0.40 to 0.4J per cent. ] In the kegs 0..15 per cent. In the glass o.j? per cent. If the l>cer contains less Ihiin O..10 per ceiil cif carlxtnic acid in j the keg or liottli'. or less than o.ji; iier cent in the glass, its taste I Hill he Hat, I Thin- arc ni-idcrn dwiccs i'.>r preventing fnaniing while rack- ! ing by niaiiit.iining a o.uiiitcr-prcssure on llic lli'wing beer, yield- ing to the forward pre- urc -iitlicici'ily 10 allow the liquid to dow. hut cfTering loo much resistance tn allow foainiiiR. This is applied both 10 kegs and lo boitk-. In Si'inc cases ihc eounter- prcsfrrc is exerted by carhrinic acid, preveniing contact of the beer with atmospheric ;iir until ihe irade c:isk is tapped, thereby niiniiui/ing the chances oi initction and adding to the stability 0/ the product. CHILLlSli THE llV.tVL. // /".-■ .i-\«: '<-"'pfr.ittir<- ,./ riK- Leer below lli-.- fvfc/u>* V""^^ "^ •^■''■'''- '*■' CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 767 beers CMitain an abnormally high percentage of proteids Ihe low temperature may render them insoluble, when the filler may remote them, this process yielding a more stable beer when bottled and steamed. If beers contain but little proteids the time of passage through the cooler is too short to precipitate any appreciable amount of them. CARBONATING. ■ By charging the beer with carbonic acid (carborating) , the detrimental iniluences of krausening are avoided. It is difii- eult, liowcv':r, to treat hccr uniformly according to Ibis method, or to produce beer witli creamy head without addition of Kriiusen or sugar solution at the same time. The carbonic acid in carbonated beers is generally introduced into the beer on its way from the chip-cask to the filter. It has been found inipraciicable. if not impossible, to carbonate Ruh beer from the storage tanks directly, one reason being that in such beers the carbonic acid is not uniformly distributed, the amount being larger in the bottom than in the top layers. In order lo be successfully carbonated the beer is usually run into a chip cask where a small percentage of Krausen is added, and after bunging long enough to raise a slight pressure it is passed through the carl>anator. FILTRATION. The latest and a most efficient artificial aid to clarification is the beer filter (see filters). It has conic into general use of late years. The beer to be filtered need not be so brilliant in the chip cask as where no fill-r is used. The proccs.s of filtering beer consists in forcing the beer, gen- erally by means of air pressure applied at the chip cask, through one or more layers of compressed fibrous material, called filter- mass, which commonly consists of wood pulp or paper pulp. The thicker the layer of pulp, and the stronger it is compressed, the more effective will the filter be in removing turbidities, but the slower will be the process of filtration. By means of filtra- lion s-easl cells, both of culture yeast and tbe. d\fl«*.T.\ N^\\.'i*i.rA of wild yea.st, and myeodeTmo c«\\s ca-xv ^« ^tTO.«st*i.. ^ the niter material is of fine texture (,m\T;t4 VAV ■*^*^5*.,^^^ and compressed very hard, bacteT\ti\ ani ^^tA^*' \>m'^™'^'^^j be effectively treated, whereas slarc^v^ mt^«*:^'>-'^ ■ ^'""''^ CHIP CELLAR OPEBATIONS. aiiimtWHM of the iiartidea in nupauioii, cannot be removed hf Utration. The advanU«et of fihratioa are: I. Gmter brillUn^ and cmucqucnt greater dnnWftr of the beer. 3. Saving in cbipt and itinglau, a« wdl u the tbne; tabor and ntenulB employed daring that itage. 3. Doing away with beer remnants and their treatment, ai a fiher will allow the last residue of beer to be clarified and nacd. The filter is inserted between the chip cask and the r a c ld ng bench, the beer in its flow from the former to the latter befa^ forced tliroiigh the same. PILTUING CK^RATIONS. Beer should always pass through the filter under back pressure, as it will otherwise foam to such an extent as to preclude the proper tilling of the trade packages. In cases where there is no back pressure racking apparatus, it is advisable to place the racking bench higher than the filter and chip-cask in order to produce a natural back pressure action, and prevent foaming. For the same reason, and in order to get a uniform flow of the beer to be racked, Ihe hose connecting the filter with the racking bench ought to be at least 50 to too feet long, and handled so as not to form any sharp corners. The hose may be of one to one and one-half inch diameter, according to the size of ttic filler and the racking capacity desired. By in- ^'reasing the siic of the hose the racking capacity may be in- ,:rcased considerably. The filter ought to be put in a cool place and if practicable, in the chip cellar. Several pounds' pressure is necessary for the passage of ihc beer through the filler to the racking bench. The pressure from the chip-cask is regulated according to the flow desired, and is limited by the degree of air-tightness of the casks and their soundness, and may reach 10 to so pounds. During the time when the filter is not in use it ought to be filled with cold. pure, iron-free water, prefcraMy condensed or boiled water. After the connection between iVie tbi?-cAs.V„ «i\m ^■p.i wecm* beach is established, and the vaWe oi l\ve c\\\^-ca?.V \s o¥«vt&. •»;*,- '-fr is allowed to escape till beer awe»". ^«d \W ov'iiVvivi qV ^ CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 769 tering properly started. A little foaming invariably takes place at the start, and the foaming liquid is let off till the beer begins to flow elcar. Where the hose leading front the chip-cask is connected with the filter an observation glass will do good service, which should be supplied with an automatic appliance for clos- ing the tiller inlet as soon as the cask is emptied and air gels access to the flowing beer. This is usually effected by a rubber ball floating in the liquid in the glass cylinder, and settling in the outlet as so.in as the liquid is displaced by air. Racking into barrels at the bench is started as soon as the beer begins to flow clear. Care should be taken not to interrupt the flow of the beer as the filtering material would otherwise give off some of the retained particles and cause turbidity for a few min- OBSTINATE TURBIDITIES. It happens, occasionally, that lurbidilies will not yield to the ordiiiary treatment, and special treatment then becomes necessary, which should be governed by the nature of the turbidity. In all cases of obstinate turbidity an energetic chip-cask fermentation, obtained by using more Kniuscn or sugar — or glucose— Krau sen «ill be found effectual. At the same lime the filter mass should re- ceive an admixture of fine asbestos fiber, and be packed tighter to mako it more effective. In this way wild yeast, bacteria and prolcid turbidities are praclieally removed. When krjiuscning the beer, add one quart of cold extract of malt {'"Kalter sati") to 50 barrels of beer. To prepare this cold extract of malt ; To 20 pounds of crushed malt add to gallons of cold water, stir well for 10 minutes, allow lo settle for one-half hour, pour off ihe liquid through a flannel cloth, bring the thick malt upon the flannel, and allow to drain. Of the liquid so obtained add one quart to 50 barrels of beer, preferably when krauscning. PBOTKID TUMBlonr. This form of turbidity often disa^pcaits u.'^qtv -HTrtrnvp.^ '>^'t beer slightly, so that it often happens \\-\a\ '\t \s ^^c,^-\^-^ '■''^ '^ celfar and has become entirely iriWiatrt, "wVetv \ii'5^«^'*> ^'^ sa/oan. 770 CHIP CmLLAH OI'ERATIONS. If (lie beer is very ctoiidy, sugar Krauscci should be used for treating it (see Preparation of Bottle Beer). Beers showing proteid turbidity should never be used for pasteurized bottle beer. .\BNORM.AL TASTE AND ODOR OF BEER. There arc limes when notwithstanding all precautions have been properly taken— at least the brewer so thinks— the finished beer will possess an abnormal taste or odor, making it unsalable or •t lea^t less palatable, tn such cases (lie important thing to do is lo go over (he whole course of manufacture in the most search- ing manner, to discover at what point a mislake was made, and take measures to forestall any repetition I'f ilic calamity. For (he inmiediaic purpose of saving the imperfect beer and making it as sound as possible, prompt and drastic measures are required. Wherever possible, natural mean* =liLmM bo employed. and (lie use of chemicals avoided, and in euosi cases it will be fi')Uiid ihat sugar, hops, a hopped sugar solution or niurt; or k'ss Kriiiisen. niori; strongly or more weakly hopped, as the case may warrant, will prove effective, will cure the evil by return- ing, as it were, to an earlier stage and Boiiig through the various proecises once more, with an eye single to the removal of the g llic laMc; Hid odor* of most froijnent ncizuri .im the desired propt-riits of the b Tlii; mav K- ciw:-l In- the use of i Western or Pacific C"a.-i !i..p?. which nr Leer a rank. M'.tir after la=te if use-i mor.- tlian ha!f .?: il-c li .p' u=cd sh.-.t'- 0;h>.-r causes ilir.i :■.:■■-%■ Ic.id to .vi ur ■\-!!g ::' :.':.■ /;,'(> .i";u-k, ..T (4'' t'.^v vrv^. Tn.^uu.m : Tiie Kcr in t!u- cV.■.■,^ c r;:ni-h hop-, especially ■(■r]uently found to give liirgi- T-ianlilics. Not 'n-Nt of Pacific Coast Blending ■■ of CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 771 SWEET TASTE. All excc&s of sweetness, or too mild a taste, may be caused by loo much sugar, or an insufficient amount of hops. Treatment ; The beer in chip-cask should be treated with less Kriiusen, strongly hopped, HABD OR TAKT TASTE. This is caused by too much acid, usually lactic acid ; such beers arc also difficult of clarilicalion. Treatment; The beer should receive an addition of soda — not bicarbonate of soda, as thij will make the beer foam too much — to neutralize the acid. The amount to be added depends on the degree of acidity. In some localities the addition of soda to the beer is a general practice in order to give the beer a milder taste. OKIOK TASTE. This is due to a peculiar condition of the yeast, some varieties giving rise to it more quickly than others. The yeast may at the same lime be entirely pure. Change your yeast at once, as soon as this taste or smell becomes noticeable. . CELLAR TASTE. Beers will readily lake up any foreign odor, as when in contact with wood or pilch, poor varnish, or when the cellar air has a rotten or foreign odor like that of asphalt from a freshly laid lioor, or tar from tar-paper used as an insulating rnaterial between the walls. Beer should, therefore, be carefully protected from contact with any such odor either in a vessel or in the air. A brewer should also avoid the employment of any substance in the cdlars that has a foreign odor, for instance, substances for dis- infecting or for cleaning purposes like carbolic acid and chloride STABILITY OF BEER. A beer which is expected to possess durability should have as few particles as possible in suspension. It should be perfectly brillia^it. n should be made between : . Stability of pasteurized VcAtte \)t« '..t-f.'^^''. ViV'^'^ Slabilily of not pastc«i««6 \«« (^e-.-VO^'^ &t^>l%^^■^ ' local bottle beer). 772 CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS, If pasteurized beer becomes tnrbid. it is usually proteid tur- bidity, otherwise tbe beers have not been propcTly pastenriied. (See "Bottling Depart nient.") If keg beer or not pasteurized bottle beer becomes turbid, it is usually yeast turbidity. If beer kept for a certain time shows any other turbidity oot- side of these two characteristic turbidities, it was not racked oS in a sound conditicm, or it was infected by foreign organisms in keg or bottles due to improper cleaning of the same. A sound beer filled into dean packages should not become sour or show a turbidity due to foreign organisms. This is a process desq[ned to give greater stability to beer. (See also "Bottling Department.") In general outline it consists in healing the finished beer in bottk tu 3 U'mpcr.ilurt' sufficient to kill siKh yeasts and other organisms as niay remain in the liquid, excluding the light during this process, after which the beer is The problem that presents itself in this ireatcncni is to reach and hold a suf5cient heat to accomplish the destruction of all germs without materially affecting the beer itself as to taste or brillianc)'. or causing too nmch loss by brcak.igc of bollles. Va- rious devices have been constructed for steaming. \'o altogether satisfactory method of pasteurizing beer in ki'gs or casks or otherwise in bulk has yet found its way into brewery operations. SPECIAL AMERICAN BOTTOn FERnBNTATION BBER5. EXPORT BOTTLE BRER. At every step from the purchasing of the barley to the proper putting up into packages and storage, of the pasteurized beer, all precautions should be directed toward getting rid of the proieids. (See "Principles of Brewing.") In a general way, superior material must be used for bottle beer to what is necessary for keg beer, or any brand designed for im- niediale consumption. The reason is that bottle beer is calculated to be kept longer and under more trying conditions, going quite commonly into residences or otherwise into private use where there arc none of the facilities for giving beer appropriate treat- ment, such as a well appointed bar-room possesses. The adverse Influences to which beer is exposed in tran.iit during long jour- neys also count in Materials : Take oirfy a choice pale malt, well grown, i. e., about QO per cent of the kernels ihnuld have Ihc acrdspire developed to three-quarters or the whole length of the kernel, and the barley should contain only a limlled number of glassy and half- • glassy kernels. The malt should have been alored for three months, having been carefnlly treated in the dry-kiln by prelimi- nary ilrjing on the upper fliKir at a low temperature, i. e., not lo exceed 100° F. (yi" R.), and tliorougli airing durinR this process, follnwcii by a final (cmpcrature on the lower floor of nnl less than 167' F. (60^ R.l, (See "Kilning Operations.") ' I'sc only best quality of rice free (vtnw Mvj vwmX-i ^■^™S\ i,v.». /rcf frniii foreign seeds, or liest nuaWly ri\ m,t'a^ n'' *>'^'^'' '^''"■^ tnriiinn „nl more (Ii.iri i per cetlt of r-A, r\OT wvut *.V-if^ \'^ N^"' '^ of Dioi.'iiirc. or corn slarcli. 774 SPECIAL AMERICAN BEERS. . For. metbods of nushiii^ and boiling see "Maihing and Boil- ing Operations." Fcnnentation : The wort is pitched with lU ponnd of yeast per barrel at 45.5° F, (6" R.) and temperature allowed to rise to 59" F. (SW R-), then cooled fo 39' F. (3* R.). The storage cellar shottld be kept as near to freezing point as possible; tbe chip cellar between 34* and 36" F. (1 to a* R.). Storage. — The beer ihoold be stored for three months. Chip Cellar. — Treat the beer in the chip cellar as usual, bnt with the exception that sugar Krinscn should be employed in- stead of common Krauien. The Kranscn should be prepared and nsed according to the following method, viz.: Sugar Krtusen.— In ao barrets of boiling water in hop, or rice- kettle, disserve ISoo pounds of anhydrous grape sugar, hoU for 15 minntes. add 30 pounds of fine American or imported hops, boil for 15 minutes more, nin into hbp-jaclc, cool to 55" F. (10° R.), add two pounds of yeast per barrel and allow to come into Kran- scn. (In about 24 hours a fine white foam will appear.) Now add to the beer in the chip-cask 10 per cent of these hopped sugar Krausen, or five barrels per 50 barrels of beer, allow to work out of the bung-hole for three days. For treatment of beer in bottling department $ee that head. EXPORT DRAUGHT AND UNSTEAMED BOTTLE BEER. Where beer is intended to ke^ for some lime without being steamed, as in the case of keg t>eer shipped out of town or unstcamed bottle beer, certain points rco'lifc pnrtioiil.ir attention: 1. The beer should be perfectly brilliant when racked off into the trade package : especially should it contain the least po.ssible number of yeasl cells and bacteria. 2. The beer should contain a proper aiiiotml of alcohol and as little .'ugar as piwible. X It should be stored at a low leinperalure. The less alcohol the beer contains wlitn rncWd, the more sugar the beer contains when racked, (he more yeast cells it contains when racked, and (In; higher the storage teiiiperaliire after rack- ing—the sooner it will l>econ)e Inrbid and form a sedintert. An export dMiiglit Wer should comam avv^<^^:\\^^^\>;^•; 1, ^ar vent of alcaboi. SPECIAL AMERICAN BEERS. 775 In order to reduce the amount of sugar to the lowest possible a. The temperature of the principal fermentation should be allowed to rise to ji' F. (8.5° R.). b. The beer should be stored for at least six weeks. c. Krausen with the smallest amount possible — about 10 per cent. Sugar Krausen should not be used. d. Let the beer work out of the bung-hole for 10 days, filling up with fresh Krausen every day or two. Then fine and keep under five pounds' pressure for four weeks at least before racking. e. Keep the chip cask cellar at a higher temperature than the Ruh cellar, vis., at 3^4-39° F. (2-3° R.). f. Use warmer Kriiusen—si" F. (8Vj° R.)— i. e., pitch the Krausen brew at a higher temperature, 49° F. (?%" R.). Preferably add to the beer abotil 5 per cent of Krausen and carbonate it. g. More chips should be used and the l»eer fined with more isinglass than usual, and it should then be filtered, MALT TONICS. These beers are made of a dark color, some having the general characteristics of a heavy -brewed Bavarian beer, like Kulm- bocher, for instance, with a pronounced mall flavor and sweetish taste, a high percentage of alcohol and relatively small porccniage of extract; others having the .same general characlcristics but a low percentage of alcohol and high percentage of extract. The latter type is brewed and fermented like the former, but receives a larger percentage of Krausen, or wort, in the chip-cask. Malt tonics are generally put up in bottles, attractively labeled and usually distributed by druggists. If such tonics are adver- tised for use for medicinal purposes and so sold by the retailer in good faith, and not as beverages, and if Ihey really are medi- cinal preparations, the druggist will not require the United Stales rcinil liquor dealer's license to sell the articles. The mere ad- dition of a drug used for medicinal purposes is not sufliciciil to exempt the dealer. As to such licenses as he ma^ ■^ti\\\vin. vw^fs state or municipal Jaws and ordinances, \oc3>\ TWtvlwi.V''i'^^ w,-»*i''' bc-consulted. (See "Legal Relations.''^ .^ A/aUrialt: H/gfi-drled malt with ca*avnc\ ■n\^\'^. \)\^Oi SI^CIAL AMERICAN BEEK5. or roasted oom, in qnantitiea to mit color, hops from i14 to a pounds per barrel, according to flavor and degree of bittemna Strength of Wort: i6 to iS per cent Balling. Method of Muhing and BoiUng. (See "Pure Malt Beer.") Method of Fermentation md Storage. (See "BotUe Beers.") Treatment in Chip-ratk: Use from 15 to 30 per cent of Krauscn. and if low percentage of alcohol and high percentage of extract is desired, add in chip-cask a ctM-rcsponding amonnt of wort. Trealmrnl in Bollliug. (See "Bottling Department.") TEUPERANCE BEER. By thi!( term certain bcveraget are known which are intended to be sold in districis where the sale of intoxicating liquors is pro- hibited. The percem^e of alcohol is reduced so as to make the beverage n on -intoxicating. (See "Legal Relations.") Such beers arc usually produced from a wort of 6 to ft per cent Balling, con- taining no more than 4 per cent of reducing sugars. Materials: Pale malt with or without unmahed cereals or Mashing \fcthod: Wahl's Lauter-mash nielhod will give good results (sec "Mashing Operations") where a brew is specially made: otherwise the spargings of an ordinary brew may be used together with glucose containing a high percentage of dextrin. Add one-half to three -quarters pound of hops per barrel in kettle, tie. FcrmnUalicn : .Vdd three-quarters pound yea*! per liarrel at 45' F. (6° R.). let ri. cool to 39° F. (3" R.). store one week. Trealiiwnt in Chif CUar: Kr.iuscn with 15 per cent of tem- perance Kriiufcn and tre.it beer as usual or carlmnate. Trciilincnt in Bollling. (See •■Bollling Department.'") CALIFORNIA STEAM BEFR. This liccr is largely consumed throughout the stale of Cali- fonti.!. ll is c.illed steam beer on account of lis high elTervescing proptTlics and the amount oi pressure ^,"'s^cavl^*"^ it has in the packages^. TUc pressure rangcl Svom ifi V" lO njowmA^ ™ tw^i. trade package, according to the amowv oi V.r.ww\N ^44<4.. \*m SPECIAL AMIiHlfAN llUKRS, 77? peratures, and time it lakes before being consunicd and the distance it travels from saloon rack to faucet, etc. Usnally 50 lo 60 pounds' pressure is sufficient for general use. Strength of Wort; u to laH Balling. Materials: Malt alone, malt and grits, or raw cereals of nny kind, and sugars, especially glucose, employed in the kettle to the extent of 3^',:i per cent. The liarlcy is malted as for lager beers. Roasted malt or sugar coloring is used to give the favor- ite amber color of Munich beer. Mashing methods vary greatly. Some brewers employ English mashing methods, but the double mashing methods employed in a great many lager beer breweries, starting with low tempera- lures, in fact, mashing as though for lager beer with the excep- tion of stopping and mashing at 158° F. (56° R.) until all is converted, will give very good results. But as a rule the initial temperatures are taken about 140° lo 145° F. (48" to 50° R,), then to 149° to I54° F- (52° to 53° R.), mash 10 to [5 minutes, and then raise to 158° F. (56° R.) as final temperature. The raw cereals are cooked and added in (he same manner as if conducting a lager beer mash. The mash is allowed 10 rest about 43 minutes, and the same precautions tnken In running off wort and sparging as in other mashes, the sparging water to be about 167° F. (60° R,). The hops used depend upon the quality. Of a good quality, three-fourlhs of a pound per barrel is used and added in the usual The wort is boiled as soon as Ihc bottran of the kettle is cov- ered, and after the kettle is filled, boiling is continued for one to two hours. The wort is then pumped to the surface cooler, and then over the Baudetot cooler and cooled lo about 60° to 62" F. (la" lo 13° R,). In breweries where no cooling apparatus is used, the wort is exposed over night, or until it is cooled to aljout tlic above temperature. fertneulation: The wort is now run into tubs of the starling tub styte and size, where it is pitched with about one pound per barrel of a special type of bottom fermenting yeast, and well aerated. In about 14 hours a thick, hcavv K.^w.-iks^ head appears from which the heer \o \>t ^acVei 0% >. ^■i'-"*^'^^ The temperature of the beet is novj aWu^ »° ^'^ ^ \^^^i. or about 6s° lo 63° F. {13° (o \A° ^-^ "^^ ^wcVci ^'^ *** ■ 778 SPECIAL AMERICAN SEEKS. Krinsen have been taken it ii run into long, wide shallow vats, calleil ctarifiers, which are made of wood, about ta inchei high. Precautions thould be taken that clAriiierj, in nliich the beer stands six to eight inches high, are not too cold, >o as to give the wort running out of the tnba a sudden set-back which maj check fermentation. This can easily be avoided bj sprinkling the cbrificrs with hot water previons to letting wort run. The wort then ferments in the clarifiers for two to four days. Precautions are taken against exposure to srnilii^ and the fermentation should not rise loo high. The matter which rises to (he lop is skimmed off continually. When indications are the same as in lager beers, viz., dark color, yeast well settled, good, clear break, etc., it is ready to be racked directly into trade packages, or if for some reason it is deemed expedient, it may be racked into small casks of 5, 10, 15 or so barrels' capacity and kept there at a moderate tem- perature until wanted, then Krausened and racked off. IF racked off directly from clarifiers. the Krausen is added with a qion afiiT fermented, about 10.5. Wiener ■".\f;irzcn;' and c-xport beers .ibout 1J.5 lo 15.5 Balling. .■Xceoriling 10 Thausing modern beer in Germ.iny and .Xusttia is brtwcil according lo the decoction method with Ihrcc m.ishes. while fnniitrly ijircc different systems werL- r list inijui shed and known as the Vienna, the Bavarian and the B.^hoitiian. This o'i.'liiiclion has become obfiilcie, since at \irefcnt in .-Xustria, espe~ <•;«//>■ /(; \7i'fin;i. ;i,s well as in RiiWnVia a^A t.\i:T™-A\v; A\\- ittoc.- '■"" I'iclho'l n-i'tli three luaMies U wwcrsaWs- i:™vV^n'A. Vi'si* 780 EUROPEAN rniCK MASH IIKKKS. 781 and there slight changes arc maUi; in ctrlain breweries in rcaaril to the temperature iicriotis ami (he finit of boiling iFit iii;isii without, however, any [icrccptible diffiTi-nci-s in results as 10 tin- character of tbc liter. The initial or duiiRliine-in itmijerature is about zK" t proL-eediiig will take 13 to 20 minutes. Three parts »i the whole mash arc; sucetssively Ixiiltd and called the first, setond and third nins;:. eiich for 10 id 45 miiuitef. In Bohemia, where jialc burs an- llit vogue, boiling is often re- stricted to 10, IS or 20 mimilts. in N'itnna generally 30 minnie,*, in Bavaria often 45 minutes. As 10 heating the nuish in the kelile. experience shows that tlii> should not be done too quickly, hut thai on Ihc other hand, it is nut only a waste of time, but also may impair (be quality of the licer. if the mash is left for a prolonged period at low teinper;itiire. i. e., heating it too slowly. This heating is governed to a certain extent iiy Ihc qualities of the mall. The method of hfaling is most important with the first mash, whieh, in the tliree-niash process, is run into the mash kelllc -nt a ttmperalure of 2^" to 30" R. (i/i" to 100° F.). and there frequently raised to 40° lu 45" R. (iJ2^ to 1,13" F.) by the remaining water. This ihiek mash is then raised in 30 to .10 minutes I0 60" R. (167" F.) and in 10 to 15 minutes more to a l)oiI. To prevent scorching, the stirrers must be kept going until boiling begins. Where imperfect stirring devices arc in use the temperature is not uniform throughout the mash, but higher at the bottom and near the sides than is indicated by the thermometer in the mash. Enough of the thick mash was run Into the pan to bring the total mash in the mash tun (first mash) to 40° to 42° R. (i2J° to 126.5° F) V pumping it over. The mash should be pumped neither too fast nor too slowly. What is said about heating the mash applies here as well. About 15 minutes may be taken for this work. The mash having been well worked through, a sufficient quan- tity is again run into the mash kettle so as lo bring, upon return, the total (second) mash to 50° to 52° R, (,vv^-5.° ^"^ "^ff '"^ ^ ■ ^'*-'^' 0/ ttic first mash liaviiig remained in ^V\t ^mv ^\\t ■i^t's'^^. ^*'^' general!}' has So' to 55° R. ti44V W i^tf "5-"l ■^■'^ '=^^'^'^ '''' 7& EUSOFEAK THICK HASH BEERS. rcttcbioK it and can be to heated that it comes to a boil in is to 35 minnte*, acconling to the malL The firtt two mashea an thkk mashes. By kec^ns the wmA machine going while the mash mas inro the pans, nmcfa of die thick part of the muh passes into the pans. Brewers foim ci ly were particular to boil very Ihidc mashes, thinking thereby b» make the beer Ytxy full to the palate. The third mash is gen* , et^y a "lanler" or thin mash. Before rmming it from the na the raash is allowed to rest for a while, permitting ihe solid parts lo settle to some extent, wherenpon Ihe mash is run oS to as to get as much dear mash as possible into the kettle. Brewcn used to put a strainer before the outlet and, in some brew-* houses, to drain off the "lauter^' mash through the false hottoo. At present, the distinction between thick and "lauter" ""fhrt it - not often made, and frequently three' thick mashes are par- posely boiled. The ihird mash is brought to a boil as quickly as possible, usually in about 15 minulcs. The quantity is lo be taken so that the main mash reaches 60° R, (167'' F.) by pumping up the "lau- ter" mash from the pan. This last operation is called "final mash- ing." It is followed by pumping the mash into the strainer (Lan- terbottich), where it is kept in motion for some lime by crutches or stirring machine to enable Ihe grains to settle uniformly. The decrease of diastatic power in the decoction mashes ac- cording to Lintner is considerable. (Zeitschrift f. A. ges. Brao- wesen, 18S8, p. 317.) If this power at iS' R. is designated as 100. it was found to be 61. 1 at 43° R., 26.S at 49.8' R., SDd only 26.8 during the straining period. The mash having been brought from the niash-tun lo the strainer (Lauterbottich) is left to stand. Then the wort is strained and the grains sparged, using the same general precau- tions already described for the respective processes in the produc- tion of American lager beers. The wort is generally boiled in the keitle nnlil it shows a good "break," then onc-lialE of the Imps is ailUed. and after one hour's boiling the second half, which is i>oi!ed for an hour 10 an hour and one-half more. Total length of boiling with Atys, 'wo to two and onc-lia\{ hows, 'smwcvmci oTv<;-V.-iU of the Ae>/>s is added ns soon as the wort \)o\\s. owt-i\wa^\cT ^\\tT wnt ^ar, the last quarter one boat bciott i\mnw* owv.. EUROPEAN THICK MASH BEERS, /R^ According to Thauging (Malzbereilung u, Bierfabr., i8g8. p. 609) ihe amount of hops used for ihc diRerent types of beer is generally given per hectoliter (about 25 gals.) of wort, mention- ing the saecharometer indication of the worl. For Bavarian beer, to one hectoliter beer of 12.5 to 14.5 per cent, hops to the amount of 0.20, 0.28 to 0,30 kg. are used. For Vienna beers the quantities of .hops per hectoliter used are as follows (I kilo — 2,2 pounds) : For 10.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.20 — 0.22 — 0.26 kg. For 11.5 per cent saeeh. indication 0.25 — 0.28 — 0.30 kg. For 12.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.30 — 0.33 — 0.36 kg. For 13.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.32 — 0.36 — 0.40 kg. For 14.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.3S — 0.40 — 0.42 kg. For 155 per cent sacch. indication O.40 — 0.45 —0,50 kg. For Bohemian beer the quantities of hops per hectoliter are as follows : For 10.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.30 — 0.3S — O.40 kg. For II. 5 per cent sacch. indication 0.35 — O.40 — 0.43 kg. For 12.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.42 — 0.46 — 0.50 kg. For 13.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.45 — 0,48 — asj kg. The boiling of the wort in the kettle, as well as the mashing in the inash pan, is as a rule still accomplished by means of direct firing, but steam healing is more and more taking its place in iirewerics of modern construction, since brewers have become extrase and levulose 6 to g per cent Maltose 52 to 63 P" cent Dextrins 18 to 26 per cent Gums (taken from the amount of gum obtained by Lintner front a Munich beer), about 0.18 per cent Nitrogenous substances (N X 6-25) 313 >o 5,6 per cent Mineral substances, about.. 2 percent Free acids calculated as lac- tic acid 0.6 to 0.9 per cent Aubry gives resuUs of boiling liops with wort with regard to ihe amount of albuminoids eliminnlcd. In loO parts <^f wort ey.~ tract he found the following .imounts of nitrogen for unboiled wort and after b-'iling ivilli lii.ps (Wagner's. Jabrosbtrichie. iftja. V- &4S) : I A o.9.'6,i o.s;tx> 0.4053 Uniioppcd wort 1 B 0711,=; 0.545S o.3?4S I C 076.:;j 0,551s 0.3067 \ A 0.8921 0.7114 O.S943 Hopped wort , B 0.7576 0470^ 0.2564 / C 0,7416 o.5io(. 0.3S81 BiuigtiKr ;iinl Fri.>? obtained auiounti of d-lfereiit albuminoids before .lud after boiling, as follows: Before lii^iling. .\fitT boiling, ,\lbu'iiin tiicrcgen o.Kij per coi;t 0057 per cent IVpii-.iie iiilfiKcn 0.125 per eent 0.100 per cent ,\iniiie iii'.r'.igen o..i62 per cent o,,iP3 per cent Accmling [■' TiiLiusing. ilii; p\l(\v\v\^ vcm^ti^uw; is chosen /oner tor Jiyht colored beer- ai\A \Vie:\\';T W .\„\\^ ^-'. --i-lvX oi\ev jencrallv between 4' atid (j^ U, t,Ai' ani A; ; 'c V ""' EUROPEAN THICK MASH BEERS. 783 temperature of fermentation for Bohemian beers is 6" to 7° R (45-S'' to 4?.75'' F.). for Vienna 7° to 7.5° R. (4775° to 49° F.), for Bavarian 8° and 8.5° R. (50° to 51° F.). The amount of yeast used is the greater, the higher is the Balling indication of the wort, the smaller the fermenting vats, and the lower Ihe temperature. The amount generally varies from one-third to three-fourths liter and should never be less than one-half liter for hectoliter of wort (about one pound per barrel). The temperature of the beer after fermentolion at the time when it is ripe for casking is 5° 10 6° R. (43° to 45-5° F-)- Somethiies it is cooled in the fermenting vats to 2° to 3° R. (36.5° to aS-zS* F.). In the Munich breweries the beer is cooled on the way from the fermenting vat to the storage cellars, by means of pipe coolers to 3°. 2° or 1.5° R. (38.75°. 36-50° or 35° F-)- The beer, ripe for casking, should contain a sufficient quantity of fermentable extract so that the secondary fermentation may pro- ceed properly in the storage cellar. The opinion that high atten- uated beers have a low degree of palate-fullness, and low atten- uated beers a high degree thereof is untenable. If the beer in the fermenting cellar has high attenuation and shows sluggish after- fermentation a light bodied beer with poor foam-holding capacity is the result, whereas a high attenuation in (he fermenting cellar combined with a proper secondary fcrmcnlalion is unobjeclion- abie. It is to be considered a favorable symptom if tlic differ- ence between the attenuation of principal and secondary fermenta- tion i$ a large one, and unfavorable if the difference is small. It will be misat is factory if this difference is only 2 to 5 per cent, satisfactory if to to 15 per cent, while differences of 20 per cent have been observed. Some illustrations may be given: 1. A wort showing 10.5 per cent by the saccharometer reached 3,5 per cent by the saccharometer in the fermenting cellar, i. e., 66.6 apparent degree of attenuation (v — 66.6 per cent). After remaining in storage for six weeks the saccharometer still showed 3.2 per cent. The apparent degree of fermentation of the beer is calculated at 69.5 per cent (v' = 69.S per cent). The difference Li-tween fermentation in fermenting and storage cellar (.v' — "iN IS 2.9 per cent. The beer will turn owv \«\?a.<\i.\^O.QX-5 , 2. A wort s/iowing 13.5 per cent by ^\^« sa.cOna.i'^w^'-" "'^ '^"^ mcntcd in the feriiieiiting cellar lo SS P" '^^^'^ '^"' ^^ ^^*^ 786 eusopEAN thick mash beers. cent) ; in the storage ceUsr lifter fonr moolb* to 4 per cent ^ the saccharometer (v' = 70 per cent), v" — v = loJR per cent The fenncntation ii normal. 3. A wort is fermented in tfae fermenting cellar from 10.5 peer iv.is racked into cask, i\\e moi<; \v ■;QWa\\\'T. ot readily femientublc e.xiraet, and the warmw v\\t \ic« ™\^ \\Nt ^<»«^^ cejlar arc kept, the bigger will be a« \woA o^ lo^™- *^*^ *« ^^^ ICUROl'KAN THICK MASH BEERS. /OJ fermentation may be so vigorous that beer is ejected from the bung-hole and runs down over the cask. This ought not to happen. In order to avoid loss of beer and for ilie sake of cleanliness, vessels are placed on the bung-holes to receive the foam and beer that is forced out, which is always very biller. This is used for tilling up casks or, properly treated, can l>i.' put on the market. The same object can be attained by not tilling up the casks to the bung-hole until the intensity of secondary fermentation has somewhat abated. It is always advisable to let the foam work out of the bung-hole. If no hood of foam rises from Ilie bung-hole, notwithstanding the casks are full, or if it disappears very soon after rising, the beer being "dead" in the cask, it is a sign of deficient secondary fermentation which is always bad. The causes may be faulty iTialt, either overgrown or undergrown or spoiled in kiln, yield- ing a deficiency of fermentable extract in the beer; more rarely it may be due lo casking the beer while too "lauter" (clear). The brewer should always watch the secondary fermentation closely. The hood of foam contracts and takes on a deeper color, finally disappearing entirely, which is always the case with a sound beer if the cask was not full. The composition of the extract, the strength of the beer and the temperature of the cellar cause the foamine to stop sooner or later. What the brewer wants is that the hood remain for rather a long time without any violent working out. It affords a symptom for judging ihe progress of the secondary fermentation. After the hood has disappeared, the cask is filled up once more. For beers that are used young, stored cold, and properly prepared so as to be of normal com- position, it ought to be enough to fill up once, as the secondary fermentation lasts a long lime. Lager beers are generally filled up two or three times and when they have stopped throwing up foam, the bung-hole is loosely covered with the wooden bung. While in storage, a sound beer becomes clearer by degrees, the particles making it turbid, as yeast and other suspended matters, (.■specially albuminoids, settling on the bottom. In order to hasten clarification and make il perfect, clarifjin^ Onv^^ a^t v^^. vcAq <&«i hccr wiiere hltcrs are not used. Tlicsc chips arc made of hazc\ or viVvXe XicccV^NO^-i- /^^"^ "'^^ i.v cut so as to secure straight chips a.\>o\H. \t) V-c* * '^'''"^ TbS eukofean thick mash beers. 1.5 to a inches wide, and A to A iiKh thick. They should be smooth and without cracks. Before using them they are tboronghly boiled in a special tub, cbanpng the water repeatedly, steam that is pure and without oil or other impurities being' cchii- monly used, whereupon they are rinsed in cold water. They are wet when put into the storage cask, being inserted cither into the empty cask through the manhole, which is simple and quidc or bcmg added through the bungtiole after the cask has been filled with beer.. The beer is run on the chips if it is to be marketed soon, whereas it is preferable to insert the chips through the bung^ bole if the beer is to remain on storage for some time- They can be put in two to four weeks before racking for shipment, in the lat- ter case. As to the number of chips for a cask a little experience wiU speedily give the requisite information. The more quickly the beer is to be clarified and the more stubborn it is of clarification the more chips should be used. As a rule one kilogram of wet chips is enough for one hectoliter of beer, which is equal to about half a kilc^ram of drj- chips. Care should be laksn to prevent chips lying in front of the tap-hole, which might cause trouble in racking. This is more likely to happon where the beer is run on the chips and for that reason experienced brewers gener- ally prefer to put in the chips through the bung-hole or else re- move the chips from the tap-hole after the cask has been filled. Occasionally the practice is met with of pumping beer intended tor local consumption, froni the storage cask 10 smaller casks, oflen on chips, and to "krausen" it .strongly at the same time, whereupon after it has become tlear, it is biinsed and racked, or, in small breweries, drawn direcily for immediate consumption. It is believed to acquire particular brilliancy and life by this Ireat- I.ager licors. anil I'ttcn young bi-trs. are (;tni*rally racked from the storage casks without "Krausen" and quite clear. They are called ".Mi?agbier"' in Austria. In Bohemia more especially, the practice prevails of adding some iVniicnling wort, in ihc low "Kniiifi'ii" flnge, lo dear young bur wlicn rackinj; into trade casks, paniciihriy in the co\d seajovi. This 'n>^ti.\«, ^-jWi^'VLtin- fen" /or sJiort. The aniomit oi ■■Kiuv\*vn" <..> Xw i>V\-;^\ Awa\i\.t ■he greater, the It-s_^ active is v\k \cai,\. \\w ^^^i';' ^■■■■^ ■■■^■^'^^*^ *^- EUROPEAN THICK MASH BEERS. 789 tenualed the beer, the more foam is desired, the warmer the storage cellar in the brewery and the colder the bar-room in which it is to be kept while being consumed. The amount of "Kraosen" should, therefore, be governed by the condition of the beer and yeast, ajid the season. If loo much is added, there will be danger of the beer being turbid when tapped and perhaps not becoming clear again at all. A small amount of "Krausen" is half a liter per hectoliter, a large amount is 5 to 6 liters. As a rule, 3 to 4 liters per hectoliter is enough. The amounts must be determined empirically in each brewery and varied to meet the requirements, "Kriiusen" should always be taken from normally fermenting "Kriiusened" beer, before being drawn, should lie still in the place of ccMisumption for some time, from one to eight weeks, according to the temperature of the place. It should also re- main lying still while being drawn. Only in rare cases does the practice survive of the dispenser of the beer opening the cask, filling it up until it is clear, and bunging it once more. If this is done, plenty of "Krausen" should be given, as much as 10 liters per hectoliter or still more. "Krausening" serves to revive active fermentation in the beer. It is made to foam strongly and the large amounts of carbonic acid developed imparls a sharp taste and the foam becomes firm. It enables even beers that have been stored warm and arc not suitable for consumption, as "Abzug" beers, to be sold in good condition. This affords a reason why breweries which put out "krausened" beer need not be so particular about keeping their cellars cold. The Bohemian breweries sell their young beer all through the year almost altogether with "Krausen," only lager beer being marketed without "Krausen." It is the practice at Pilsen to allow the beer after being racked into trade casks with "Kriiitsen," lo lie in the brewery for several days and undergo another fcrmenlalion, filling them up again just before they leave the brewery. The beer thereby becomes ready for con- sumption in the dispenser's room in a shorter time, requiring lets lime of storage on that account, furthermore, being stored in a cold cellar will foam better, the toaiTcv WC\ \it ^wix*. ■wKA and lifting, and the beer taste more pricViv. si\ o^ -nVaOa a'^t -in^- lues that dislingtiish good Bohemian be«. Ku(A\vM ■ii.-^^t*^^'' 790 EUROPEAN TBICK MASH BEERS. of "Kniusening" is that the fcnnenting beer in the trade carit ii less sensitive to sercrc cold and also suffers less from best This is important in shipments to Img distances, and explains why it is customarj in Bohemia to add a small amount of "Krauscn" (one-half to one liter per hectoliter) even to tager beers which are intended for long distance shipments (export beers). Beers that have been "krautened" can be sold younger than "Abzug" beers, and need not be quite dear when leaving the brewery, since they remain in storage at the public-house where they become clear, provided the beer was good to begin with, the "Krauscn" is strot^ and the beer properly treated. This ac- counts for Bohemian breweries getting along with small storage capacity. BUNGINa The bunging period differs widely for one type of beer. General rules cannot be given. In Munich the summer beers are commonly bunged for about two weeks, the younger and weaker winter beers six to eight days. Vienna ''Abzug" beers are usu- ally hnngcd one or Iwo weoks, lager beers cilher not al all or not to excaed two weeks, Bohemian lager beers are generally banged for a long tin^c. viz.. up to four weeks and over, parlica- larly if the storage cellars are nioderntcly cold and the beers old. Tlic pale Bobeniian I>ecr which is generally more highly fer- , ntented require"; and stands longer bunging. The practical brewer will readily sec if a iK'cr has been bunged enough by drawing a sample through the try-cock. When the licer is agitated in the sample glass, mimerous tiny bubbles of carbonic acid gas should rise in ii slowly. It is a bad sign if the carbonic acid liberated by the agilalioii escapes quickly. In draught (.M'zug) and lager beers that arc to be racked clear it is ciiilomary. in order to obtain the mvi'-sary lite, to bung the caik.i tichily. thereby preventing the esc;ipc of carbonic acid fias and crciling .1 pressure in Ihc same. Thr.' iiilliiencc of temperature and bunging on the carbonic acid conlont of her i- shown hy I.anger .iiid ?i-hult7c. The aiiimiul ••{ c.irlioiiic add in worts of 10 jut ci-nl H,. in which .v" per crnt of lite cxltatl was a\i\iaTi:'\\\-.- \o(vl-.v,',.;A \\\ x\w prin- cipal fermcni.ilion. was: EUROPEAN THICK MASII liEEBS. At 0.4° C. = 0.332 p«r cent = o.oio per cent At 1.6° C. = 0.326 per cent = o.oio per cent At 2.8° C. = 0.311 per cent = 0.008 per cent At 4.0° C. = 0.297 per cent = 0.012 per ceni At 4.7' C. = 0.297 P'Jr "nt = 0.017 per cent Average = 0.012 per cent It may be said that within the range of lemperalure from 0° to 5° C, the carbonic acid content of a Vienna "Abzug" beer, with equal pressure, rises or falls by about o.Ol per cent, according as its temperature rises or falls by i* C. The carbonic acid content of this Vienna "Abzug" beer when bunged for five and four days, respectively, showed an average increase for three tests of 0.046 per cent, i. e., 100 g. beer after bunging contains 0,046 g. carbonic acid more than before bung- ing, or 100 c.c. of beer by bunging takes up an additional 23.8 c.c. of carbonic acid. For 36 hectoliters o£ beer this amounts to nearly 9 hectoliters of carbonic acid gas more absorbed by bunging. To increase iJie carlmnic acid content, of beer o.oi per cent, an average excels of pressure of 31.3 mm, mercury column at o^ C. was required. When bunging wa.s over, the tension within the cask averaged no more than 0.19 atmospheres. The largest amnunt of carbonic acid that could be forced into • Ibis "Ali7,ug" beer hy the lowest cooling and moderate bunging at the same time was 0,390 per cent. The beer was excellent. With 0.320 per cent of carbonic acid the ".\b;ug" beer cif a brewery in Vienna was only medium good as 10 life and prickU- ness, but if the carbonic acid content fell below 0,320 prr cent, the consumers began to complain, SPECIAL GERMAN BEERS. Besides the recognized types, like the Bohemian, yiciin and Bavarian beers, of each of which there are brewed two \!,rieties. (he Scl'fik or K-'itt/iT Beer and the Laser or 5iimiiicr R*c' *v^»- above), there are beers brewed for spEc\a\ ^w^^'^'f' '^'^ c'j.OiW-^^^. ^ hkc Bohemian Export. Vienna Escort or Ba-uoT\ow V-Jt^ro'^- « ficers brev/ed /or special occasions \ike Boct. 79^ euitOPEAN TBICK HASH BBEfiS. Export and Boek differ from the Schenk and lager in that tbcj are brewed strotiger and coolain more alcohol. Thus the percentage of alcohol and extract fonnd, as the result of the atialjrses of a large number of beers, was on the average: Alcohol. Extract. Schenk or Winter Beer 3-36 5-34 Laager or Summer Beer 3-93 5-79 Export Beer 4-40 ^-38 Boefc, Ooppelt or Maraen 4-69 7-« Beers are brewed in certain localities which have achieved a reputation far beyond the confines of their homes and which hare certain peculiarities that distinguish them from the ordinary type. Such are : Kulmbachcr.—h very dark beer with the Bavarian character- istics especially accentuated, brewed along the lines of a Bavarian lager, from a very strong, original Balling of wort of about l8 to tg per cent. Far Brauniclin-cigfr .Uuntriir. Broyhan. H'cissbrrr. Adam brer and olli.T sffcial Gt-nnan b^irs. Sfc 'Gcrmaa Tof-Firmcnlalion TOP FERflBNTATlON BEERS. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, AMERICA AND GERMANY. While on the continent of Europe the lager or bottom-fer- mented beers have rapidly displaced the old-lime top- fermented becra, excepting Weissbeer, they have been unable to gain much hcadw.-iy in the United Kingdom, where top-fermented beers, as ale and stouts, still hold undisputed sway. The same is true of Canada, and other English possessions, where lager beer brew- eries are still unknown in many localities, while in the United States there has been a decided revival of interest in ales especially. ENGLISH TOP-FERMENTATION BEERS. Tile beers brewed in the United Kingdom and its possessions show similar cliaraetcrislic differences in their properties as the German liccrs. They are called "ale," "porter" and "stout." Mild brers, whether ale, porter or .flnut, are called such as undergo no secondary fermentation, but arc marketed about seven days after the principal fermentation is finished. Stock beers, or old beers, whether ale or soiit. are such as have undergone a secondary fcrmcnlalion and are stored about two months or more before marketing. The mild beers are distinguished from the stock beers by a more sweetish (mild) taste, containing more untermenlcd malto- dcxlrin and less acid, the old beers, on the other hand, becoming more alcoholic and tart. There is. therefore, much difference in the properties ot mild beers and old or slock beers. Mild ales are usually brewed of a darker color H\w\ 'iVi -^"if., ivilh less original gravity and less Viops. O/// or sfnck ales have a pale to amWt coNox , t\vii^.», ^■•'^'^*^ "^^ moreorlcKs tart taste, strong hop flavoT. an* vVovi'^'^^'^'^'^- 795 794 TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. a high percentage of extract, have less extract left, but contain more alcohol tlian stout, which is mainly due to the practice of drj-hopping ales, which remits in breaking down the malto-dex- trins more effectually than ii the case with stout, which is not dry-bopped. StOHtf are quite dark, almost black, have a pronounced malt- caramel lasle and aroma, a sweetish taste if mild, and a more or less tart taste, according to age and circumstances. They are brewed stronger than ales. . Porter is brewed less strong than the old beers. It stands in a similar relation to stout as does a mild ale to a stock ale. BREWING MATXMALS IN ENGI^ND. The nutteriah used in England, besides mall, haps and water, are usually sugars of different kinds. Such are caramel (pro- duced fi'om glucose) for black beers, invert sugar and glucose for mild and stock ales, while of lati' years, rice, maiw and u'hcat arc gaining in favor. The Engli^li drinking public now prefer iK'urs of low gravily to the stock l>ceri. and since they should contain only a niodcralc amount of alcohol, but <^nf{icient extract to be full to the palate, sugars should be used for these t>ecrs. containing the requisite amount of un fermentable eitlracl. Mall. — Most brewers use sotnc foreign barley mall, together with that produced from domestic grain, on account of the better darilication of beer and better drainage of wort, white sonic brewers use California barley malt eriircly. the beer from which keeps belter in hot weather (Th.nchcr Brewing nnd Malt- ing. i&j8. page jo). Foreign grain, beside*, dots not develop so much acidity and mold during germination. Usually pale malt is employed in the production of all the beers, together witli some coloring material, preferably car.imel, brown malt. .->nil>cr malt or roasted corn for dark ales, porter and stoul. Sometimes black beers And mild ale; reeeivi' an addition oi caramel solution in the fermenting ve=sel ii;*! jirior to the close of the principal fermentation. For dark beer* liichcr ksln- dried mall' .ire preferred by niany brewers. .■\s to the requiremems the u'alt i= to meet and the produclivm of F.nplhh JJialT. see '".Maltinp in Knglaiid." //i'/j-.— ir/f/i regard to bops. \\ie t\\s.\\A\ Vii;«-:i \i'i<3« the cnipinymciit oi foreign quaWtks <^i \vv^ ^'^ 'A-.™^ •«■'"■'«' *« fonwMic arffcfo, idc proportiim iren«ett\\> r^w^^ ^'- V' V" ^'^^V TOP FERMENTATION BldERS. 795 The English hops are distinguished for (heir delicacy of flavor. especially Ihe East Kent goldings. and these are eagerly sought for flavoring choice pale ales in dry hopping. The relative qaantilies of hops and of other materials to be used in brening the different beers, according to Ihe gravity of wort and other requirements, may be gathered from the subjoined table : Lt».Hoi»ln GraTlly Lontt, ItarreL HalllnRof London i*lBWller ale.... f.. 12-IS 4-8 23-EB sa-?ft si acMO above lo. LbK. IMS 'Tl" m-3 ■ s 3^ M London [our bLe ^v«^f Jj6 pounds). 796 TOP FBRUENTATION BEERS. In atl cases water of a comparatively high temperature (itrik- ing temperature) is run into the foremasher or outside masher, where it is well mixed with the malt, then falling into the math- ton, which contains warm water enongh to cover the false bot- tom. The rakes are run to get even initial or primary tempera- tures, the mash is allowed to stand a short time, when the temperature is raised hy an underflow of water of about 180" under the false bottom or through an underlet, to the end tem- perature, which is generally but little above the initial tempera- ture. Here the mash is allowed to stand or rest for about one and one-half lo two hours, after which the wort is drained completely, and sparging is undertaken. The temperature of the first sparging water i$ usually taken higher, about 170', fur a few barrels, as the grains have cooled somewhat ; then itio° to 16s* is taken, which will bring the temperature of the mash lo about 160°, which is the permissible limit, .'\fler reaching this temperature the remainder of the spnrgtng waliT should be run on so as to have the mash gradually recedo lo 152°. which is appro xiiiialcly the tap heat that should be maintained through sparging operations. TemperaiurcE may be taken as follows for different lypes of Pale or Slock Ale. — Initial temperature, 151° to 152°: stand '5 to 30 minutes; raise temperature by underflow lo 15.1*; siand one and ouL-half lo two hours, and tap. Irish Sli'til from high kiln-dried mah. Initial temperature, 14,1° to US' : If stand, 15 minutes; and raise heat 152' by under- flow of 180°. l.iMtd''n Sloiil frnni high kihi-dried malt. Iniiial tt'mperattire, 148" to 150' ; let stand, 15 minutes, and raise lo i-,y. nith un.ier- llow of 180'. Limited Decoction. — This process seeks li> eoiiiliine the Ger- man decnction process wiih the EuRlish inlnsion meilioj. The Plash is carried out as usual, the niash-tnn heing, li-'wever. pro- vided with .1 'leam coil. ,\ficr running otT the lir'l won to the amount of lialf a barrel per quarter ( 1 L'. S. barrel 10 500 [Kiunds 0/ malt) into a separate vessel until reiiuired. fto^nn is turned oa. and tlw tomper.ilurc ot the mas\i Ta\s«i,\ v> :\i Y . v^' R.^ "'/'ere if is fccpi I'or abnul 1 J i\i\t\\«e*. >k\i>:\\ vVt \.;\\NVv-.^a\.\\ni \i '"''iced to afionl 160' F. \,^7 R-t \>i' s-V^tim?. -j-aV. v-.>V\ -s-sXm TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 797 while stirring. Then, the wort which was held in reserve is re- turned, and the temperatiire brought to ifo° F. (57° R.). The mash is left to rest for 20 to 30 minutes, and taps are set, and op- erations continued as usual. When unmalted cereals in the form of grits are employed they may be treated according to methods familiar to American brewers. In England, it would seem, the mai?.e cannot he sufficiently gelatinized by employing '.he methods there in vogue, the unmalted cereals not being subjected to high enough tem- peratures, nor sufficiently long. The raw cereal mash when considered properly gelatinized, is cooled to the usual striking temperatures of the water, and the malt is lun in to get the ordi- nary initial temperature, and operations are continued as usual. Boiling lilt: Wert.— While running into the copper the wort is held at a sufficiently high temperature to destroy the diastase, and some brewers boil while the kettle is filling, others bring to ebullition as soon as filled. Hops are sometimes added as soon as the heating surface is covered, buL it seems to be becoming the more usual practice to add the heps when boiling sets in, adding all the hops at once in the production of black beers and mild ales, while in the production of stock or pale ales a large proportion (% to ^) is added when boiling sets in. the remainder about 15 to 20 minutes before turning out, the wort being left gcnlly to sinmier after the additinn of the second portion in order not to lose too much flavor. -Srjme brewers boil only one hour, others two and more, bui iHvi hours' Imiliiig seems to be becoming the more general In many breweries the copper lias not sufficient capacity lo hold (he entire brew. The wort is then boiled "at twice," or in "two lengths," or evi-n at three times or in three lengths. Sparging is kept up under these circiimslances until the ket- tle is full, tile tups are then closeil and the wort is allowed to "stand on" umU the tirst length is finished, or the second length is collected in an "underback," where it is kept hot umil needed. From the copper the wort is "lurYioA (i\\\." 'n\Vi ^^\•; \\rv^-Vis>*-. where it rests lor about 20 iiiitiutcs, ivni »* v"'"^"'V^'^ '^'■' '■'^^'^ ^?'''^ face cooler, ivlwre it lies until the leM\V';^'AV\«>= ^= ^'^-'" ^^^"^^si. 130' 10 140°. It is then passed ovi^r ov \\\vo\i%\^ ■* V^'-'"^ ^ TOP FKRMENTATION BEERS. to reduce the lemperaturc to 58* to 60* F. (13* 10 13* R.). and is then ready to receive its addition pf yeast. TOP-FIX UBNTATION APFUANCZS ANV OFEUTIONS. The essential difference between lop-termenlation and bot- tom-fennenlalion is in the behavior of the yeast, which rises to the lop during top-fcnneniztion, where it is cither removed by soitable implements, by a process called "skimming." or is al- lowed to work out of an aperture at ihe top of the fermenting vessel, by a process called "cleansing." It the cleansing takes place in casks, the yeast working out through "swan necks" into a common trough, it is called "Burton union system ;" if through openings (lips) in the top and edge of upright tanks, the tanks theniselves being so placed as to form a trough for the yeast, it is called "Ponto system." Then there is a com- bination of the skimming and the cleansing syMems in the ''stone square <^ysieni." the yeast working ont through the tap of a closed stone square, from tvlicre it is rcii:ovi.'(l by skini- FEBMENTISO VESSELS. These are now ehitfly constructed of wujd loak or fir and also American cedar of late). Stone and slale have not given sat- isfaction, although still extensively used in soiik* parts. The vats are made cither round or square and arc called "rounds" or "squares," rtspeclively. Rounds are usually made of oak staves, held together by iron hoops : squares, of planks about two inches thick, boiled together with iron bolts, genir- atly made of fir or cedar. The vessels .ire not coaled with varnish or pitch, as is the case in lagi-r licer brewerii's. as the alcoiwl in some ales reaches such a high percentage as to .^fieu pitch or shellac. Oak vessels are prepared b>- filling ihem with boiling hot water a number of times, while lir containing nmch resin must receive special treatment. Southby recommends to lill such vessels first with U'iling water, which is run niT the next day. Then the side* are scriibbtd with a mixture of j'-j pounds ot chloride ('/ lime ;iT gallon ni waler. After 24 li^'iirs the \a\ is washed oiii II iili a mixlure ot one part ot \\\iiTv(W.i,T\i; ^;\>,\ aw4 i<»K parts of n,i[tT- Then it is \\ashei\ '-'VA s^-^vi-.v\ wiv.:^ VuCa i-oiJing water anil linallv scrubbed ovu «\\\\ sx\ - xAwvmv ^\xt of bisutpbUc 01 lintf to retiwve :»U u;ic.> -^ ■;^■>'^'*"« TOP FERMENTATION DLERS. 799 American cedar needs no special preparation, but iiiay be used after being scrubbed out. "Stone squares" should be constructed of large slabs of liarit, impervious slone, or of slate, which retains a smoother surface during wear. The description and sketch here given are taken from Sykes, the Principles and Practice of Brewing. 1897, p. 445. The stone square has a jacket, C, also buih of stone slabs, leaving a space of about two inches, which is filled with water for ihc purpose of altemperating the beer. The square proper, A, is covered over with another slab having a circular aperture, the "manhole," uf 18 inches' diameter, which is sur- rounded with a stone ring some S or 6 inches high, on which fits a slonc lid provided with a handle. In one of the corners of the covering slab is another opening situated a tew inches froni each of the sides and about three inches in diameter, provided with a brass valve, E. to which a chain is attached. From the under side of the valve a tube. D. extends to within a few inches of the bottom of the square; Ihis is technically known as the "organ pipe." Upon the upper side of the cnv cring slab is placed the yeast trough, Vt. cfv\\W.T\\0.t4. '=^ 'v-«''^ p- slabs, ii has the same s«pcrftc\a\ r a depth of from 24 to 30 inches. A pvimv „\ \V.t ■5^=-'^* sary adjuncts oi i inches and stroke six inches. The Us 6vi.mcveT ^^ '•^"'tJ TOP PKRMENTATION BEERS. fully cemented in all ita joinU and tbould be inspected from time to time, as any defects in the jointing are certain to vaakt tronble. Instead of the water-jadcet an ordinary attemperator maj be nsed inside. Slate cannot be cleansed 1^ boiling water, ms it would be likely to crack or qilit NeiUier can bistdpfaite of lime be applied, a* it would attack the slate. Neutral sulphite of lime is therefore used to whitewash the inside of the square for antiseptic purposes, while coatings or deposits on the stip- face are removed by caustic potash or soda solutions. Loom Pitces. — Where the cleansing method is emplojred, brew- ers often run the beer frotn the square or round into casks or puncheons holding about four barrels. Tfaey arc placed on troughs in which the yeast is collected that escapes from the bunghole. The casks are inclined to one side so that the yeast runs down one side only. Someliincs conical tinned pipes arc insericd inlo the bunghole. called "swan necks." through which the yeast works out imo thu trough. The casks must be kept "'topped up" eonlinually — every two hours during the first 24 — upintt for this purpose tirst the clear trough beer, 3n'™; farms a cont'muoas coil circling the tun aXiovi^. V^"';'^ ^*'"''\'y,. Vv Movable adeniperalors are suspended ■«\\.Vv OnavT^^ '^'^'^ *■ ' weights. 802 TOP FBRMENTATION BEEJtS. Arrangtpuitti for Stimmmg.—SoiaH roaads t tunally skimmed by hand. In luge rounds either a "psraduitc" or "skimming" board is used. The parachute is a funnel cod- iwcted with a pipe penetrating the bottom of the ton. For rounds, the skimming board is n>ade to revolve around a cen- tral rod, and is capable of being raised and lowered, as «dl as rotated, from the outside of the tun. It pushes the yeast be- fore it into a trough, which extends (instead of a parachute) from the center to the edge of the tun, provided like the para- ctiuic with a down pipe through the botiutn of the tun. (Wright, a Handy Book for Brewers. iSgr. p. 4<.»8) III the squares ihc trough extends along (ine of the sides. .1 Rotary I'umf if u^ed for rousing and i^i so constructed that it permits of the raising of the cominuons sirvani of wort, or piimp'xng air into the fcrmcniiiig ivort. ^norhcr contrivance iot tovwrng nni aeTniivK at the same lime consists of a small CAsk <.>\ aWwi. tVic; 'fi\V->\\^ t^^^nvi, with both its ends removed and tovm^ * ™«*«^ ^"^ '"^'^'^ """t^ firon^;, its sides. It is weis^ted -cX* \<:^^ ^" '^^^^^^ '•^ :adily, and suspended by a rope ¥as,s,vtv% 'os TOP FERMENTATION UHERS. 803 cask is let down into the fermenting wort and pullod sud- denly to a short distance above its surface; by repeating this several limes, -a very efficient rousing and aeration is secured. (Sykes, the Principles and Practice of Brewing. 1897, p. 451.) TOP-FER MENTATION OPERATION S. The amount of yeast to be added is dependent upon the sys- tem of fermentation used, the fermentation temperatures, gravity of worts fermented, materials and temperatures used to produce wort, qual^y and consistency of barm employed, and amount of aeration. With the Yorkshire stone square system, a slow type of yeast is employed at the rate of only 9i to 1% pounds per barrel. The following table for the other systems may be found useful (Thatcher. Brewing and Malting Practically Considered, i8g8, page 86) : AMOUNTS OF 30 If. worlds loJ'/ilb. iwrb^l. ora to£K 3.Mb woil!i»!ilolH ]>> l>erbbl. oiS;^ 10 3 lb. |i«r Amprlemi bbl.or23i4 llill. In many breweries the yeast is added to the whole of the Hort nflcr it has reached the fermenting tun. Sykes recora- uieiiils first to run down a small portion of the wort at a tem- perature of from 65° to ?5° F., and to mix the yeast with this. In this way a rapid and vigorous growth of yeast is secured from the onset, and the reproduction of any bacterial organisms, should these happen to be present, cffectnally held in check. The remainder of the wort is then run in at a slightly lower temperature than that which the whole bulk if to have when collected, so that at the finish the gyle may be at the proper heat. The wort, while being collected, is rou-^ed at frequent in- tervals in order that the yeast may be evenly diffused through it. Where much rousing and aeration takes ^Vitt 'Ciw -i^-k^x -«^Jv mu\lip)y faster, and less yeast is tet^Mue* \o\ ^jwOftWt V.^'^™* fqiLirc systum). , ^^.^ The best yeasis cotnc from beets ol n\e4w<^ *T^^\\-J NJC'^ heavily hopped. In strong woils X\it ^^a.^^- ft'^*'*'^^ ^ TOP FKRHENTATION BEERS. sIvSRisb, and in heavily bopped wort its surface ac<]iute« a coaling of hop-resin, which DainnJIy inlerfera with the fnlfil- menl of its proper functions (Sykes). FcrmenlaHon Teiiiferatiirtt.—The weaker beers of about tS to 3o pounds Long. (taU to 14M Balling) are sUrted at about 58° to 60° F., and arc allowed to rise to 66' to 70' F. Stronger beers are started from 56° to 58° F., and arc allowed to go np to 75'. Where the plant is provided with powerful attemperators the fermentation may be commenced at a higher temperature and confined within narrower limits, say between ^i" and 65' F., with good residls. Lower fermentation temperatures are said to give beers with finer Savor. ApfcaratKc of tht Headt 0/ Yetut During FfrmvHtalicn Lac- cording to Sykes). — Two or three hours after pitching small bubbles of carbonic acid begin to rise to the surface. In another two or three hours froth begins to form around the ^ides of the vessel, and this gradually extends over the whole surface and increases in volume, until what is termed the "cauliflower stage" is reached. This Ihcn gradually passes into ihe "rocky head stage." The heads go on steadily increasing for a lime, and often attain a height of three and four feet above the sur- face of the wort. The more or less "frothy head'" now com- mences 10 fall, and the "yeasty head" coKtniences \o lorni. This is in a constant slate of motion from Ihe continual fonnalion and hursting of the large bubbles of gas. With the commence- ment 01 the formation of the jeasty head, what is known as [he ■skimming point' i.* reached, the normal limc for this being about 48 hours from the time of piiching. The gravity of the wort will by this time, according to circumstance*, have liei'n reiliiccd 10 from one-half to tiio-lliirds ci its origi- nal graiily. It is al this [loiiit Ihai the >cparniii.ii i>i ihe yeau from the wort begins in the cleansin); and >kiinming systems, !md it is alen Ihe point at which the trcnlmcni of (he beer on ihc different system* diverges. ('/.■MS.-i:j; .S>/.iH.— The wun is piTchul ;ti ~f' 10 uV F.. and n/iiti iif gravity is rcducci\ aUnw ontAr.Cii. -.m^ iv- \v.\\%'erature Aas r/son fn a|,out ro . which is gciKtu\H ^v.wV'.\ -.v, -^ \^ n^. fMirs after pjicliing. it is run invo \W eVav.--.u¥. =^-Vi. \-««w i"cces, or Burton unions. The Umv-iTaUUC ^liW-; 'v.vv'- ^"^ TOP fi^rmenta: I BIKERS. 805 in the small casks to 70* in winter. Where the trasks have no aitemperators the beer is run down at a somewhat lower tem- perature in summer. The casks must be kepi continually full by feeding or topping up by hand, as otherwise the yeast is not comp'letely ejected, some ol it, sinking to the bottom, and the beer is likely to acquire a yeasty tasle. (See also above under "Loose Pieces" and "Burton Unions.") Skimming System (according to Sykes).— In this system the fermentation is started in tlic same way as in the cleansing sys tern, but when the skimming point is reached, the wort, instead (if being run off into cleanfing casks, is well roused. As scon as the head begins to assume a distinct yeasty character it is skimmed off once in every six hours, or even oftcncr. by band or special apparatus, and the wort which passes off with the yeast slioidd be freed from the latter and returned to the vat. When the Icmperatiire of the fermenting wort has risen to about 59° F., the allcniperalor is started slowly, and the flow of water through it is so regulated that the beat is allowed to rise half a degree every three hours. When tbc temperature has reached 6s° to 66* F !bc atlcmperatiir is put into more vigorous action in order to lircvtiil any further rise of temperature. As soon as the proeesE of fermentation begins to slacken, the temperature is lowered 111] it reaches 60° F. SkUmiiing is kept up till tbc wort is judged to be able lo throw up just one more head of sufficient thickness to protect it from atiuospberical contamination, Tbc right point lo slop akimmiiig is found by pushing a snial' portion of yeast on one side and examining ihe surface of thr beer thus exposed. When this appears black and clear, denoting that there is scarcely any more yeast in suspension, skimming ir slopped, and the head which subsequently forms is allowed ic remain undisturbed. Droppine Syilem (according to Thatcher, Brewing and Malt- iuR. Practically Considered. 1808). — Thi^ system is so thoroughly suited for producing modern light gravity pale ales that its adop linn will ultimately become general amcng the brewers of the United Kingdom. Tbc beers after he\T\x icin\eW.'i& 'vc> ^o-mi^"!> 'i'^ st/iiarcs. as usual, until tlie skitnmuiR \«i\v\l \% t\cm\-j ■tt-itVtis.^^ Ilic correct temperature attained, ave \\wv\ Axov?^^ ^ vc^seh. fittuitcd upon a lower floor. TlWse 4toW^'-' generally sqmrea or rounds. raUiev sVaW-^-"- V-^*^^'' ^t'-'J^' ttructtd of dale, or itnod, copper lined, the sliallowneM mdwdliig expulsion of yeatt bf mr&ce attnclion, conieqneutlr dearar beera are attainable. Attcnqwraiors are fixed in both top and botttMD vessels. After drop^nfc tbe beers are treated as npon Ae ordioaiT tkimming astern, removal of yeast, attempctation, etc By dropping the beer, tbe yeast is thoroughly aerated snd tins stimulated to vigorous reproduction. The dirty head, containiag hop-resins, bacteria and other foreign matters, is left in tbe top vessel, consequently only a fresh and clean su^ily of yeast rises in the droppioc vessel. Following i$ a typical femienlation of an i8 pound (12K Ball- ing) beer: r. I-oiiDds. Wednoil*!', T p. m.. W Ik.D. idded IM |c«si iwrbanrl. Tbunda)-. T*. m.. Wh IT.S. ibrowlntto'l >l>e lilankpt. Iliuniilmy. 7 il m.. fil IS.U, rocky. lUiliW'kmklni: hnd. dirl renioird » tl rrldv- r 1. m.. S4 14.0. trnihy twad, stiemi-eniinr on. FrMsy. T il m.. am lO.S. ran to dranilni: Miitarc. Mluraay. TB.B..1U r.S. ■Ilomprisltd. HklBUDlDRt-VRry ibrf^ baorr. SstuRtaj. T|Lm.,7Uti S.u slieiDMrelorolI.KtliiiminiEfxiTy thrcvbooni. Sunday. T«,ni..ni't !> S. taut iKln, atlrmanl addvd pmnlnKnolulloii. Snodsy. T|i. m.. STW s.& HFilllB|c,Biifiii|wnlln)c hard. Monduv. ' ■. m.. at !>.H. i«ttllnii. allemiwiailiiK hard. Tiuwday. Ta. m.. .SHK &.S, nck«L Yorkthire Stone Square Sytlem (according to Wright, A Handy Book for Brewers, 1897). — Thi!; systen) i<^ nfi gainm^ in favor. The necessary number and costliness of the vessels are against it. also the difficully of nminlaining lliorougli cleanliness on account of the liability of the stone slnl):^ to crack under the influence of boiling water. The yeast is usually mixed with won in llie upper square (see above), and then allowed to run into the lowrr. which has been filled or nearly filled. Fcriaiitcal roii^inR hy Tiieans of a pump, the number of strokes given inerensiiig with cndi repeti- tion, is tlic cornerstone of this sysii-m. It begins between 20 and 30 hours after pitching, with Ibc pump -rousing of the content? of the upper square, which h.-ys had fonie indicp of wort left in it. now, however, allowed, by opening the valve, to .flow into the lower Miuarc. Subseipicnl puniping-j are I'r'im the lower square into the upper, whence the W'lrt il'iw. Iwck into the lower again, through the cprti valve, thisc punipiiig-i hi'ing con- linued at lutcrval*. till the (leptse (il aUem\ar\^M\ v- n^ached at ivhich yean begins tn {..rm. TVic >-ca~v woiV.- sw\. >a \W vnaxk- TOP FERMENTATION iltKRS. 807 from it flows hack into the lower square, through the valve. The lattv ii'left open till the fcrnientalion has nearly reached lis term, when it is closed for good, any excessive formation of yeast being afterward skimmed froir the manhole. Owing to Ihe enormous degree of aeration and the mechanical rousing which the fermenting worts undergo^ the range of tempcralure can be very much reslricted. It rarely exceeds 6° F.. compared with the noroiaJ 9°. 10° or even 12° of ordinary systems. Ci^tnsing in Ponlos.— This sysiem is dropping into disuse alto- gelher. After the ycast-making has ceased, the beer is allowed to rest for 34 to 48 hours, so as to deposit the bulk of the yeast held in suspension, and as soon as it h.is become sufficiently settled it is run off cilher into the store or the trade casks, care being taken to avoid any agitation which would cause excessive froth- ing an<., lu>\vcvcr, coupled with TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 809 absolute brilliancy, results which are generally secured by fer- menting beers of no remarkably high gravity at high temperatures. and supplementing this with rousing and aeration. If the ordi- nary English system be followed, vatting is perhaps the only way of getting that amalgamation of flavors which characterizes a perfect stout. Accordingly a blend of a vatted stout, having a gravity of 30 pounds (20 per cent Balling) or higher — the higher the better — with a sweet running porter of say 18 to 19 pounds gravity (12 to 13 per cent Balling) will certainly give far belter results than a single stout brewed at 24 to 25 pounds gravity (16 to 17 per cent Balling), and sent out unblended." W or ting. — Stout and porter for immediate draught often, be- sides being blended with vatted stout, receive an addition of un- fermcnted wort varying from half a gallon to a gallon and a half per barrel (Southhy, Practical Brewing). Those stouts which arc intended for bottling and export must not be worted. Finitigs are added cither before the beer is sent out. or by the customer in his cellar. About one pound of good isinglass is made up to about 10 gallons, according to processes faniilipr to the American brewer, the cold method of preparation being em- ployed, and tartaric acid and sulphurous acid are usually used in cutting. About one to two pints is added to a cask (1^'^ U. S. barrel). Beer Storage (according to SoiUhby). — Beer may be stored either in the casks in which it is to be sent out, or in vats of larger m smaller size. In former days, vatting was almost uni- versal, but since the great success of the Burton ale breweries, vatting has gone more and more out of vogue, and is now almost confined to the storage of the stronger class of black beers and some special varieties of strong ale. For stout, the vatting sys- tem seems alone capable of inducing those peculiar changes and the development of those ethers and flavors so much valued in the finest productions of the London and Dublin porter brewers. When storing ale in casks, it is necessary to provide against the excessive development of carbonic acid. This is usually effected by the use of the porous spile. These spiles are made from the wood of the American black oak, which is full of tubular cells running in the direction of the grain. They are made about an inch long awd \.vvcwt\ '^v;^c«^^^'^ conical. They arc not pointed, but \)o\\\ - change of temperature. Burton beers, in former days, were exposed by day to the heat of the sun, and by night to the frost, and. by this treatment, they became so hardv that thev retained their condition and brilliancy under the most adverse intluences. In Burton the usual practice is (Southby, 1889) to stack up the casks in open yards, covering them up by mean^ of hurdles wattled with straw. As the warm weather comes on. further protection becomes necessary, and the casks arc either i^laced in the now vacant malt house, or the straw is frequently wetted during the day by sprinkling it with water. Ales of sufhcient strength, or pale ales in which a large propor- tion of hop ha-^ been used, can he stored in this rough manner with safety, hut a groat risk is run with the lighter class of ales unless they are stored in ccol cellars. BOTTLE BEERS. According to Wright, ale for bottling should ho allowed to go through all its cask changes, svowx^wviow-^ btUUancy (un- TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 8ll aided by finings) at the end of them being the simplest criterion of ripeness for bottling. The temperature of the bottling cellar should not exceed 55° F. (10** R.), and may well be lower, and a fair amount of ventilation, if it can be managed, with a uniform temperature is desirable. When bottled, however, a higher temperature is required to insure- proper condition, say from 58** to 60° F. (11%** to 12%° R.) : but note that too speedy maturity is not to be wished for, pointing, as it does, to faulty brewing or incomplete secondary fermentation. Messrs. Bass & Co. used to issue the following instructions to their agents : "The proper season for bottling pale ale commences in No- vember and ends in June. "Pale ale should not be l>ottled during the summer months, nor after hot weather has set in, even though the temperature should afterward become cool. "The ale should be placed bung upward in a cool, ventilated store, about 50" to 55** F. temperature. "If the ale should get into a brisk state of fermentation, a por- ous cane or poroi!s oak spile should be inserted in the bung until the excessive fermentation has subsided, when a tight, close peg should be sub"^tituted. ".Ml- sJKnild never he allowed to become flat. "It should l)c briglit .'jiid sparkling when bottled, but not frr- iiHMitini]:. The bottle^ tn 1)e corked directly they are filled. "in lioitlinR. a tap v/ith a tube reaching toward the bottom of the bottles should be used. "When corked, rlie bottles to be piled sianditip upright and not lying on their sides. "When the ale becomes ripe, a sediment will be dcpo-^ited in ihe bottles. In uncorking be careful not to disturb it. but empty the contents of the l)ottlc into a jug. keeping back the ^^ediment." A simple test for bottling fitness is to fill a clean bottle with the beer and keep it at a temperature of about 90° F. (26° R.) (see "Microscopical laboratory") for about four days. If no de- posit shows within this time, good results may be expected. TURBIDITIES AND OTHER DISEASES. Beer Turbidities. — ^These arc brought about by much the «^?v\\\v; causes as those affecting liger bccr«^ vmdex cqtV?C\tv t\\Q^w\xv<^vc\-\'^^'^^ Their treatment is much more difRcuU ?>\t\c however, can be dispensed with, a carbonating room taking itj place, while the stock cellar is retained, since some of the ale? arc stored. CREAM OR PRESENT USE ALE. Material. — Seventy per cent of malt, 30 per cent of unmalted cereals; or 75 p^ cent of malt, and 25 per cent of sugar added in the kettle. Mashing Method,— \i,ixiA temperature 122"* F., hold 30 minutes, lun in corn mas!:, hold at 154** F. for 30 minutes, run up to 162° F., trtasji'tintit "conversion is complete, rest one hour, tap, boil like tagci" beer, adding from one to one and one-half pounds of hops per barrel. Add sugar (if used) 30 minutes before run- ing out. Balling of wort. 14 per cent. Cool, give from one-half to one pound of yeast per barrel. Use skimming system. After yeast-making is over, let settle for two days, fill into trade barrels, and add 10 per cent Krausen taken 36 hours after pitching. For treatment of grits, flakes, etc., see "Mashing Operations'* for Lager Beer. BRILXIANT ALE. Brew like present use ale. Balling of wort from 13 to 15 per cent, hops one and one-half pounds per barrel. Fermentation. — Skimming system. (Sec **Stock Ale" and "Brewing in England.") After yeast-making is over let settle tor two days, bring into storage tanks at temperature of cellar (44** R). Add finings, pump over in 5 to 6 days, fine again, cool to 36° F., carbonate, filter and rack, or run from storage tanks to chip-cask when there is no carbonator, fine with isinglass and treat gencralW like lager beer. Temperature of chip cellar about 39° F. Kriiuscning with lager beer Krausen cantvol \i^ \t<:.c>w\vcsK.vw$^^^- as the churaclcr of the product then appio^icVv^^ V^Q \\\nvc\\ ^"^"^ '^^ lager. STOCK ALE. ^^^H ifatfnal. — Pale malt alone, or with 25 iter cent of sugar. Mashing SU-thod, — Initial lemperaluie of mash from i^g' 10 151° F., run liot waler through underlet or pfaff to raise the teia- perature to 154° F- mash imlil inversion is complete, rest for one hour, u^e from two to three pounds ol hops per barrel, adding one-third after all ihe spargings aic in and wort boils, one~third aftcT boiUng one hour; boil one hour longer, and add the la^i one-third about icii minutes before mntiing out. Dulling itt 10 18 per cent. If sugar is used, add as per cent 30 minutes before running out. Sparging water should have following Icinpcralures : First. 176° F.; second, 170° F.; third, 165° F. ; foutih. 165° F. (See also "Brewing in England.") FermenlalioH. — Cool the wort to 59' F.. add cmc and one-half pounds of ycasl per barrel, let (cmpcratvrc ri*e lo 70' F.. alter 36 hours rouse for 30 minutes, and run the «le ti^'o skimimrf, i. t., vats in which the yeast is skimmed off. After vea.'-t-makitig is over let settle for two days, run into trad^ barn's, add antt- guaftcr pound oE a good quality of dry' ho|>i P«r Jwrrcl, and p with one pint of a 30 per cent solut; Store from three to four months. (Sen' al land.") STOUT AKII POkTEK, The principal requirements, as compared palate-fulness, pronounced tnalt f1; best to use mixed mahs, dried malts. If this cannot be had, and sug.ir coloring 10 the required ar The mashing method and general are the same as for slock ale. //of ,1.^ Porter, one and one-quarter pounds per barrel; stout, two and one-half pounds per barrel. Added in the same manner as to stock ale. Sugar (if used) to the amount of 25 per cent, added in the kettle 30 minutes before running out. Porter, 13 per cent Balhng strong; stout, from 16 lo 18 per cent Balling. fermtnlalion like stock ale. No dry hopping. Store three to /our months. c «ucar per harr*]. 'Brewing 10 En^ and darker color. It is of high and low kiln- lel malt, "black" malt,, should be added. "^ of porter and stout TOP FKRMENTATION BlitKS. Slock beer for bottling (ale or stout) should go through ordi- nary cask- fermentation (secondary fermentation) and after about three to six months it should be filled in bottles, while moderately lively, at from 65° to 70° F., when it will raise sufficient gas .0 become brisk again and have a pungent flavor. Beer botlled previous to secondary fermentation becomes too wild in llic bot- tles. The bottle stock beers are not pasteurized. (See also "Brewing in England.") AM EH 10 AN WEISSDEER. The process of manufacture of this beer niay be copied from the German methods. However, the material employed and method of mashing is usually quite different. Wheal malt is sometimes, but not generally, used. Instead, grlls are employed to the amount of about 30 per cent, together with pale mdlt The grits are trealed as usual, the mash is started at about 40° R (iaz° F.), and temperature raised by addition of grits mash ;mc.! water to about 58° R. (i6i° F.). The wort is boiled for a short period (about 30 mimites) with hops from one-half to three quarters pound per barrel. Strengih of worl about 10 lo 12 per cent Balling. For Ireattnent of beer during fermentation, see "Berliner Weiss Beer." Ale yeast should not be employed as is often the cy&e bul yeast from a Weiss beer yeast should he obtained in case of need. In America the fermenlation is generally conducted in vats instead of casks, in which case ihe yeast is skimmed off. After fermentation the beer is krausened and tilled in bodies. Undoubtedly the American article could be much improved by employing the materials, as welt as the mashing method in vogue in German Weiss beer breweries, especially the nialcrial, as grits will under no circumstances yield those albuminoids that give Wcisr; beer its character, as wheal malt does. Certainly there .^eenis no reason why American Weiss beer brewers should not be able lo procure a good wheal malt. Weiss beer in America is sometimes stored, bunged, and fined like iager beer, but a brilliant Weiss beer does not seem to cnich the fancy of the consumers, who are accustomed to the cloudy, lively article of Berlin fame. For details of Weiss beer production in Ge^mMv^ see wv-sA. ^■.i%'^ 8l8 TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. KENTUCKY COMMON BEER. Like California steam beer, Kentocky common beer is nuinljf consumed by the laboring classes, and is chiefly brewed in Loui*- ville, Ky. It is marketed while still in an early stage of fer- mentation. Materials employed are: Barley malt and about 25 to 30 per cent of com, with some sugar color, caramel or roasted malt to give a dark color. Balling of wort about lo to ii per cent. Mashing temperatures vary greatly, both low and high initial temperatures being taken. In the latter case the com mash is cooled with water before running into the mash-tun. Boiling. — ^The wort is boiled with about one-half pound of hops per barrel, and cooled to 6o* F. (i2* to 13* R.). Fermentation. — ^The wort is pitched with one- third of a pound of top-fermentation yeast per barrel, allowed to come full in Krausen, and then transferred from the fernier.ter directly into the trade packages, which arc placed on troughs, into which the yeast is allowed to work out. The barrels are kept full con- tinually by topping up every few hours. After 48 hours in the barrels the fermentation is over and the barrels are bunged ; when very much gas is required they may be closed in 24 hours. The beers are not as a rule Krauscned, nor fined, and con- sequently have a **niuddy" appearance, but a moderately clear article can be obtained if the saloonkeeper lays in a supply so that it can settle a few da3's before tapping. TOP-FERMENTATION GERMAN BEERS. BERLINER WEISSBEER. Of the many varieties of top-fermentation German beers, it is only IVciss beer that has been able to compete with the lager beers, while the others, being gradually displaced, arc but little known, or enjoy only a local reputation. Although the methods for the production of Weiss beer vary considerably in different parts of Germany, it may be of interest to consider only the Berliner Weiss beer, as that is the kind which seems to have outstripped its rivals in Germany in point of quantity consumed, as well as in the I'nited States, where it is considered the one type worthy of imitation. Berliner Weiss beer should have a. v^r*? v;\.\^ color ; be nioder- ately char, distinctly tart, tIcVv 'm c^i\iov\\c ^c\^> ^o vXvax \v TOr KERMLNTATION llEERS. 819 lains strongly when jxrared, and should hold the foam moder- :ely well. There are quite a number of variations of methods employed I the production of this beer, even in Berlin, but we will con- mt ourselves uilh giving only one in detail. The Materials employed are wheal malt and barley malt, hops Mi water. Three parts of wheat malt lo one of barley n-.ait as formerly considered to be the proper proportion, but sinci: a reater degree of transparency is required of the product, the in- tnalion is of late to take less wheat malt. The original Balling [ wort is about 10 to iz per cent, amount of hops about three- iiarters of a pound per 100 pounds of mall, or about one-quarter f a pound per American barrtl. The water employed should contain some salt and gypsum. E it does not. it may be prepared by adding about live pounds [ table sail plt ioq barrels, and as much gj'psum. Mashing 0['cralioi\s. — Three jiarls of wheat malt orevioiisly ampencd, so as not to be crushed loo finely, and one part of irley mall are run through the fore, or outside, masher, 10- ether with cold water, and the temperature raised by running I hot water from Ihe mash pan to the very thick mash until j8' .. (118" r.) is reached. Part of the hot water (about one-third) . left in ilie pan, 10 which about three- fourths pounds of hops is Ided per loo pounds of malt, and boiled from 20 to 30 minutes. hen, a "lauter-mash" is drawn, run into the pan, and boiled 10- rther with the hop decoction for a few minutes and returned ntil the temperature of the mash reaches 48° R. (140° F.). The rst thick mash is then drawn, boiled live minutes and returned. ringing the (cnipcralurc of the mash up to 55° R. (154° F.). A icond thick mash brings the temperature up lo 60° R. {157' F.). .The mash now rests about 40 minutes, when the wort is tapped nd immediately run over the surtacc cooler and through pipe Solcr, into the fcrmenier. where yeast is added. It is nolev/orthy thai ihe Weiss beer- wort is not boiled, and BMcquenlly the genuine Berlhier Weiss beer is not so clear. wing til the large amounts of proleids it contains, in comparison ii those beers for which the wort is boiled, as is the case with iortock, H.inover, Thuringian and Saxon Weiss bccT, Fermciiliiig Operations. —The ptlcteng «n\^T3.vv>Tt S'i ■.■^v.-w t' R. (so' ^ J ls appearance, the foam becoming more sticky, yellow, and larger bubbled. The ycastntli sour and sweet p. COMPOSITION OF BEERS. I S23 tfiK lIlH 11 3 3 |o|3 sbIS rise _ iiiiiili- illilililiisiiiil I ..IO^ -S5!S5S5SBS£-SSS8a 6 8S : ^?l^: !$j£SSS££^3=£5aS£85£S>iSiSS&SSSS & ^i'^Y ■ '' "^ row POSITION OF BEERS. m z!i^=n u z Us Ufiu JSH ■''I- -:- *} -'■ - -T** ■ = -:--.« f^-T SIS 2'=E-5p . SS i aS ; U5 7S3 . : SSSS .a St £ =.- ?. :iR S!;5 a^s i:?-i-:s«s r-e s s^ .=si-;5 s^i- COMPO?irTION OF BKERS. 825 m m I ■OTj ■oSbI^SJ £2B^ flfl-a wi 1 ...oX"...! z ■■ ; 5;;ias 1:!; as: ;! : r pii. H :c ; 1 , : : „.". =i i - ■PUV BIIMH e : : g ! ii « i «B i MS :4 i ■«p|o " ffifiE e ! ! : S B :SB! sss S! pwisM [WH S"S»" = 5S »J p ;m«i-'.« 1 sse azss a s sesii 93e :« « : . :i £ ' :£ £ X £a£ : S : ■ ■f i*!5 ?ioSa s s fiis- s». 8J = !;££ £ a iSS2 9 ■";ni 1 ESS 3iSsS - s =«,.3 .:SS SiS ilil 5 ( UU tli Is .,K,., I; ilTI 5^^^lJ!l ill i'inf iliHli' 7.i=SrS ?Jf.'S-Sf!SS!£3,-.5;?S553«SliSSeE :l||li|ijf;|:il||i| COMPOSITION OF BEKRS. 827 l-R ;^3 ;a III &» III' X -iJo.u : :~ '^ *''^^^. ^ '*'= i : 1* : ■ : : ■ ■ ■ : : : :r ^' „:^;';"J. lai"; : t? SSe:; S S8Sii5Silie ; [SiS"~iea=£3;S- I ''"S^iiii i iiii i iiiiiitiiiii uuii a ; ; I sse ■sis ■!! S-E* niNniiJ :|i^ iiiilifi t i;nnii||i||:i^i •S.-^-A-KS.a ■=■•*■ COMPOSITION OF BEERS. Ill s I l^la ^: 3|Jo qiiwn|H ^_ _ ^-tsuiiHLMU ' ■^^^'^ ^=^ ^irifists s = ft £-54 = = ;«'£{"* is sais sii S£SE«;: ; 2 : ^«> K _ : : ii : iH S "''Sa i i ii it iiilin Hi llll i";ii"l COMPOSITION OP llEKRS. Illl 31 is" : :S7.!S « : : : USS £| _-J*°*_" :_l1 S — ■". Jtl sSi^S . ss I H n 8jo COMPOSITION OF BEEKS. u -piavJlusn |-S8 2;: 2S3 jSis ; H. ■ -inaiwi-i^s = j ; serf : ..,„„ s:v;= =55 "iis"sf"sssSi s ■«= , S«2 Eia wis rSSiSafiS b 5V: £ BREWINQ LOSSES FROM HALT MILL TO PLATFORn. Brewing operations cannot be carried oiil in sucii a way as lo deliver all of the valuable substances contained in. or derived from, the brewing materials into the packages that are placed on the platform of Ibc brewery for delivery to the market, but the operations should be so conducted as lo reduce the amount of valuable substances lost, lo a minimum. These losses are manifold and occur with almost every opera- tion and every transfer of-goods. They may be considered in the following order: Loss from scouring; Loss from malt hopper to mash-tun; Los3 from material gathering under false bottom (un- dcrdough) ; I^ss from incomplete gelatiiiizalion or inversion of starch ; Loss from incomplete inversion of albumen ; Loss from incomplete exlraclion of the grains; Loss from boiling of wort with hops; Loss from incomplete extraction of spent hops; I^ss from tr.msfer of wort from keltic lo settling tank; Loss from incomplete extraction of the sediment (-Trub") ; Loss during fermentation and slornge; Loss from finings, chips, filtration and racking; ; Loss from racking bench lo platform. SHRINKAGE IN VOLITMR FROM KKTTI.E TO ST.\RT TNf, TUB. Besides these real losics there are a/>[-/irenl lours. iNwvwit, v^ '- shrinkage in volume unaecompaiiicrt Aiv xVc \d%^ vA ■*.'«^ ^'^Ti . siibslances. Such shrinkages ate la\tcT\ wsutc "A a.^ vi'K'"''**''*'-* only between kettle and starling tub. v'li.-. 832 BREWING LOSSES. > Shrinkage of wort due to contradion by cooling from 213° F. in kettle to 43' to 48° F. (5° to 7° R.) in settling lank, approxi- mately 4% per cent. Shrinkagi: due to evaporalion on surface and Baudelot coolers (see "Cooling"), approximately 5 per cent. Besides this apparent loss there is to be added the shrinkage due to a real loss, occasioned by: Adhesion of wort to vessels like kettle, hop-jack, surface and Baudelot coolers, pumps and pipes, about 'A per cent. Volume of spent hops and wort adhering is about two and one-half barrels per too pounds of hops, 3CCordti>g to repeated tests made by M, Henius, or per 100 barrels of wort if lOo pounds are used, 2Vj per cent. Total shrinkage if hops are not sparged, and one pound of hops is used per barrel. 1214 per cent. If hops arc sparged tile shrinkage is reJuccil by the number of barrels of water used for sparging, or. i( livt barrels are used per 100 pounds -of hops, the total shrinkage would l)c 7',i per cent, or from 100 barrels of ivort leaving the kettle gj^-i would reach the settling lank. Where less hops than one pound ptr barrel art used the total shrinkage may be readily calculated from above figuro, ExamfU. — What is the total shrinkage if 70 poiuids of hops per ICM) barrels are employed ? a. 50 \ 7" Soiution.^-yo pounds of hops retain — ^ — i?l barrels Therefore tot.il shrinkage, if hops r,rc n^n sp.Trgi>l, is jicr 100 barrels of wort 10 J- i''i ■= i\\ barrels. And if hops arc sparged with thrct and mio-half barrels of wa- M the total shrinkage will be ii^i — ,)';■ - 8U l.r,rrcls. Tbi' only uncertain quantity in the above cn!m);',;ion^ is the Jiiiount of evaporation, which iitity vary considiTably according lo atmospheric conditions, system of cooling, oto. (Sec "Cool- ing.") It was found in onu case by R. W.-ihl, where an atomizer jMncc-i it Is sale to lake 5 per eeni a< an ,iver;ige, li -iiriice and flamldui cuL>i<.-r= aro employe^,. ' BREWING LOSSES. 835 LOSS FROM SCOURING. Malt is delivered to the brewer freed from sprouts, but is oflen passed through a c'eaner, or scourer, before crushing, whereby W to I per cent more of substance is removed in the form of adhering rootlets, pieces of husk, etc. Such dust, according to Doemens, contained, on the average of seven tests, 23 per cent of extractive substances. Loss, through scouring 10,000 pounds of malt, would be 10 to 20 pounds of extract. LOSS FROM MALT HOPPER TO MASH-TUN. The loss from malt hopper to mash-tun. occasioned mainly by escaping malt dust in its transfer from crusher to tun, should be insignificant, but may amount to considerate if the mall dust finds easy egress through crevices or untight joints. LOSS FROM FORMATION OF UNDERDOUGH. This loss may be considerable if the mash-tun is of faulty construction, or mashing is carelessly done, at times the entire space under ihe false bottom being filled with underdough. For conditions favoring the accumulation of underdough see "Mash- ing Operations" and "Straining of Wort," also "Brewing Out- fit." This underdough contains a considerable amount of extract- J yielding substances, and at times it may be composed mainly of I finely divided starch that finds its way through the perforation: of (he false bottom. The weight of this underdough was deter- mined in a case where all precautions were used to avoid its formation, and the mash-tun was of proper construction, and found to be 200 pounds wet, with 15 per cent of extract and 75 per cent of water. The weight of brewing material was 7,200 pounds of malt and 6,700 pounds of grits. Therefore 1 Loss from formation of underdough from 10,000 pounds of material was about 22 pounds of extract, or 0.22 per cent. The Brancrkaknilcr of 1900, page 85, states that in n similar lest made in a brewery on a large scale, the amount of under- dough was found to be 70 pounds from 10,000 pounds of ma- terial, and contained 50 pounds of extract, a los^ amotinling, therefore, to Vs per cent. These two cases probably represeirt V\\ft e,x\.x«mt% ?-t,^ ^-i-^-i^ hoir difficalt it is to obtain absolutt\j ttWAiXt TtvSv^-i ^^ ^"^ "^ (fmntity of luiifffrdoa; h formed. . 834 BKEWING LOSSES. \' AMALYSIS or AH P MIMlWIH ai (BT WAHL AlfD aBMtDl). ^ Moisttue TSoo Dry snlntaiice ■' aSXn Extract in water-free aubttance. ...^ t^Si Of this there wai aoluble a&fi) Albtuneti ia dt; substance 34tt Inaolnble exinctive matters X90 The Balling of the water filtered froni the underdon^ WW 7J0 LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE GELATINIZATION OF STARCH. Thii loss may be considered together with the losses through inconqtlete extraction of grains. The amount of loss from these two sources is usually detci^ mined together, and represents the extract that remains in the grains and is consequently lost for brewing purposes. The amount of such extract varies from s to 10 per cent of the weight of the dry grains if the material is properly treated, and from 10 to 20 per cent if proper precautions are not used in mashing. It is not at all unusual to find grains that contain 20 per cent of extract in the dry substance, which means a considerable loss. We may take it that the ordinary brewing materia! will yidd about 2$ per cent of absolutely dry grains. Therefore, ao per cent of extract in these dry grains would mean a loss of fire pounds per 100 pounds, or a loss of 500 pounds for a brewing of 10,000 pounds of material. This loss can be reduced, by introduc- ing scientific mashing methods, to about 1'^ to 2 per cent, or ISO to 300 pounds per 10,000 pounds of material. This still means tl loss of about four to five barrels of beer of 13 per cent Balling, whereas an amount of extract left in grains, of 20 per cent of the weight of the dry grains would mean a loss of about 15 barrels per 10,000 pounds of material. An analysis of the grains is. therefore, a very simple and effi- cient means of determining the extent of one of Ihe most prolific sources of loss in the brewery. The amoaat of soluble extract in grains, due to imperfect sparg- r'ng, can be readily detenmned \it *^t»,^wi \Vt -w^-ra tewi an average sample of grwDS taktn hom "i** w»m^»t. w ■**. BREWING LOSSES. 835 and weighinir this water with a saccharc;pieter. The weight in- dicated by the saccharometer in degrees gives approximately the percentage of loss. Thus, an indication of 2 per cent ivould mean a loss of two pounds of extract for every 100 pounds of material, or 200 pounds for every 10,000 pounds of material, or about five barrels of beer of 13 per cent Balling. Grains taken from a brewing that was properly made gave the following results : Per cent. Moisture 81.6 Extract m water pressed from grains 0.7 The dried grains contained: Moisture 6.5 Oil 7M Albumen 33.75 Raw fitier 16.44 Ash 3.47 Extractive substance (starch, sugar, etc.) 7.50 Of which there was soluble (sugar, etc.) 3.0S Insoluble extractive matters (starch) 4 42 These grains were obtained from a brewing of 10,650 pounds of mall and 10,000 pounds of grila. or 20,650 pounds of material, and were dried in a grains drier. The total weight was 4.515 pounds, or 22 per cent of the weight of the material, while the weight of the wet grains was 24.S38 ixiunds, or 119 per cent, or 19 per cent more than the weight of the materials. LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE INVERSION OF ALBUMEN. The albumen of malt is only partly inverted in the mash-tun, and approximately one-half of it goes into the grains while praC' tically all of the albumen of unmalted cereals passes into the grains. More albumen will, however, pass into the wort if the mash is well peptonized, and the yield will be correspondingly higher than if this does not take place. Two woris made from the same malt, but resulting from mashes, one of which was well peptonized, the other poorly pep- Ionized, were found to contain 0.95 per cent, and 0.6 per cent, respectively, of albumen (see page 730) ; or, for 100 pounds of material, a loss of 1.8 pounds of albumen, or, Iot vij»»i v^-mAi. '^'i- material. 180 pounds of albumen. Cons^ieVvn^ \Vt vmi^ot^«t^'^*- ^ albuminoids in point of palate-fulnesa aivi lQa.'m-\vo\Sw'& *-^^^ 6>r the finished product, the loss ol cxUact "m t'W''^ '^'^-^^ doubly significant. 8^6 BREWING LOSSES. V ^ « LOSS FROM BOIUNG WORT WITH HOPS. Here we encounter a loss in the essential oil of hops, which passes oflf freely with the vapors from boiling wort. This loss cannot be weighed. It has an important bearing on the hop aronuL of the finished product, and the hops must be treated with this point in view. (See ''Boiling Operations," p. 726.) LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE EXTRACTION OF HOPS. In some breweries the hops are not sparged with water at all, and the entire amount of wort held by them is lost. This amount is about equal to six times the weight of hops employed. Hence, 100 pounds of hops would retain 600 pounds of wort, and if this was 13 per cent Ball, the loss would be 78 pounds of extract, or about two barrels of wort, or for 10,000 pounds of material that yield about 190 barrels of wx>rt, for which 200 pounds of hops may have been employed, there would result a loss of 156 pounds of extract, or about four barrels of wort In case the hops are sparged in the usual manner in the hop- jack, this loss is, of course, considerably reduced. It was found to be 40% pounds where 13 barrels of water were used to sparge 260 pounds of hops, or 15 pounds per 100 pounds of hops. The weight of the wet hops from 250 pounds was found to be 1,690 pounds, and the saccharoraetcr indication of the hop-liquid was 2.4 per cent. LOSS BY TRANSFER OF WORT FROM KETTLE TO SET- TLING TANK. This loss is difficult to ascertain, and may be estimated as ap- proximately % per cent. Thus, the loss from 10,000 pounds of material, from this source, would be about 50 pounds. LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE EXTRACTION OF "TRUE" (DREGS, SEDIMENT). The proteids precipitated by boiling the wort are quite vol- uminous. In .\mcrican brewing operations they are separated from the wort in the starting tub, partly rising to the surface when fermentation begins, and forming the dark cover or scum which, when the beer is drawn off to the fermenting vat. is usually allowed to sink with the receding surface and to join with the sediment of the same nature. This "Trub," as it is called in German, retsuns quite a large atwounl ol -wot^, ^Vvkh, according r io experiments made by Lenner. ap^tox\tMLVe^ 2 v^\ wcvv ^\ ^Cofc BREWING LOSSES. 837 total wort. Thi9 "Trub" should be collected in so-called sedi- ment bags and allowed to drain, thus reducing, if properly done, the loss to about one-half to three-quarters barrel per 100 bar- rels, or about 300 to 400 pounds of wort per 10,000 pounds of malt, or about 40 to 60 pounds of extract per 10,060 pounds of malt. If no sediment bags are used, the loss may amount to about four barrels, or about 120 pounds of extract. The "Trub" from pure malt worts is much larger than from worts produced with the aid of unmalted cereals, when above figures may be re- duced by a percentage equal to that of unmalted cereals em- ployed, or the loss will be about one-quarter to one-half barrel for 30 to 40 per cent of unmalted cereals per 100 barrels, or about % to % per cent. The sediment bags should be washed with hot water after using, and from time to time boiled or steamed out An addition of bisulphite of lime to the washing water from time to time aids in keeping them from souring or putridity. LOSSES DURING FERMENTATION AND STORAGE. During fermentation there is some evaporation;* the sugar fer- ments to alcohol and carbonic acid, most of which escapes; part of the albuminoids and mineral substances of the wort are used up to nourish the yeast, and there is some waste from skimming off the covers, like hop-resin cover and final cover. From the fermentation of so much sugar and the escape of carbonic acid gas incidental thereto, one should imagine that a contraction in volume took place during fermentation on this ac- count This, however, is not the case. A. L. Stern (Journ. Chem. Soc., through Am. Br. R., XIII, p. 414) found that the volume of a sugar solution is the same before and after fermentation, if no evaporation of water takes place. The deduction is that the expansion of the alcohol formed equalizes the contraction due to the removal of the sugar. The loss during fermentation is not so great on this account as it otherwise would be. The loss due to the settling of yeast is approximately % per cent, and to evaporation, skimming and transfer, about i per cent, or, a total of about 1% per cent. During storage these losses continue in a measure, but the loss from evaporation is not so great. About % to % per cent wvUw cover the loss from yeast sedimentatiotv ^tv^ Vcaxv^K^i.^ vcvivc^^ ^ ^^ that the total loss from settling taiik to t\C\^-ca?^ \^ -^oxn^ -^^^ per cent 838 BREWING LOSSES. LOSSES FROM FININGS, CHIPS, FILTRATION AND RACKING. In the chip-cask the loss becomes quite considerable, especially if no filter is used, on account of the absorption of a quantity of beer by the chips^ and the sediment of finings and yeast Hinging to them. Some water being' used in the preparation of the finings, and the chips going into the cask soaked with water, the loss in volume is somewhat reduced, but the loss in extract or beer is equivalent, of course, to the quantity removed with chips and finings. It was found that the amount of beer removed by 6,189 straight chips that were used in a 60-barrel cask, was 213 pounds, or, about iM barrel per 100 barrels, or, about 80 pounds of original extract was removed with the chips per 10,000 pounds of material employed, without thereby decreasing the volume, since the beer simply displaced so much water in chips. The total losses in volume due to treatment in chip-cask, transfer to racking bench and filtration are estimated at about i per cent. They are less than formerly when no filter was used. Since the introduction of the filter less isinglass is employed and also less chips, reduc- ing the actual loss considerably. LOSSES FROM RACKING BENCH TO PLATFORM. To these losses must be added the amount of beer served at the "Sternewirth" to working men and visitors, and which, of course, varies materially with the custom and output; hi per cent may be considered a fair amount for a large brewery, i per cent for a small brewery. TOTAL SHRINKAGE. Shrinkage in settling tank ^ to % per cent Shrinkage during fermentation 1% per cent Shrinkage during storage % to ^ per cent Shrinkage in chip-cask and to racking bench i per cent Shrinkage from racking bench to plat- form ^ to I per cent Total shrinkage for a large brewery from settling tank to platform 3% per cent Since 100 barrels of wort in the kettle give 92^{! barrels in the settlings tank, if the hops are properly sparged, and 100 barrels the settling tank yield 96% baTTc\s 3il tVi^ i;itV:\xv^\«xvR)cv. ••» BREWING LOSSES. 839 One hundred barrds of wort run out of the kettle should give about 89 barrels of b«er at the racking bench. = 89+. 100 One hundred and twelve barrels of wort run out of the kettle should give 100 barrels of beer. at the racking bench 100 X 100 = 112. S>6HX93.5 Where the brewery cooperage is quite small, this loss is in- creased. If hops are not sparged, the loss is 3 to 4 per cent Excise regulations demand the entry of the number of bar- rels of finished beer obtained from each braiM^\v^^ ^xv^ \\tv^^^. 848 TEBATMENT AMD PBOTCCTIOM QP 6USFACIS. CELLAB TEMTILAXION AND CLBAN8I1IG. The greatest difficulty in keeping cellars and their cootained vessds in a clean and sweet condition is met with where the ven- tilation is inferior. The cheapest and at the same time the most powerful anti- septic or germicide at our disposal is the absence of moist- nre or the dryness of a substance, since micro-organisms require water fpr their sustenance and propagation. This resistant property of dried substances is best illustrated to the brewer by calling attention to the length of time wet grains will keep as compared to the keeping quality of dried grains, or the time required for moist leather (boots and shoes) to ac- cumulate a covering of mould when placed in a moist, dark closet, as compared to when they stand in the open air and sun- light Ventilation, or a current of fresh air replacing stagnant or moist air, has a drying effect and is therefore a purifier or anti- septic by itself, and it furnishes a cheap and efficient method that saves much labor and chemicals which are otherwise necessary. In newly built cellars the proper ventilation ducts, etc., are generally supplied, but in older constructions these are very often lacking. Proper ventilation can be obtained in the latter by in- stalling blowers or fans and blowing or forcing air through the cellar from time to time, or by drawing the air out by means of an ejector. Attention should be called, however, to the necessity of having pure air for ventilation, since air that has previously passed over decaying matter or that contains dust from city streets may be so laden with micro-organisms as to cause the opposite of the effect desired. In summer the outside air forced through the cellars should therefore be filtered and also cooled, which can be readily done by passing the air over and through water. The floors of the cellars should be scrubbed from time to time with milk of lime (above described), allowing this substance to remain upon the floor for some time before scrubbing and final removal by flushing with water. This is especially necessary in the corners and along the walls, also under the vessels or other out of the way places where the milk of lime should be liberally applied and alioHcd to remain aiv ex\ru ^etv^th of time. TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 849 treatment with milk of lime goes far toward keeping the air in the cellars in a sweet condition. Wooden floors are a source of constant annoyance to the brewer if he wishes to keep them in clean condition. Any yeast, wort or beer, if allowed to remain on a wooden floor too long, soon sinks into its pores and renders cleaning more difficult. Such matters should, therefore, be removed immediately by scrubbing and flushing. i Starting and Fermenting Tubs. — As these and subsequently described wooden vessels are usually varnished,, excepting for ales, care should be taken that ladders with sharp edges or boots with protruding nails, etc., do not come in contact with their inner surfaces on account of the danger of piercing the coating of varnish. Fermenters should be cleaned as soon after the yeast has been removed as possible, by using hose and brush freely, the tub being first flushed to remove the loose yeast. The most difficult part to clean is the top that contains a ring of dried-up yeast, albumen, etc., thrown off by the Krausen foam during the early part of the fermentation. This is usually a dried resistant crust, clinging to the top and sides, but can readily be s»:)ftcned by smearing moist yeast over it. This soon softens the rmg so thai It can be removed by flushing and scrubbing with a brush, and usually not "requiring scraping, which may injure the varnish. A paste prepared from not too finely ground stone or pulverized chalk, some milk of lime and water, when applied to this scum and then brushed, has given good results. Attention should also be paid to the tapholc, so that it does not retain any yeast that can come in contact with wort sub- sequently contained in the fermenter. The water that remains upon the bottom, due to the latler's warping, should be removed by means of a sponge. The out- side of the tubs should also be flushed and brushed, as it often happens that some of the Krausen foam runs over the outside. If a fermenter has been out of use for some time, even if it was properly cleaned when empty, it should be again flushed and brushed before use. Vessels that have been out of use for a long time, es^ecvjJvV^ if they stood in unoccupied or unused xoottv^, ^JftsivX^ \«. vc^'^^^^ with milk of lime or bisulphite o£ Ume «ad ^ea.tv.^^ •^^^v^• 54 850 TBKATHKNT AND PBOTBCTION OF SURFAOIS. The waler tued for rinsing any vusel conuining wort or beer should be of good puriiy. When such cannot be obtained the vats must be thoroughly sprinkled after final rinsing with bisnlphite of liffle or another bamdess antiseptic solutton, and the vat thorou^y drained before use. The scratch iron should not be used on varnished vessels, ex- cept as a final nieani when the above cannot be made to answer. AlteMperators, whether of copper or iron, are cleaned In the same manner as the Baadelot cooler tnbes, if nnvamished. If varnished they shonld be brushed only, softening any adhering incrustation as above. Acctttoriet, such as yeast storage tubs, puis, deves, dippers, should be cleaned directly before use and afterward. Those made of wood should be varnished. Cleaming or Walking Ckip-Cotkt and Chips.— Mta empty- ing the cask, the chips are gathered by a workman by means of a hook and a chip box, and carried to the chip washer. The chips should be distributed evenly through the drum and the vessel not filled to its utmost capacity in order to afford an opportunity for the chips, as the drum revolves, to drop and be subjected to friction, and expose all parts of their surface to ihe water. Nor should the jet of water be too powerful so as to prevent the dirty water from draining oS properly. The drum, which may be operated either by liand or power, should be revolved continuously until the drain w3ler runs off dear. The chips are then taken out and relumed to the cask. The chips are first flushed with cold water, then with hot water, and finally ivilh cold water to cool them. While the chips are being washed another workman should 'ii; washing the cask, both inside and out. by throwing a weak jet of water from a hose. A cask broom is then used and the cask well scrubbed, both lengthwise and crofsn-ise, special attention being given to the i^pcnt yeast near the bung-hole. It should not be forgotten to . rub off the iron bars or slay-bolts that run through Ihe cask. The wawr is then swept out. the cask rinsed, this water again 'v.f-' '■■; ?"•' -"v liquid seltling in depression? removed by -■-■.t-.'-o _. .: -r-.-o-. One ttorkmai] should ihtJii tlirow in the clean chips, which the other man vi^ki wma™ ™ the cask dis- Inbutes evenly over the bottom. Tta ifaot "« i>i3QssiMe, as ihcy contain considerable albumen ("Trub," dregs or sediment from the wort) that is liable to putrefaction. Spent hops are usually burned under the boilers. A German brewer uses his spent hops, after partial dr>'ing, as a bedding for his horses, and reports that on account of their aromatic odor they are well liked by the animals. VARNISHING. The varnishing of wooden vessels used in the brewery is done for the purpose of preventing the beer from coming in contact with the wood and thereby dissolving the extractive substances it usually contains, which would tend to impart to the *beer m rank taste. Another purpose of vaTu\s\\\T\s \e?>>»t\% x'a vo prevent the from penetrating the pores oi W\t viooCi, vi\\<.T^ \\. ^^^^^ TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 853 or putrefy and infect, or detrimentally affect, the beer that would be subsequently contained. The process of varnishing may be divided into the following manipulations : 1. The preparation of the varnish. 2. The preparation of the vessel and application of the varnish. 3. Precautions during the work. 4. Treatment after varnishing. PREPARING THE VARNISH. The preparation of the varnish requires some skill and is quite a tedious and lengthy operation, on account of which it is, per- haps, preferable to purchase the varnish from a reliable manu- facturer. A good brewers' varnish consists of from 3^ to 4 pounds of pure shellac dissolved in a gallon of alcohol. Formerly only grain or ethyl alcohol was used, but recently ''Columbian Spirits," consisting of practically pure and deodorized wood or methyl alcohol has also come into use as a solvent. Grain alcohol varnishes are much higher in price than those from wood alcohol, on account of which the latter are being used to some extent. But the former are considered superior by many brewers on account of their slower drying qualities, by which it is claimed a denser and more resisting coating is ob- tained. Others, however, prefer wood alcohol varnishes on the ground that they are more rapid in drying, and consequently shorten the time required for varnishing. In making varnish, the solution of the shellac is readily accom- plishe'd by placing the vessel containing the alcohol and shellac in a warm place (about 80° to lOo"* F.) and occasionally agitat- ing it to hasten solution. Care should be taken to keep this vessel closed to prevent evaporation of the alcohol. Various admixtures of other gums have at times been advised, but experiments of this kind are not to be recommended, since it has been found that if shellac of a good quality is used the desired results are obtained, provided the varnish was properly applied. Attention should be called to the fact that it is very poor economy to use cheaper and inferior makes of m^^tcw^Vs. ^vsx^*^ the value of the varnish, as compared Vo VVv^ N?\>&fc qV\na -^^o^^^ 8 TRBATM&NT AND PKOTBCTION OF SURFACES. M services, is infinitesinitny smsll, «iid the cost of labor to apply m poor and a good varnish is the same.- For compositioii aod prop erti es of shelfau varnish see also "Varnish/' under "Brewing Materials." PRKPABUfG TH£ VESSKL. In the preparation of the vessel to be vambhed the first manipolation necessary is to dry it, whidi is nsoally done by means of a charcoal stove placed inside. The varnish is then re- moved by scraping and sandpapering until a smooth surface is ob- tained, the vessel again heated for a short time, cooled off and the varnish applied with a brush. Overheating the wood before varnishing is to be avoided, as it is then difficult to apply the varnish evenly. The tempera- ture of the wood should be such as to allow the varnish from each stroke of the brush to unite with each former one and not to overlap it, which would occur if the varnish "set" imme- diately^ due to overheating or to the varnish being too thick. This immediate setting would also cause the varnish merely to cling to the surface of the wood and not allow it to enter the pores. In order easily to remove the old coating of varnish and thereby avoid the laborious manipulation of scraping, chemicals or "varnish removers" are sometimes used. These generally consist of a mixture of caustic soda and quicklime, ^ith enough water to form a paste. This mixture is smeared upon the var- nish and left there for a certain length of time until the varnish has softened to such a degree that it can be easily removed with a stiff brush and a spray of water from a hose. These varnish removers would be all that could be desired if, from a practical standpoint, it were possible to determine the exact time when the chctnicals had penetrated the varnish only and not the wood underneath. The danger in using chemicals for removing v^t- nish lies in the fact that the coating, even if wcU applied, is always more or less uneven, and that the thicker parts of the coating require a longer application than the thinner ones. This, with the usual occurrence that the remover is left on too long anyway, causes the chemical to enter the pores of the dry wood, which readily absorbs it and from which it can be removed nnfy by n tedious method oi soaV.\T\^ and subseqtient drjring of the wood, li the chemical V\as etW^Tc^ \V^ vic^o^ ;sx^^ ^i^ TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 855 vamish is applied over it, (he chances are that it will work back- ward and remove, or at least soflen this coating, the effect of which needs no further explanation. When varnishing old vessels one coating may be sufficient, al- though it is advisable to apply two, since two thin coats are better than one thick one. New vessels require three coats. The first one should be ap- plied with the varnish rather thin, 50 as to allow it to penetrate the wood as deeply as possible. After the first coal ihc wood will be fojind to be rather rough on account of the fibers warping or rising, and it should, therefore, be sandpapered to smoothness. The second coat should not be sandpapered too briskly, merely enou^ to smooth down the ridgrs, as otherwise the varnish would be rubbed off at the high places and the wood underneath Each coaling of varnish should be allowed to dry for at least forty-eight hours, and first coats on new vessels for twenty- four hours longer before the succeeding coat is applied. At the expiration of 48 hours, after the last coat was applied a vessel that has been properly treated can be rubbed with a decoction of hops, with which a little yeast has been mixed, and within a few hours washed with water, after which it Is ready to be pttt into service. It is hardly necessary to soak it with water where this treatment has been applied. It may happen (hat the varnish turns white or grayish, which can usually be traced Co the following causes; That the shellac used was of an inferior quality ; that the wood of the vessel was green or was not thoroughly dry; that a coat of varnish was applied too soon, the under one not being dry; or that the vessel was filled with water or beer before the varnish had dried perfectly. See also "Varnish," under "Brewing Materials." i DUUHC VA>NISHTNG. Besides the mechanical precautions above mentioned during varnishing there arc two other and all-important ones to be observed, viz.: the prevention of dangerous results by an ex- plosion, or the inhalation of the vapors by the workman. The frequent accidents by explosion happening while varni.ih- ing casks, which are sometimes attended v.UV\ Vo'b^ o\ ^-^-^ =>' injuries to workmen, are generally due t'vVWt \o c.ai'i\'i^v.\es.'>- «>■ 856 TMATMBNT AND FBOTBCnON OP 8USFACE8. to lack of knowledge 00 the pirt of the workmtn or snperin- tendent Thcj are caused bj the vapors of the alcohol or other solvent of the varnish mixed with air and brought in contact with a flame. Vapors of alcohol, benzine, illuminating gas, etc^ when pure, will bum only at their line of contact with the air, and a closed vat or barrd, when filled with these vapors only, would not be dangerous, in ^Mt, the vapors would eactinguish any flame suddenly immersed into them. The liability to cx- pkMion lies in the fact of these vapors being mixed with con- siderable quantities of air, forming i highly explosive mixtore. The means of preventing these explosions must be looked for in either of two methods — namely, in avoiding all possi- bility of any flame coming near these mixed vapors and air, or in keeping the amount of vapors in very small proportion to that of the air by means of draft or forced ventilation, as a trace of these vapors in a large volume of air is not explosive, but becomes so only when larger quantities are present One of the most common methods for illuminating the in- terior of casks, etc, during varnishing is by means of an incan- descent electric light variously protected from breakage. But breaking may, and has, occurred, so this method cannot be considered very safe. The second source of danger to the workman results from inhaling the vapors of the alcohol of the varnish. This has caused serious disablement, even death, and most of these detri- mental or fatal results may be ascribed to the breathing of vapors from wood alcohol, especially if it was more or less impure. Commercial viood alcohol contains substances of a more in- jurious character than the alcohol itself, principally acetone and aldehyde. Grain or ethyl alcohol, owing to the manner of its produc- tion, is obtained in purer form, and its higher boiling point makes it easier to free from more volatile admixtures. When a comparison is made between the effect of the vapors of the two alcohols, freed from all impurities, on the human system, it is found that grain alcohol simply intoxicates, and, a inhaled in large quantities, stupefies, leaving behind no aerir ous after effects— at least, with ordinary care. Wood alcohol, on the other hand, has a more toxic influence, the vapors pro? ducing nausea and vomiting. TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 857 The methoda and appliances in use for preventing the dan- gers above described are principally of three kinds, viz.: i. To place the light, in form of an isolated lantern, etc., outside the cask and illuminating the inside through the manhole; 2. to supply the workman with a mask or hood, similar to a diver's helmet, and introduce fresh air through a hose leading to the helmet; and, 3, to ventilate the cask so that the amount of inflammable and injurious vapor is always below the danger line. The first precaution removes the danger by explosion, but not the danger of poisoning the workman; the second protects the workman from deadly fumes; but does not prevent explosion, while the last guards against both contingencies. The second can, however, be easily made to cover both contingencies, as the cask can readily be ventilated by a branch from the air hose to the helmet. Ventilation of the cask has the further advantage of causing the varnish to dry more rapidly by removing the air saturated with the vapors of the alcohol. ACCI]»NTS. If, despite all precautions, an accident should happen in var- nishing — which is scarcely to be expected, however — the first attention should be given to the injured persons. If the man's clothes have caught fire those who appear first on the scene of the accident should not waste time by senseless lamentations, but be ready with active assistance. If the victim tries to rup around he should be thrown to the ground by force, if neces- sary, and the fire smothered with blankets or clothing. If the person has suffered serious burns take him to a suitable place and apply a mixture of limewater and linseed oil, putting it on the burns and covering them afterward with cotton. In case of slighter injuries, dip cotton cloths in a strong solution of alum, or mix scraped Castile soap with water to a thick mush and spread on linen or cotton cloth, and apply to the burns until a physician can be had. If the noxious gases have been inhaled the person should be undressed at once and cold water poured over him. Then lay him down on his face, turn him over carefully on the side, then back on the face, and so on back and forth. This sKovxld be done quietly but steadily about fiilttti X\tw^^ ^ tcvvcs^o^^. Tknr- object is this: While lying on t\\e i^^c^ X\v^ ^V^^'^ ^^ "^"^ '^^'^ 858 TSKATKBNT AND IBOnCTION OP 8USFACBS. will be pressed bf the weight of the bodj, wliicb promoCes ex- halation; mhen he is turned 00 the side the pressure will be relieved and inhalation accelerated, and the noxioos gases be thus thrown oflF. PAKAFmUHG. Paraffincb as a material for covering the inner surface of brew- ery vessels, has nai^ advantages over shellac varnish. It is cheaper than shellac, it is easier and safer to handle, it is a perfectly neutral body, not easily affected by chemical com- pounds. Parafline mdts to a very thin fluid, which penetrates deep into the pores of the vessel and at the same time forma only a thin coating on the inner surface of the vessel. The vessel is prepared for paraffining in the same way as for vamisiung — that is, the old vanfish is removed first and the vessel heated. The best kind of paraffine to be used for coating brewery ves- sels is that which melts at 133** F. (45*" R.)- It is advisable to heat the dried vessels to be paraffined slowly to a. higher tempera- ture than for varnishing (abont 190' F. or 70° R.). The paraffine is heated to about 176** to liW*' F. (64** to 72° R.), but not hig^r, else it will spoil the brush. It is applied in the same manner as varnish. It is, therefore, best to use a thermometer for regulating the temperature of the paraffine, which may be heated on direct fire. The operations of coating the inner surface of the vessel must be repeated as long as any paraffine is absorbed by the pores. Usually three or four coats are sufficient. The paraffined vessel is allowed to cool and the superfluous paraffine carefully removed. Tlic vessel is soaked with water for a few days, flushed with warm water, not above 122* F. (40° R.), then cold water, after which it may be used. Charles Buehlcr, in an address delivered on April 3, 1896^ before the Brewmasters' Association of Pittsburg, pointed out the advantages of paraffining. He claimed that a paraffined vat is easier to keep clean and keeps longer than a varnished one. *'If, for instance, wc use one gallon of varnish for coating a fermenting vat, its cost amounts to about $3. while 10 pounds of paraffine at 8 cents a pound would be necessary for the acoom* plishment of the same purpose, a saving of $2.20 for each "a/." ^American Brewers' Review. i%9f7»^- 1^-^ pa III i|.iimn T!(ttAtlWWT AND raOTECTION OF SURFACES. 859 One of the causes why paraffining docs not gain popularity with the brewers may be due to the appearance of the surface of paraffined vessels, which feels slippery and is of an unsightly gray color. These are signs of uncleanliness in varnished ves- sels, but^ in case of paraffined vessels, do not indicate anything of that kind. In case of paraffined vessels, as well* as in varnished, the workmen cleaning them ought to be supplied with rubber boots in order to keep the film of paraffine on the inner surface intact. VARNISHING AND STAINING IRON VESSELS. It is an iron-clad rule that no surface in the brewery that comes in contact with wort or beer should be painted with a linseed oil and pigment paint. Vessels which are to hold those liquids are, therefore, either coated with a gum dissolved in a volatile solvent, or stained with a substance that forms an inert combination with the iron of iron vessels, if such are used. Iron brew house vessels, such as the rice tub, mash tub, hop jack, surface cooler, beer tanks, also the iron part of Baudelot cooler and cooler pan, can be varnished v^ith a shellac iron varnish ; but as these vessels are used ddly and their cleaning necessitates daily scrubbing and brushing, such varnished coat- ings must necessarily be frequently renewed, and varnishing is, therefore, impracticable. The method for protecting the sur- faces of these iron vessels that has given the best results is to stain them with tannic acid, the combination being tannate of iron, a black, closely-adhering film, inert to wort and of great resistance to frictional cleaning. The cheapest manner of obtaining this coating or stain is to make, in a new brewing outfit, a blind brew with a boiling de- coction of about two pounds of hops (old, worthless hops) to the barrel of water, allowing this hot decoction to remain in cnch vessel for at least an hour. It goes without saying that these vessels should be first thoroughly cleaned with a steel brush and soda solution in order to remove any iron scale, rust, grease, etc. Instead of a decoction of hops, a hot solution of commercial tannic acid will answer, but this is a more expensive method. Qjld-water tanks can be varnished with iron varnUK, -^.V though this is not absolutely necessary \i \\vej ^x^ -aN^^i-a.-^^ V^-^*^ fijjed \^hh water. 86o TSBATMENT AND PSOTBCnON OF SURFACES. Hot water tanks cannot well be Tarnished, as the boiling water has a destructive effect npoo the varnish. PITCraNG. The covering of surfaces #ith pitch has been treated under "Outfit of a Brewery" page 6i& (See also '^tch'* under "brewing Materials.")^ PAINTINa By painting is understood the covering of surfaces for pro- tective as well as for ornamental purposes. Paint differs from varnish in the fact that it consists of non- volatile linseed oil, in which some desired body or pigment has been suspended, while varnish consists of a volatile liquid, in which some gum or combination of gums is dissolved. When varnish dries the solvent evaporates and leaves the gums in a thin coating upon the surface. The drying of paint is caused by the oxidation of the linseed oil, by iiyhich it is transformed from a liquid into a thin, tough, elastic skin, which readily resists the action of the weather and also moderate friction. Linseed oil varnishes consist of gums, etc., dissolved in lin- seed oil, and are really colorless paints. MATERIALS. Although the materials used in painting are of endless variety, the general basis for making them is linseed oil, while the pigments most commonly used are white and red lead, zinc white, oxide of iron, lampblack, yellow ochre and drying oil or driers. Linseed oil is pressed from flaxseed and is used either as raw or boiled oil. To produce boiled oil, the raw oil is heated in contact with oxidizing agents, such as litharge, peroxide of man- ganese, borate of manganese, etc., and then has the property of producing a paint that will oxidize or *'dry" more rapidly. Linseed oil is subjected to much adulteration with mineral oils and other non-drying oils, which greatly impair or render it worthless. Turpentine, popularly called "turps," is a volatile liquid ob- tained from the distillation of the sap of pine wood. Turpen- tine is also adulterated, generally with heavier products o{ petroleum distillation. Turpentine also possesses drying qual-, /ties, but to a much less degree vVvaxv Vvtvs^t^ ^^. TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 86 1 Benzine is a product of the distillation of petroleum, and, as it evaporates completely, serves only to dilute the paint to which it is added. Both turpentine and benzine are of practically no value except to dilute the paint, thereby lessening the amount of linseed oil and hastening the drying of the paint. They also give the paint a greater covering power, thus requiring a less number of coats, as by their removal by evaporation the amount of color or pigment is proportionally increased, and, in paint used upon wood for the first coat, they cause the paint to adhere better, as the diluted oil will sink deeper into the pores of the wood. White lead is the corrosion product of metallic lead. It con- sists of a variable proportion of carbonate and hydroxide of lead with traces of moisture. White lead comes into the market ground in linseed oil, and there is probably no constituent of paint that is more subject to adulteration. The substance generally used for this pur- pose is barium sulphate, or barytes, or "Mane fix," a cheap min- eral that possesses the same color and almost the same weight, but is vastly inferior in covering power. White lead, when used as a white paint, has the drawback Ihat when subjected to sulphurous vapors, always more or less present in localities where soft coal is used, it soon becomes discolored or darkens. It also, in combination with linseed oil, soon loses its whiteness, turning yellowish in a short time. Red lead, or oxide of lead, is similar in properties to uhite lead. It has found extended application for painting iron ves- sels, beams and structural ironwork generally. Zinc white, or zinc oxide, made by the burning or oxidation of metallic zinc, has, in recent years, found considerable appli- cation in painting, especially as a white paint, since it is not affected by sulphur, and maintains its whiteness much longer than white lead. Zinc white is not nearly so poisonous as white lead, and is considered by some to possess a greater covering power and a greater carrying capacity for linseed oil. Oxide of iron has found extended use for painting ironwork, the same as red lead. It is cheap in price, has a good covering power and is not influenced by atmos^VvRxv:. ^^^^^vNA^'Wb- Lampblack, or "soot," is too wcW kno^iv lo x^^vt^ e^st'^'^^X^- t/on. It Is the color basis of most YA^cV. ^^vtVt^ ox Vox essce*.^^ I 1 I 868 TREATMENT AMD PfUnVCTION OP SURFACES. tog the shade off light ones; It comes into the market groand in oil, as it is difficult to mix it with oil on account of its float- ing, "greasy" properties. Yeiiaw ochr€ is an impure oxide of iron, and, on account of its covering ponver and chei^mess, is used as a first coat or priming. Other pigments are principally umber,, chrome compounds, Ver- million, verdigrris, Prussian hlue and ultramarine. Driers. In order to hasten the drying or oxidizing property of paint, driers are added. These consist mostly of linseed oil boiled with, or to which has been added, such substances as dioxide or borate of manganese, litharge and sugar of lead. The addition of driers to paint is beneficial only in moderate amounts, and it does not follow that the more drier added, the faster the paint will dry; on the contraiy, an excess retards drying. Japan driers are practicalfy the same as the above with the addition of shellac or other gums to give a body. Black Japan is not a drier, but a solution of asphaltum in lin- seed oil varnish and is used for painting iron. Driers should not be added to paints that dry readily with- out them, nor when painting surfaces thai can be given sufficient time to dry. They should not be used in finishing or last coats of a light shade paint. They should be added to paint shortly before it is used. MIXING PAINTS. The belief that most of the ready-niixeecau?»^ \i ^\>^v^^ wv^"^^ ^^ 864 TREATMENT AND PSOTfiCTION OP SURFACB& unpatnted wood the putty will lOon become loose or drop out entirely. This also applies to window sash or wherever i^ass is held in a wooden frame with potty. Iron surfaces should be scraped or brushed with a sted brush to remove any scale or rust, and then further cleaned of grease, etc., before painting. The popular belief that, since iron rust or oxide of iron is a constituent of some iron paints, the rust on the surface of iron need not be first removed before painting, is erroneous. It has been found that this nist, if considerable in amount, even if covered with paint, causes a further corrosion of the iron underneath. Refrigerating Pipes and Brine Tanks, — ^The chief properties of a paint for pipes, etc, are adhesion, elasticity and conductivity. As the pipes are likely to be covered with heavy deposits of ice, the paint must adhere tightly, as thQr are subject to ex- treme temperatures, causing contraction and expansion, the paint must be elastic, and in order not to reduce their cooling ca- pacity the paint should not be made from non-conducting pig> ments. The first t¥ro properties can be obtained in a maximum degree by using a paint made from absolutely pure oil, applied over a thoroughly clean and smooth surface and giving sufficient time for drying, the coats being applied thin and well worked with the brush. The last property is obtained by using pigments of high heat conductivity. Lampblack, graphite, asbestos, etc., would be, therefore, poor pigments to use for this purpose, but, on the other hand, excellent ones for hot-water tanks, etc Tin roofs should not be painted until the surface of the tin is roughened or slightly corroded by rain or dew. Shingles on roofs should never be painted as this would only hasten their decay by any moisture that might find its way un- derneath. Shingles can be stained with special preservative pr^a- rations now on the market for that purpose. DIRECTIONS FOR PAINTING. If ready-ihixed paint is used the thick sediment found at the bottom should be thoroughly stirred up and this stirring con- tinued at regular intervals, while pajnting until all the paint has been used, as, otherw^ise, at the beginning the painting will be done with the oil and at the etvA yj\\.Vv tVv*ith shellac or other varnish) on all sides, as they would be subject to dry rot. This is especially the case if this moisture is due to the original sap of the wood. ENAMEL PAINTS. Enamel paints have of late found extended application in breweries. They consist generally of a mixture of white lead and zinc oxide — the white enamels of zinc oxide alone — mixed with varnish, usually a Dammar varnish, instead of linseed oil, as in ordinary paint. The advantage of these enamels is that they furnish a harder, more glossy surface, which are therefore more readily kept clean. They are, however, more difficult to apply than paint, on account of their viscous consistency, and are used generally as finishing coats. The usual method of applying them is to paint the surface with two coats of ordinary paint of the same shade, in the usual manner, stopping up holes, etc.. with putty of the same shade, and, when dry, finishing vi'iih two coats of cnaniel paint. Over surfaces already painted, one coat of primary paint may often be found sufficient. TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 86/ CARE OF BRUSHES. When painting or varnishing is completed the brushes should be washed with turpentine or benzine. When the painting oper- ation is interrupted for several days in order to allow a coat to dry, the paint brushes can be kept soft and ready for use if suspended by their handles in water, but should not be allowed to rest upon their bristles. Before using again they should be thoroughly brushed over a clean board. This treatment does not apply to varnish brushes, as they will, even if brushed out as above, cause the newly- varnished surface to be covered with minute blisters. Varnish brushes should be dipped into the same varnish used, contained in a can or small covered receptacle. WHITEWASHING AND CALCIMINING. Where it is not desired to use paint on account of the cost, or where surfaces are more or less moist, a coating of whitewash or calcimine can be applied instead of paint. Whitewash, or milk of lime, is used when rough surfaces, such as brick walls, are to be covered. It is cheap, easily prepared and easily applied ; in fact, machines for whitewashing arc now on the market. These consist of a pump, a hose and a spraying nozzle. The whitewash is contained in a barrel or other vessel from which it is drawn by one stroke into the pump and by the other stroke forced through the hose and nozzle from which it is thrown in a fine spray against the surface. When covering broken or uneven surfaces, such as open joist ceil- ings, these machines cover in but a fraction of the time re quired to do so by brush, and furnish, a better-appearing job. A good, durable whitewash can be prepared as follows: Slake one-half bushel of freshly-burned lime with hot water in a covered box or receptacle, so as to keep in the steam, and add 7 pounds of ordinary salt, previously dissolved in hot water. Then add 5 gallons of hot water, stir well and pass the mixture through a sieve to remove the coarse particles. This white- wash should be applied while hot. The addition of salt is to bind the whitewash better when dry. Before applying whitewash the surfaces should be well scraped with a blunt chisel or putty knife to remove loose gartvd^"?* or scales of old whitewash coating. I^^hi \i\V^ '«?^^.^ ^"^xv \5!^ prepared by brushing with a Stiff biusVv \.o*xww3s^ 'sa.-cv^^ ^'^'^' 868 TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. The former coating of whitewash on a surface can be more thoroughly removed if it is well moistened with water. The scraping operation especially is greatly facilitated thereby. All surfaces in the brewery can be whitewashed except ceil- ings over open vessels, as there is danger of the whitewash scaling off and falling into the vessels. Such ceilings should be painted. Calcimining differs from whitewashing in that it fur- nishes a smoother surface, and is, on that account, usually em- ployed for covering hard-finished walls, especially when differ- ent tints or colors are desired for ornamental purposes. Calcimine differs from whitewash in that whiting (Spanish or Paris white) is used instead of slaked lime, with the further addition of glue to prevent rubbing off. If the surface is new it should first be "sized" with a solution of glue in water, so as to render the surface non-absorbent, a& otherwise the calcimine, if applied over a surface of uneven porosity, ^%ouId dry in patches of different shades of color. When mixing colors to calcimine it should be taken in con- sideration that the color, when dry on the surface, will be lighter in shade and more brilliant than it was when mixed in the pail. If a white color for calcimine or for whitewash is desired a very small amount of blue color, such as ultramarine l)lue, should be added, enough to give a very slight bluish shade to the mixtures while wet. This, if applied, will dry out a bril- liant white, the blue entirely disappearing unless too much of it was used. Hydraulic cement UKishcs have of late also come into use. These are nothing more than calcimine, to which a form of hydraulic or Portland cement has been added. These washes or coatings go by different names and require a special method of application, differing with each one. They have been found, as a general rule, to give excellent results, and, although higher in cost than self-prepared whitewash or calcimine, are to be recommended on account of their uniform composition and gjen- erally satisfactory results obtained. It should always be remembered that the cost of materials, be it paint, varnish, whitewash, etc., is always but a small item compared with the cost oi tVve \a\>oT vo ^'^^Vn vt and the annoy- ance if a poor job has resuUed. UTILIZATION OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF THE BREWERY. The important by-products of the brewery and malt house are screenings, skimmings, malt sprouts, underdough, spent grains, spent hops, dregs ("Trub"), yeast, carbonic acid. SCREENINGS AND SKIMMINGS. If the screenings from the barley cleaners contain much dust, this is screened out, and the undersized, light and broken kernels, of which the screenings are composed, are sold as chicken or cat- tle feed, after being mixed with the floaters from the steep tank which arc either gathered by skimmers or carried from the steep tank by a current of steep water through an overflow pipe (see "Malt House Outfit") at the top of the tank into a tank provided with a perforated bottom. This wet grain is dried on perforated plates or in a regular kiln. MALT SPROUTS. Malt sprouts contain a very large amount of nutritive sub- stance, and may be considered a concentrated foodstuff for cattle. They are especially valuable as a feed for milch cows on acount of the large amount of easily assimilable nitrogenous substances. Thausing gives the following analysis of ten samples of sprouts : Max. Min. Aver. Moisture 15.60 3.74 10.09 Nitrogenous substances *. 28.94 20.21 24.18 Fat ^ 3.0 1.43 2. 10 Nitrogen free substances 46.0 37.06 42.11 Wood fiber 18.50 10.61 14.33 Ash 9.7 5.10 7.ig The sprouts should be mixed with other feed, Ukc Vv&>; , -^^ "C^^^ are too concentrated a food to be taken a\oT\e, ^tv^ '^^'^^ N^^c^'^'y^*^ they arc apt to be refused on account oi tVve VxVVex X.^^^^, ^^ ns'cwOcv 869 870 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. cattle, hoi»ever, gradually become accustomed. The value ol malt sprouts, as feed, is calculated, on the strength of the analysis, to be about five times as great as that of hay. They are not however, paid for to the full of their value. If they cannot be utilized for feeding purposes they may serve as an excellent fertilizer on account of their nitrogenooa ooa- ponents, and the ash whidi is almost entirely made np of {Aos- phoric acid and potash. The amouqt of malt sprouts is about 3 per cent of the weight of the malt produced. BREWERS' GRAINS. Brewers' grains are now recognized as a valuable cattle feed, and are especially appreciated in this respect in Germany, tc which country large amounts of the grains from American brew- eries find their way in a dried condition. Settegast (Futterungslehre, Breslau) says that brewers' g^rains take the first place among the feed b>'-products of agricultural industries, considering their wholesoniencss. especially in the case of cattle and swine. They affect to a high degree the fio^ of milk, on which account they deserve preference for feeding milch stock, and one need not hesitate to cover as much as hall of the feed demand by brewers' grains. In a report of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, 1893. relating the results of feeding experiments with horses E. B. and Louis A. Voorhees state that "by actual trial a pound of dried brewers* grains was shown to be quite as useful as i pound of oats in a ration for workhorses. A comparison of th< composition of the feeds indicates that the reason for this resull lies in the fact that the dried brewers* grains furnish more of th< valuable digestible nutrients than the oats. . . . The sub- stitution of dried brewers' grains for oats resulted not only in a maintenance of the weight of the animals under equivalent work but in a saving of 4.9 cents per day per horse, or 25 per cent oi the cost of the ration." Dried brewers' grains, they say, at $2^ a ton would be as cheap a feed as oats at 36 cents a bushel. Such opinions leave no room for doubt as to the value oi brewers' grains, and $10 a ton for the dried product seems tc cover only about one-half their intrinsic value. The brewers* grains as tV\ev ait d\scVv3.r^ed from the mash-tun are also fit food for catl\e \tv V\ve wtV coTves:\V\oTv Vcv HtVveei >S»s UTILIZATION OF BV-PRODUtTTS. 87 I coDtain from 75 to 81 per cent of water. On account of this high percentage of moisture they are liable to feniicTilaiioii ami putrefaction, in which slate they are no longer available for feeding purposes. They cannot be kept for any length of lime in this condition, and experiments at ensilage, that is, storing llx'in packed away in bulk, mixed with some saU, have not proven suc- cessful, as they have been known lo sour quite frequently. It pressed they will keep somewhat longer in ensilage, /i^s- periments made as between the nutritive value of wet and dried grains have shown that ihe digestibility is but slightly in\[iairLil by the drying process, and little differences in milk flow will fol- low the substitution of the dried grains fur the wet. Dried grains at $15 a ton are equivalent lo moist grains at from 10 to II cents per bushel. One pound of dried grains con- tains on an average as nuich nutriment as four pounds of moist HESVI.TS WITH CR.MNS IIRIKHS. Drying grains is now done regidarly in some of our largest brewing ]i!ams, and the following information can be given from tesis made and figures ohtaizied from n grains drying vx- A machine with a capacity of 1,500 bushels dry mash per day, floor space 5 feet 2 inches wide by 14 feet high by 22 feel 8 inches Inng. price S3„';oo. Power lo run. 8 horseiwiwer, took one-quarter to onc-lhird pounds of coal to produce one pmind dry graini ciHitaining 6 per cent moisture, using new steam made for the purpose specially. Where exhaust steam from a large plant is used this expense is considerably reduced; one man can attend to three machines when doing nothing else. Steam pressure in upper drums. 10 pounds exhaust steam, or 10 pounds live steam reduced. In lower drums, full boiler pressure in stirrers, upper stirrers 40 revolutions, lower stirrers JO revolution.s. One pound dry grains — about four and one-half pounds wet. on an average. One pound dry grains — about four poimds dry mash (ma- terial). In large plants using this dryer the following was found: One brewery dries wet grains from ;0.OOO poundi wvi=.'^ ^ i^ hours regularly. Another brewery on a trial run divtd nJ&» V^^^"'^*'i vlvt.-^ 872 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. nine hours, bat this aniomit is not advisable for regular opera- tion. Power, 8 to 10 horsepowier to run %ben properly fed, but there should be at least a 15-horsepo^er cnpaLcity of engine, as it has happened that a man filled the machine too full, and it then would require increased power. A third brewery dries grains from 15,500 lbs. mash in 7% hours, using power and steam to the value of $2 for that amount. This is figured on a basis of a cost of 10 cents per 1,000 pounds of water evaporated. These 15,500 pounds of mash give 3,800 pounds dry grains. Power to run machine about nine horse- power. They use 13 horsepower, but this includes power to run the blower for the dry grains. The dividing price for wet grains is $1.50 per ton. When the market is higher they sell grains wet, if lower they run the machines. At a fourth brewery a test was made on an eight-hour run, with steam at 9% cents per 1,000 pounds water evaporated. Steam used in drying, 5,950 pounds $ -47 Steam used in power, 3,295 pounds 26 Labor, eight hours 1.17 $1.90 It thus cost $1.90 to produce 4,000 pounds of dry grains. In this plant they used 13% indicated horsepower to operate. This included povrer necessary to convey the wet grains across an alley to the dryer, and operate a machine for packing the dry grains in sacks. The machine alone used 9 to 10 horsepower. Brewery No. i dries wet grains from 2,^;^^^ pounds dry mash (material) per hour. Brewery No. 2 dries wet grains from 2,755 pounds dry mash (material) per hour. (Crowding machine.) Brewery No. 3 dries wet grains from 2,214 pounds dry mash (material) per hour. Brewery No. 4 produces 500 bushels dry grains = about 2.000 pounds dry mash (material). Wet grains weigh 60 to 65 pounds per bushel, dry grains 25 to 30 pounds per bushel. It takes 45 minutes to run them through the machine. The higher percentage of protein or albuminoids contained in .-American grains, as compared with German, is due to the fact that practically all of the a\b\imet\ ol \3Lwtualted cereals, which are used in America to the atnoutvt oi ?Xjo>xV -i^ ^^ \^ \«k ^«clV imLTZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 873 passes into the jfrains. whereas of the albumen containei' tit tnaU, about one-half is dissolved duririR mashing. ■rarage ornOrian 1 li IP Ol.JTO.W 1 1 MM 3.13 ■n.Wi.tw 4.50 0,07 If i 1 i IS Minimum.. The aiiiouiil of wet grains obtained from a certain amount of material employed in a brew varies somewhat, but is on the av- erage about 16 per cent higher than the weight of the brewing materials. In two different breweries the following tests were made by VVahl and Henius: Brewery I. Brewery II Materials used— cleaned malt 6,200 7,638 MslcriaU used — grits 6,200 7.?oo Total materials 12,400 i5-ij8 Wet grains Moisture in grains Commercial dry grains (wiih 6 per cent moisture) 100 lbs. muterial gave, dry grains. .. 26.7* 8t.2< 78.(it 874 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. The foUowtiig taUe gives the amounts of wet grains actually obtained from the corresponding amounts of brewing material and the increase in per cent : Percentage showing increase of weight Pounds of material Pounds of wet grains of grains over used in breweries, received of brevreries. ;i>345 )S 440365 573.675 465,510 397,990 497,795 531,420 524,440 492,090 458,025 536,600 488,425 480,770 528,725 642,600 556,550 553.170 480.090 020,960. 546,^60 476.730 603,510 610,760 607.450 598,130 520,880 629,880 566,150 565,660 617.630 material. 16.55 13-71 13.16 ao9 9.81 17.39 19.80 21.24 14.1 ii.« 21.55 13.72 17.38 1590 17.66 16.82 1585 Total. . 7,945.970 9.205,610 ♦Average increase per cent. In another test made the amount of dried grains obtained from 4,400 pounds of grits and 4400 pounds of malt was 2,017 pounds of dried grains with 5.92 per cent moisture, or about 23 per cent of dried grains. (See G. Thevenot, Drying of Brewers' Grains, American Brewers* Revie^\, IX, page i.) UNDERDOUGH. After removing the grains, the underdough should be taken out as soon as the mash-tun is properly cooled, and mixed with the grains. DREGS C'TRUB OR SEDIMENT'*.). The substance remaining in the sediment bags contains a large quantity of protein. Its proper place after draining the wort from the dregs ("Trub") is in the grains box. It should preferably be thrown into the mash-tun before the grains ar* removed, so as to insure proper mixing. SPENT HOPS. There seems to be no value attached to spent hops, properly sparged. They contain some nnu\etvx s\\\isv^ivct'a,\MX^affl^-- UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 875 dent qnantities to warrant drying tlicni. Cattle do not take kindly to them on account of their bitter taste They have been nsed with good results, after drying, for liorse -bedding, and sn-iii to be preferred by the animals to straw. If not «?ed otherwise iliey should be disposed of under the boiler 3S quickly as possible. UTILIZATION OF WASTE YEAST. Considering that yeast during ihe process of fcrmcnlation. while growing in the wort, takes nil such valuable iiigrodieiUs from the wort as phosphates of potash and other ininiTal .sub- stances, and the amides and ptploiics of the wurt, wilh which it sustains "l^elf and builds up the brdj' of its progeny, it is rather strange that a .substance coulaining such valuable ingredients should have been cillowcd to run lo waste so long. Tiic crop nf yeast that is relumed 10 the brewer during and after the principal fermentation is nuicli larger than the ipiaiitity which is added 10 the wort in (he first instance io start fermentation. Allowing for variations due 10 favorable or unfavorable condiliona of growlh. ii may be assumed that the nuantity of yeast which is allowed to run lo waste in the brewery will reach, generally speaking, from one to two ]>ounds per barrel of beer brewed. WUh a view of recovering the many valnable substances that the via--i contains and m.iking them serviceable for practical U'es, R. Walil and M, HcniiK of ChicaRo. during ihc last (in ycirs. jointly coiiducicd a numlicr i.f experinunis which culminated in iht successful tsiracticm of the yeast, ridding it of those foreign substances which impart to Ihc cMraol a had flavor or o(licrwis<> deleriomte the prodnct. The process consists in washing the yeast wilh wuler. heating the cleaned yeast, rupturing the mem- branes, and bringing into solution the valu.ible mineral and albu- minoid substances of which the protoplasm of the yeast is mainlv built up, separating the membranes from the soluble parts by fillration, decantation or otherwise, and condensing the extract to a syrupy or solid form. Analyses of this extract show thai it contains essentially the same substances that are found in meat extract. Besides serving as a tonic in the place of extract of beef, the txcv, vegetable extract from yeast can be employed with good results in the brewery for nourishing ytasl, as it contains the very products that the yeast requires for food, since it U t^wft^w-i. lAxVt'-A'sMi^- cal albiintinoids and mineral swbslanct^ wVvvcV \.V\t -jti^^V wwv=™s.f f/ 876 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. This new yeast product (patented Jnne 4, 1895) can be easily evaporated to a pofectly dry state, in which it is an easily pow- dered, lustrous mass of a light brown color. This mass readily dissolves in hot water, leaving it perfectly clear, and the solid products as well as the hot aqueous solution have the odor and taste of a freshly prepared extract of meat. Following is a comparative statement of analyses of the re- spective substances: Liebig's Armour Extract Ex. of Beef. Ex. of Beef, of Yeast. Moisture 15.26 15.97 IS.32 Mineral substances 23.51 29.36 25.77 Of which phosphoric acid and potash (72.5^) (52^) (65^) Albnmoses 2.01 1.75 S5 Peptones 8.06 5.13 15.0 Meat bases 29.32 41.12 21.3 A comparison of these analyses shows that yeast extract con- tains a higher quantity of the most valuable, readily digestible, and nutrient albumoses and peptones, on which the importance of the extracts depend, than even meat extracts. (See Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis, 1898, Vol. IV, page 310.) UTILIZATION OF C.\RBONIC ACID. The amount of carbonic acid escaping from the fermenting vats of a brewery during the principal fermentation is very large. For every pound of sugar that ferments one-half pound of car- bonic acid is formed. The wort or beer is able to retain only a small fraction of the carbonic acid generated, about three-quarters of a pound per barrel, the remainder escaping. Of the sugar con- tained in an ordinary wort about 7 per cent ferments, or about 17% pounds per barrel,,. producing 8% pounds carbonic acid, 8 pounds of which escape, or, for every 100 barrels of beer brewed there is a loss of 800 pounds of carbonic acid. Of late this carbonic acid has been successfully collected in some large brewery plants and is employed for charcifing the beer of the brewery in its final stages with carbonic acid, or. it is purified and compressed into drums and put on the market for charging beer and other beverages, displacing the liquid carbonic acid produced from other sources, tuxvmly marble dust and sul- phuric acid. If properly purifted \l cen;i\T\\^- <\e'^^TN^s ^\«5\^\^xv5:fc UTILIZATION OF IIY-I'KOOUCTS, > over carbonic acid from chemicals, and is readily di>:iiLiKiiislii from such by ihc mild, "cit'ati" ta^tu of the charRcd licvoi; whereas water charged with marble dii!>t. gas has a peculiar lla not relished by a sensitive palalc. In order to collect the gas the tcrmcntiiis vals are ]>ri)vii with hoods. The carbonic acid escapes through a kind parachute, and is conveyed by means of a pipe that conu! with all the hoods, to the piirilicr, where the gai h washed means of water and sulphuric acid, which remove all the arom ingredients like ethereal oils. It is then passed through a ^i tton of permanganate of potash and carhnnate of soda, remove all traces of acid, and then dried and compre^-^icl t< liquid, if desired. In most cases, however, the gas is wiihdr? from closed fermenters, washed and compressed. THE BOTTLING DEPARTMENT OF A MODERN BREWERY. There are few departments that have received less special attention by brewers than that concerned with the bottling^ of their product. Formerly this department was considered by most brewers, especially by those having smaller plants, as a necessary evil, and was often installed simply because the brew- er's competitor had done so, or because a few good customers had demanded bottle beer, rather than because there was any hope of making this department self-sustaining or a source of profit to the brewery. This condition has changed, as the demand for bottle beer in private families, hotels, railroad trains, and even in saloons is steadily on the increase, and a first-class bottling department is considered a necessity with many a modern brewery plant. When special attention was given this department it was found that the old shed used as a bottle shop, with its meager appli- ances, would no longer answer, and the deficit in the depart- ment due to breakage and loss of bottles and boxes, and the loss of time of the men by "soldiering" or otherwise (because it did not pay to employ a competent special foreman to keep track of them), could be avoided by improving and properly man- aging the department. In fact, there are to-day a considerable number of brewers who reckon on their bottle trade returns as no small portion of their yearly re\'enue. To accomplish this requires economical arrangement and the most improved appliances and machinery. REQUIREMENTS OF BOTTLE-SHOP MACHI.NERY. The reguirements of bottle-shop machinery are of the most rigid order. They must operate not only economically, but very ^^oroughly. For instance, a soaking dev\ct \VvaX do«. x^ax. v»fiL 87» BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 87O a battle properly does not soak it at all ; that is, the boltle must be run through again, and the time retiurred in handling it dur- ing the first operation is time practically wasted. .\ detect becomes still more costly in the pasteurizing or steaming tank, for if it does rot furnish an even, gradual rise or fnll of tem- perature it is likely to cause breakage of bottles and loss of contents. What is still more detrimental is to not give an even temperature throughout the lank, so that som« bottles never reach the final pasteurizing temperatures. This may result In their spoiling afterward, while in the possession of the con- sumer, which may mean not only biss of time and material, but possibly loss of trade besides. Similar defects are liable tn occur at nearly every stage of the process, and will he detailed more fully under the separate descriptions of the machinery and devices employed at each individual step of the work. One of the first points to l>e considered is ibc general arrange- ment, which is as important in bottle sliops as in Ihc brew house and cellars. The arrangement sliould be such that there is abso- lutely no useless or double handling of any bottle or case, and benches or tmichines should be so placed in relation to each other that tliey form an unbroken line from the dirty returned bottle to the capped and lalieled bottle in the case for delivery. The bottles should first he placed in the soaking device (tank or wheel), from which the man should, when all labels, tin foil, ct''.. arc rtiuoved. place them directly on the rack at his side and between him and the bottle-cleaning machine. From here the man at llic machine takes them, runs them through the ma- chine and places the rack on a bench at the opposite side of the machine, where a boy takes out the bottles, examines them as to cleanliness and places them on the adjacent rack next to the man operating (he filling machine. This operator places the empty bottles in the machine with one hand and removes filled ones with Ihc other, placing them on a bench, where they are either closed and examined, if patent stopper bottles, or taken l>y the man who operates the stopper machine. When closed, they arc again placed on a bench, where they are like- wise cxaniined, clamped or wired, and put in a crate previous to going into the pasteurizing tank. Mxt ^^11% ^'wa.tft.t.^ '&«:4 are JabeJed and capped with tin foW, etc. 88o BOTTUNG DEPARTMENT. It is imporUnt alwmys to observe the same economy of hand- linf» each bottle going from hand to hand, and avoiding the laborious operation, frequently necessary in poorly-arranged plants, of stacking the bottles one by one on a truck and hanling or carrying them to the next machine or operator, where they are again unloaded and placed ready for use. It may be of importance to call attention to a circumstance occasionally met with and which applies to the operation of machinery of any kind. It will happen that a certain machine or appliance has been found fault with, or, in some instances, totally discarded, because it would not do the work claimed for it, while in other plants the same style of machine seemed to work to perfection and gave the best satisfaction. In such instances the fault can be usually located either in a mechanical defect in some minor part of the machine, such as in a valve or cock, etc., or, which is more often the case, in improper physical conditions in the operation of the machine, such as pressures or temperatures of water, air or steam. An example of this would be, for instance, if in bottle-washing machines using shot, the rinsing stream of water did not discharge with sufficient force to dislodge the shot, allowing it to clog the neck of the bottle and necessitating the shaking of each bottle for its re- inoval. or if, in back-pressure filling machines, there was too little difference between the initial and the back pressure, the beer would run too slowly, and in both instances make the ma- chine quite worthless from the point of view of economy. Neither of the defects mentioned would be due to the con- struction of the machine, but to the handling of it. Neverthe- less, the machine would in all probability get the blame for it BOTTLE SOAKING. The object of soaking bottles is either to dissolve the dirt, sediment, etc., contained in them, or to soften these sufficiently to be easily removed by the washing machine, and further to wet the labels to such an extent that they either drop off the bottles or are easily taken off afterward. The substances to be removed from beer bottles by soaking and washing usually consist of dried beer remnants, which in- variably contain countless numbers of wild yeasts and bacteria that have found their way into the bottles, and there multiply rapidly, the beer remnants iumishing xV«m \«>3ltvn:\\x\ Tisraanahr eat. BOTTLING DKPARTMENT. (S8l The soaking, then, becomes a most important part of the bottling process, as it may liappen that the spores formed by these wild yeasts, etc., are not completely removed during the soak- ing and washing, even though the bottles may appear clean. These spores possess much greater vitality and resisia?ice than their parent cells, and arc not always destroyed at the temperature to which beer is subjected during the pastcuri/a- tion process, hence they may survive tlie steaming process, and in this case cause fermentation, cloudiness, abnormal taste, etc. It also occasionally happens that bottles, especially patent- stopper bottles, find their way back in the bottle shop contain ing remnants of varnish, oil, chemicals, etc., in which case it is advisable to throw them away rather than to attempt td soak or clean them. In order to hasten the soaking or softening procos*:. soda or other alkalis are added to the water. This addition has the further action of softening or dissolving substances that would not be affected at all, or very slowly, by water alone, such as fats and oils and some of the albuminous substances. BOnXK-SOAKlNG T.VNKS. The most common bc^ttle-soaking device in use is the sriaking vat or tank, consisting of a square or rectangular bnard re- ceptacle, or sometimes of half of an old chip cask, in which the lx>ttles are simply submerged in a soda solution and left there for a certain length of time. This method, however, on account of the bottles being knocked abcnit and against each other a good deal while floating or sinking, causes considerable breakage, and a large proportion of the bottles sink before being completely tilled, retaining air, which, upon the bottles ^rttling on their sides, is unable to escape and forms an air bubble at their upper part, preventing the soaking solution taking cffeci at that place. To obviate this annoyance the bottles arc sometimes placed or set in the empty tank, neck up, and the soaking solution poured or run in on them. This, of course, prevents the forma- tion of any air bubbles, but requires considerably more labor and time in handling the bottles. Furthermore, it is ditficult to place a second tier of bottles upon the lower one without some intervening board or grating. Soakiii}^ Tanks icith Inclined Bottoms. — ^'CVn\s ^^•sv.nkV^'^ ^*^-n^ be practically overcome, however, b-y qowsVx\\0\\\% "^^ \i^>»NX'^'^ 56 SB2 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. on an incliiK or slaul; ot, as is generally done, high at thQ center and sloping to ihe sides of the lank. In this conslnifr- lion Ihc tank can be filled with slanttng layers of bottles wrthJ oul any inten'cning partitions or supports. Care should, bo«r* ever, be taken to have each layer consist of bott'-s of (he laoH size only, as mixing together pints and quarts in the same laref' would soon disrupt the tinifomiily of the whole ariangeitieaL B; running the soaking solniioii on the liotlle; in this positioM there will be no likelihood of their not filling completely. Portable Soaking Tantt. — h portable soaking tank which pos- sesses novel features is now on Ihe market. It is similar ttf general shape lo ordinary tanks, but is mounted upon swi*^ castors, and in addition to a large outlet for the soaking soltH lion has a smaller one that can be so adjusled that the sollli' lion will escape no faster than ihe twttles are taken out. Ttw lop layer is thus always visible to the operator, and any brokea bottles can be handled with the proper caution, which is ndF always the case in other tanks, where the operator, to take oul the bottles, must plunge his hand below the surface, often at- countering broken glass and suffering serious cuts. The lank also has movable racks or supports placed in the bottom so that the bottles can be stacked in an inclined position, allowios each to be completely filled. The principal advantage, however, claimed for this soakiii( tank is its portable character, which enables a boy to move tbe tank, when filled with bottles and solution, from place to place quiic easily, whereby bottles at different points in the shop csn be gathered up in much less time than would be necessary lo ' bring them to a stationary tank. A tank filled with unosnally dirty bottles requiring longer soaking can be moved aside and out of the way. or if it is desired ihe tank can be used as a stationary one. and can even find use as a truck for moving cas«S Compartment Soaking Tanks. — In another soaking device tbc tank is divided into compartments. This tank is supplied wilh tin-foil remover and washing machines, conveniently placed, alKt a bottle conveyor. The system is operated as follows: The bot- tles are placed in the compartments in the evening and allowed to soak all night. In the morning ihcy are taken from the tanks aad pUccti on the conveyor, by which they are carried to the operators, who stand at the washing XanV- "^^^S ^^* **■ ***■ BOTTLING DEPARTMICNT. SH^l ties from the conveyor and place ihcm on the wasliiiiR ma- chines (and when necessary on the lin-foil remover) and fin:i1ly deposit them on the rinsers. By this method considerable useless handling and carrying around of bottles is avoided. It furthermore offers a check on the workmen, as one glance al ■ shows the foreman whether the bottles are being r taken off with the usnal rapidity. The strength of the solution Lest adapted for soaking hollies in the different styk-s of tanks Is one that contains alii.nt 5 pounds of soda to the barrel of water, making tt approximately 3 per cent strong. This strength is sufliciciit to soak the bottles thoroughly, and not so strong as to injure the hands of the worktnen. As quite a few bottlers are guided more or less by guess work in making up their soaking solutions, the following instrtictions will help make the proper solutions and keep them uniform in strength. As most soaking tanks are square or rectangular, to find the number oE barrels they contain, divide contents in cubic ft'ct. tb:it is, the length in feet X width in feet X depth in feet, by 4 (strictly, 4,144). This gives barrels, and muliiiiiitd by 5 gives the nHml)er of iwiunds of soda to be dissolved. The temperature of the soaking solution should be from 110° lo ijo" F. Since the introduction of soaking wheels and such devices where the bmtles are not handled while wet with the -solnlion, caustic mda has found use. being a Ptronger alkali, and the solmion used warmer (150' F.). Soaking wheels are gradually roniing more into use, as they do away with considerable of the labor connected with a soaking tank. They furthermore shorten the time necessary to soak a bottle, as at each revolution every bottle is filled and emptied of its contents of soaking solution. This flowing in and out of the liquid not only causes friction against the inner walls of ihc bottle, which in itself hastens the cleaning process, but allows a fresh quantity of strong solution to act on the bottle at e.tch revolution. In a soaking tank the bottles are at rest and the same vohimc of solution remains in the bottle during the whole soaking period. If the bottles stand upright, and con- lain a considerable crust of dried-up beer, which ottt-^. Vi.'j^ctA ill bottles returned from sbipmenls VV\b,\ \\a,Nt \«Ktv ■a'^'-'^ "^"^^ ' 884 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 1 ■ I long time, the ccmipleCe soaking may possibly be retarded* since the soaking solution, acting npon this sediment, dissohres part of it and becomes weaker at the line of contact, and, th e re f ore, being specifically heavier, may form an inert layer and prevent the further action of the stronger solution above it Another time-saving feature of a soaking wheel is that the bottles can be left in the wheel as long as desired, enabiiag very dirty bottles to remain longer in the wheel without dday- ing those requiring only a shorter soaking. The latter gener- ally represent by far the larger part of the total number of bottles treated. Another advantage of soaking wheels is in the fact that the soaking solution can be made very much stronger, there being nothing about the wheel to be injured by it. and there is less occasion for the solution to affect the hands of the workmen, and in some the bottles are not handled from the time they are put in the wheel, until discharged in pure water. Furthermore, the amount of soaking solution in the tank being so much larger in proportion to the amount in the bottles, it can be used much longer before needing replacing or strengthening, and can be used again and again until it becomes weak, thus saving soda and time of making up solution. Bottles in very bad condition may be left in the wheel while others are being charged and uncharged, thus saving time. Soaking wheels have a large daily capacity and are specially suitable for use in larger bottling plants. Gravity Soaking Wheel. — A soaking wheel of simple and inexpensive construction now on the market consists of an iron wheel hung in a wooden tank containing the soaking solution. The bottles arc placed on the wheel in iron pockets or holders with their mouths standing outward. By properly placing the bottles on one side and taking them oflf at the other side, thus overbalancing one side of the wheel, it revolves without power. The pockets arc so placed that the bottles enter the soaking solution with their nec,ks upward, thus filling, while they leave it in the reversed position and empty their contents automatically. The pockets are adjustable, so that different sizes and shapes of bottles can be inserted. Compartment Soaking IVhecl. — Another style of soaking ivbcc} contains compartments into which the bottles are placed ly/jj/c being soaked. This w\icc\ \\\ cotv?>vt\3iOa^w consists o^ BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 88 S a wheel-shaped device, having pockets at its outer circumference. It is mounted on the top rim of a wooden tank, containing soda solution, thus causing the lower half of the wheel to run through the solution. The pockets are inclined so that the bottles may be put in while the wheel is in motion, and that they will automatically discharge themselves at the proper time. A sheet iron apron prevents the discharge from taking place on the downward movement of the pockets. At the back of the 'pockets are bars that hold the bottles in place while permitting them to fill and empty freely. The bottles alternately fill and empty during each revolution of the wheel, causing a vigorous cleans- ing action. Steel Plate Soaking Device. — Another soaking .device, similar in operation to the wheel, consists of a series of perforated steel plates, connected by two endless chains, the whole running over two pulleys or wheels placed at either end of a tank. The bot- tles arc inserted into the holes in the plates, where they are clamped and carried through the solution. Rod Soaking Device. — In another construction of soaking de- vice the l)ottlcs arc attached to rods and moved by the two end- less chains supporting these rods through a soaking solution. Coming out at the other end the bottles arc removed, the speed of the chain being such that the bottles are submerged for the desired soaking perinH. \n ])()ttles need he carried hack through the air, thereby saving time. There are two cfMiipartments - a large one for soaking and a smaller (»iie for an^ \>^ 886 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. ondeniealh, it must be removed or scraped oft bf i chanical means. The appliance most generally ustd for this purpose ( of a rotary shaft, aroimd which arc aiiached i-ighi fIcxiUc a cAch holding at its outer end a serrated wheel wtih cutter teeth On inserting a bottle between these wheels their teeth cut oi KCrape a furrow throuKJi the tin foil, and. by moving the bo(lI< inwar^ and outward, it requires but an instant 10 remove thi foil completely. The purpose of the teeth in these wheds is t< remove the foil in chips or in fine spiral ribbons so that the] will be dropped or whirled out, as, if the foil were scrt^ft ofl in the form of a sheet, it would ball together and soon di>| the machine. Surrounding these wheels is attached a bsdw of wire gauze for the purpose of preventing any chips froir being thrown about or in the face of the operator, and to for nisJi a means for collecting the waste, wbich is quite a profit able recovery, as it is salable, at 8 lo lo cents per pound, and about 6o per cent of the amount of foil originally used is t* covered by the use of this apparatus. Cork Exlraclors, — As quite a few bottles arc relumed ««■ taining a cork or a piece of it. which must be removed befon a&.^ the neck, and, as the bristles depend, w^otv vV^\x ^^^ ^^"^xn*^ 888 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. ms much as upon centrifugal force for spreading, this oom- pression while in the neck of the bottle only tends to add to their eflBciency. A bottle- washing machine should be judged, however, prin- cipally by its efficiency in cleansing the body and bottom crf< the bottle, as it is here, especially on the latter, that the most stubborn crust of foreign matter is usually found, the necks being in most instances quite easily cleaned. Rinsing Machines are devices for the purpose of finally re- moving, by means of a spray or jet of clean water, such loosened matter a$ may still adhere to the inner surface of the bottles after the water used in washing has been emptied out They are either separate devices, upon which the bottles are placed for rinsing after they are removed from the washing machine, or else are attached to, and operated with, the washing madiine automatically. SINGLE BOTTLE WASHING MACHINES. The ordinary style of single bottle washing machine is to- day the most universally used machine, being installed in the majority of bottle shops, even in those using the more modem multiple washers, finding ready use on account of its rapid and convenient manipulation. This machine consists of a hollow revolving shaft or spindle, to one end of which is attached a brush made of different sub- stances, such as bristles, rubber, etc. This brush is surrounded by a ferrule or housing which keeps it from spreading by cen- trifugal force while revolving, and also has the purpose of keep- ing the brush compressed, so that it will readily enter the mouth of the- bottle. This housing is movable forward and backward in the line of the spindle, and is supplied with a Hanged or bell- shaped lip. so that when the mouth of a bottle is pressed into the same, the housing recedes and the neck of the bottle occu- pies its former po>ition. I'pon further moving the bottle for- v.-ard, so that its body surrounds the brush, the latter is released from any compression and immediately spreads and rubs or scrapes the inside of every part of the bottle. At the time when the brush leaves the neck and enters the bottle, a stream of I water is automatically turned on by means of an ann or rod J conncctiuf; with a cock in the water supply. This water passes ^ through the iiollow revolving sV\'aU. iiw\*iTu\^ the bottle in the form of a jtt or spray, and, by l\\c o^V^^^^v^ \\\v:>\Av:ycv \yv TcxonsTis% BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 88g the bottle, the water is shut off so that none escapes except while the bottle is being washed. These machines are constructed to supply almost any demand that bottle shops of different capacities may make. They are built to operate either by foot, steam or water power, and made with one. two or four spindles to each machine, in the latter kind all being driven from one countershaft. Another style of this machine has lately come into use. This consists of two horizontal brush spindles, operating as altove described, the economical feature being in the machine having two bottle holders or carriages moveable forward and backward by a screw revolved by power. One man can, therefore, do dou- ble the work he could do on a single machine. He need not press the bottles against the brushes, as the revolving screw accom- plishes this motion, the operator's work being only to remove washed, and replace by unwashed, bottles. MULTIPLE BOTTLE- WASHING MACHINES. Multiple Brush Machine. — A popular style washes i6 bottles at once. The operation is as follows : The i6 bottles are placed in a rack constructed to hold them at regular distances apart, which, upon being placed on the machine, allows the mouth or lip of each bottle to rest in a corresponding cup-shaped depres- sion. A lever is now depressed, which acts upon a plate and presses or tightens the bottles, so that they are firmly hold in position while washed. By lowering another lever at the side of the machine. i6 revolving spindles and brushes are raised upward an construction. The advantages of this multiple machine over the horizontal single-spindle machine are the following: The bottles are not held in the hands of the workman while the spindles are re- volving, hence, any bottle that may be broken during wash- ing is not likely to cause any cuts or other injury. Furthermore, as the bottles arc in a vertical position, the dirty rinsing watw v?. continuously running out, and the brv\sVves, ^s \\\t^ vc\c>n;v:i >^'^- wnrri or flownward. are always being s^uvV^"^^^ '^VCcv ^^*^^ '^'^'^ Sgo BOTTLING DEfAHTMENT. j^' cle&n water, whJcli. in bottles comaining sediments ottf^ip' linoiis or soap; naiure, greatly faciliiatcj cleaning. MtiltipU Shot Machines. — AnothM style of multiple machint^ using shot, washes 12 bottles, 6 in 1 reel, at one operation. TU machine consists of a shaft carrying at each end 6 pockets hj^ bailies, to which is given a roUty and loneiludinal motion, I ing the shot against all pans of the inner surfaces of the bottkl Another type of multiple machine using shot is similar i operation, but of much larger construction and capacity i washes t8 bottles at one time. The length of lime th are scoured is regulated by the foreman changing a 9 and is not left to tbc boy operating the machine. Once set. t machine will continue to make the same nnmber of vibratia and revolutions till set again by the foreman. Wbe the bottles are automatically inverted and rinsed wil clean water to remove any particles of sedimeni and impttrity adhering to the bollles. The botlle crate holds 18 bottles, and after rinsing, the crale of cleaned bollles is replaced by a crale of dirty ones in a few seconds. The capacity of this washer is from 150 to 180 dozen bottles per hour. It will wash quarts, pints or half pints, and boltles with any and every kind of patent stoppers. The shot or slugs used in shotting machines are genetatly made of steel, and in shape resemble a double pyramid with bases togeiher. The sides of the shot are also curved inward, so as to present as many points or sharp, edges to the glass as possible, thus increasing the abrasive or scouring action of the shot and also lessening their tendency to stick 10 ihe wet interior surfaces of the bottles, or choke ihe moulh in falling out Small steel punehings. about Ieer, and to ainimiili>li ihU end ihe bottle is rinsed, or. in other wonls. this dirty Hater i- di>|ilaci d hy clean water, entering in tlie form v.itli everv part n"t the iimor'"surfaro of the bottle. In wa-hiuK machines, un which lK>tt!es are held in an inverted po-iii.in nilh tiii'ir nviittis downward, the washing -pray of waller also acts as a rinsing spray at the innmenl when the l.rushes eease revolving, or the shut h:i,^ fallen out of the bottle, lint in machines where the bottles arc held in a horizontal fiositi'in while being washed, this combination fealnrc cannot be applied. Here ihe bottles must \k taken from the washing machine and placed on a rinsing device, which involves another stparate manipulation. of upright tnbe!', each having a hole or iio?7.le at it< upper end for the cinission of the water spr.iy. Around each of tliese tubes is attached a Imllle siipiiort. consisting of a claw or ring, made to fit around the mouth of the Iwttlcs and placed, at such a distance below the upper «nA=. nK vVit V'&sf?. '^mj*- "^^^^ iaihT uill cvlrnd about haltway inVO \.\\e \\\\ct\.c4 ^»*.'^«-^ "^*^'' 892 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. over them. AH of ih«e tubes, whatever their number, are m- serled at their lower ends inio a connecting header, and thii header ii plac«d over, and attached to a plug of a slop cock or vslve in such a manner that, after the rinsing device is filled with bottles, it is given a quarter turn, whereby the water supply is tamed on. allowing the water to pass through the tubes and t>erfonn its rinsing duty. In order to prevent chipping of the mouth of the bottle, the supporting claws or rings are often made of or lined with rubber, because it happens that the bottle* are often quite carelessly placed upon the rinser. COUBINED SOAKING, WASHING AND MNSING DEVtCCS. Veiy convenient forms of combined outfit for bottle soaking, washing and rinsing are now on the market, and are well adapted for use in bottle shops where compactness is a desired feature. These outfits consist of a wooden soaking tank of cnn- venicnt size, to the sides of which are attached a horizontal single washing machine. 3 rinsing device, also 3 tin-foil remover and cork extractor, all of these being conveniently arranged, and the whole funiiuig a very compact outfit so that one man can handle the bottles without much loss of time in moving TAPPING OF BARRELS. In tapping barrels care ixmst be takrn not to lose any beer or gas, and for this purpose a special device is used. This consists of a tube reaching 10 the bottom of the barrel and having fide openings at its lower end (or the passage of the ln-er. This tube passes through a bushii;g, having a side opening with check valve, for passage of the uir pressure to the surface of the beer necessary to force the beer ihrouRh Ilie tube ai)d into the tiller. In practice several barrels are thus taiipcd ;it one lime, and their delivery pipes connected whereby a more even and long flow to the filler is obtained, and at the same timt' le^s lime i!i lost by the rilling opfraii'r waiting lor a new supply. One style of these tapping devices employs a special bush that must he screwed into the barrel ptTrtiaiu'iilly. Tliis has the ad- vaui.iRc that such a barrel will always be at the disposal of the hottliiig dfparimcnl. and not used for cit.stomcrs or shipment. \Vhcn feeding hack pressure bottle filling machines a divw- l>ack- ami annoyaiwv is ofton cxpeticnCiA -^Xwt* v^v^^a.ud mn- "'ag- a new barrel to the filler. Thvs \\3.WJ«^s -wVww. ■&« vb « BOrrLING DEfABTMENT. 8iJ3 gas contamed in the connecting tube or hose is forctii tlirtiugli the filling machine, causing Ihe latter to "spnlter." In or'liT \:> overcame this defect there is now a device on ilie inarkti so con stnictcd that a new barrel can be attached without Ihc o|KT.itr)r taking notice of the change, and this is acccuiii>!i-ihed liy an ar- rangenient whereby several barrels are cross-cuniiL-flcd to a main header, or manifold, so that one l>arrel can be discninircU'il and another replaced without the flow of beer bL-ing inlcrrtipled. The essential feature of the device consists of a "l.inliTn"' or observation glass placed between Ihc barrel and ihe header. Al Ihi' lower end of the lantern the snpiily and discharge pipes are nl- tached, while Ihc upper is supplied with a bluw-nff cnck an.l llii opening closed or opened by means of a float or rulilier hall. The operation is as follows: When the beer is discharsiiii" the lantern is full so that the ball floats at the top and close-' the air cock. As the flow diminishes the lantern empties and al the same time the float descends to a point bi'Iow the ojifiilnB to the header, wht-rcujion the cock lo same is closed so as to prevent back pressure when the barrel is disconnected. The empty barrel is now replaced by a full one (ihc other h;irrels suppl.ving the Ikiw during the oper.ition) and as lonR as the air or gas from ihe barrel or lube passes inlo tlic lantern, «o luUK it passes over the lloai a.id out of the air vent. As soon as beer is discharged inlo the laiuern the tloat rises uulil it is pre.^sed again'tt the air cock, when the coek In the header is opened iiuil the beer Hows lo the fillinii maehine. and by plaeinij the barrels so thai they emi)ty Jillernalely a eonlinuou> flow is idilained. BOTTLE FII.LINI^. The bottles havinR nmv been properly prepared, ihe "e.M operation necessary in ihe Ijoltlin^i [process is tlie filling of the Iwltles with beer. The two principal preeaiiiions to be here observed arc, first, to guard against llic escape of the carbonic acid gas contained in the beer, and, second, to prevent an infection of the beer by foreign micro-organisms, while it is being transferred from barrel to bollle. The fiirm of bottle-filling device now in most common u IS the trough siphon filler. This consists v\ shaped receptacle, wilh a covet fillips m«Tc «ji ^«.i>^ ^•>'^^'- 894 BOTTLING DEFARTUBNT. supplied internally vrilh a float indicator so that the aarface of the beer, when in this filler, can readily be kept at the duircd lerel. Through one of the long sides of this filler are in- serted a number of siphon tubes, each bent in a shape similar ta a letter J. The curved pan of this lube is placed inside of the trough and the straight pari outside of same, the tube being attached to the walls of the trough and pivoted at the point where it passes through, in such a manner that its ends can be raised and lowered a few inches. The tube is open at its curved inside end except when this end is depressed, in whkk case the opening is closed by being forced against a rubber disc or washer. The outer straight part o! the tube is tapered at its end and closed, a small slot or opening, however, being cut a short distance above this end. The operation of this siphon tube is as follows: By placinf a bottle over its outer straight end and depressing it. the slotted opening is lowered and at the same lime the inner curved end is raised away from the rubber closing disc, which allows the beer to Bow or siphon into the bottle, the flow continuing until the surface level of the beer in the bottle has reached the same height as the surface level of the beer in the Irniigh. After re- moving the flHcd bottle the tube is again closed automatically by means of either a spring or a weight forcing down the inside opening of the tube against the rubber closure. In regulating the height of the level of the beer in the fillers allowance shonld be made for the quantity of beer displaced by the tube while in the bottle. This can be done by filling the bottle lo the brim, when, upon removing the lube, its displacenienl will usually equal the unfilled space dfsired in the bottle. This air space is of great importance, as it furnishes a cushion for the expansive force of the beer when subjected to a higher temperature than that prevailing at the time of bottling. In the event the botile were completly filled with beer, any such expansion would tend to expel the stopper or burst the bi>iile. and would certainly do so during the subsequent steaming prjcess wherein the Icmpcrnlure and pressure of the beer in llii' bottle become quite high. .4s the beer before il reaches the bottles is usually, during rA/s (r.iijsfer, brought more ot \ess m cowixct with air, whicb means a possible chance oi inlecl'ion \>:i lo^tv^tv TO\t^Q-tity Hw M», BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 895 all modem fillers are constructed in a manner tending to re- duce this contact to a minimum. Porcelain-lined or Enameled Trough Filler with Air Filter. — A neat and practical system for bottle filling employs purified air. This system consists of a trough bottle filler, which pos- sesses the novel feature of having its inside, with which the beer comes in contact, porcelain lined or enameled (making an easily cleaned filler), preventing the beer from coming in contact with metal surfaces. To this filler is attached an air filter for the purpose of removing any foreign substances from the air while the latter passes from the air reservoir, also a part of this system, to the supply barrels. BACK OR COUNTER PRESSURE BOTTLE FILLERS. The different styles of trough bottle fillers now on the market possess, as a class, a drawback in the feature that they allow more or less carbonic acid gas to escape from the beer during the filling operation. Since the quantity of carbonic acid gas that a liquid will contain or hold in solution depends partly upon the amount of pressure resting upon its surface, it follows that, when this pressure is reduced, a corresponding escape of gas from the liquid takes place. In order to overcome this loss of gas or reduce it to a minimum some styles of bottle fillers are constructed so as to operate in such a manner that the beer, during the time it is being filled into the bottle, is continuously subjected to a pressure sufficiently great to prevent the escape of any of its contained carbonic acid gas. The principle, however, by which the beer flows into the bottle, or by which this flow is started or interrupted, is that of the siphon above described, and not the employment of the force of any extra pressure, as this pressure is practically the same upon both the beer in the filler, in the reservoir and in the bottle, and any excess pressure, due to the displacement of the air in the bottle, is blown off automatically from the back pressure chamber. A disadvantage, however, of this form of back pressure bottle filler lies in the fact that the contents of bottles that may be chipped, cracked or partly broken during any of the different stages of the bottling process, and which contents may amount to a considerable quantity during the course of the dav. c.'&.-sxtvc^'v be returned or poured back into a filUug dt\'\c^, "Sis ^'a^'t\ ^^ ^dc- prcssure reservoir is coonected with the bottles to be filled and is used as a receptacle for containing the pressure producing air or gas; it is supplied with a diaphragm by-pass or blow-off regulating valve for the purpose of automatically regulatiog the back pressure and blowing off the displaced air from the bottles after they are filled. The siphons operate similarly to those of the ordinary trough filler described; the bottle-holding claws and the beer and pressure shut-off valves are so constructed that, when the siphon tubes are raised, the claws open and release the bottles, and, at the same time, the shut-off valves dose and simultaneously interrupt both the flow of the beer and the back pressure, so that the bottles can be removed without loss of either. This filler is also made of a round revolving pattern, offerit^ the advantage of compactness and requiring less moving about on the part of the operator. Another style of rotary back-pressure filler is fed from below and has a glass lantern, containing a Hoai ball, to regulate the liow and back pressure. BOTTLE CLOSING OR STOPPERING. After the bottle has been filled with beer, the next operation necessar}' is to close the bottle as quitkly as possible. This has in view a double purpose— namely, to prevent any escape ot carbonic acid gas and to avoid subjtciing the beer to the chances of an infecliun by germs floating in the air. t:oRKS. The oldest form of bottle closure is the cork, which still main- tains its standing at the present liiiic. and which is too well known lo reqnire description. The cork, however, has the fol- lowing disadvantages : That it is often diliiculi lo extract the cork from the bolile, causing, by the aliL'mpi to do so. the beer lo be agilaltd and to foari ..y^"---^--i-,- ^•■^■>— p.>f-pi| omi : ihat pieces of cork often fall iiiv ■■■ !- 'i-,d; lliat, ill compressing the moisl. coiW, v^Ukli hayiiens just previous to its (nsertion. a juice or \invioi is &i\\itti<:i o-i"- ■w'vmi^ 'var and not re-oaed after the bottle bu beca opened. Thii tl]rie of stonier does away with the posubJUtr of anj impnnties from any former contents of the bottle *iwHin their way into the bottle, nnce at each filling a new iloppcr is interted. These stoppers pouess the advanURc of more md- versaDy supplying a tight dosnre, which is not the case witk some of the old style patent stoppers in which the rubber b worn or hardened. These stoppers, althongh more ( further allow the bottle being capped or wrapped with tin foil, etc, affording an opportunity for preparing a neater appearing package^ . . T «- Mflal Plug Stoppers. — One style of these single-ase stopperr consists of a hollow cup-shaped plug, made of aluminmn. After insertion into the mouth of the bottle the sides of the stopper arc expanded into a special groove or recess in the inside of tbe mouth of Ihe bottle, a rubber ring or gasket having been pre- viously placed around the stopper, so as to form an additional air-tight seal between metal and glass. Flanged Due Stoppers. — Another style of single-use closure con- sists of a flat tin-plate disc, having a flanged and crimped edge and containing a thin disc of cork on its inside for the purpose of supplying the closing seal when affixed to the bottle. The cork . disc employed Is specially treated for the elimination of impurities and is then saturated with a neutral and inert water-proofing compound. Between this cork and the metal disc proper a sheet of prepared paper is inserted to prevent its contact with the tin. The flange and corrugations on the metal are compressed by > machine which secures them around the bottle head and under a shoulder formed thereon, thus insuring the proper compressions (o the cork disc to make a gas-tight joint and holding ihe raetal disc firmly in place. With this closure there is no possibilily of injecting objectionable residual liquids into the contents of the bottles from the cork in the act of crowning, or of such dissolving out thereafter, as is well known to be the case in the compression of ordinary corks, old or new. That part of the cork disc which is placed under compression never comes in contact with the contents of the bottle: and (he body of the cotfc which is in contact is extremely thin as compared with the length of the ordinary cork. Another style of closure conswte ol a. oiv^VkvA >iji ':av>i*, I BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 8yy similar to the lid of a round pill box, containing a disc or washer of cork. This capsule is secured to the neck o£ the hottle by a circular strip o£ tin, the lop edge of which is bent at right angles, bo a» to form a flange over the capsule. Id aflixing the same the capsule and circular strip arc com- pressed over the bottle, and while in this compressed slate four wheels gather together and revolve and turn inward or "spin" the other edge of the circular strip under the shoulder or off- set of the lip of the bottle. The main feature of this closnrc is. however, that the closure can be removed from the bottle by hnnd, rcijuiring no tool. This is accomplished by having one end of the circular strip pass through a slot in the other and protrude or extend therefrom. To open the bottle this tin protrusion is bent back, by which the circular ring is opened and the closing capsule loosened and removed, a movement similar to loosening a strap from a buckle. Another style of similar closure consi-its of a cup-shaped capsule containing a disc uf cork, like the above described closure, but hav- ing its sides or cylindrical part nmeli longer. These sides have three indentations which fit into spiral recesses in the lip of the bottle. In affixing the closure the capsule is compressed over the bottle and then given a turn by which ihe closure is simply screwed on by about a turn of one-sixth revolution. By the reverse turn by hand the clusurc can be readily removed from the bottle. Rubber Disc Slofpers. — Another closure consists of a disc of rubber, about one-third of an inch in thickness, coated upon ihe side coming in contact with ihc contents of the bottle with a specially prepared textile fabric, saturated and covered with an inert, tasteless and odorless compound, to prevent contact of the rubber with the liquids. This rubber seal is elasticatly forced by machines into a specially prepared groove formed in the mouth of the bottle, tt contains a wire loop, projecting from the lop surface, by means of which it is readily extracted by suitable openers or by any stout-poinled instrumenl. When about to !« inserted :n the bottle the rubber disc is tapered up by the machine so as to enter the neck readily, expanding after in- sertion so as to fill the full width of the neck. In steamv(\t ^■- will expand or contract with the boU\e. Ecoaowkal advantages gained by the "se oi "Oftt^e vj^«> QOO BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. single-usc closures Eie in the facts that the extra operalioii of wirins, and that of the two operations of affixing and remoitiRg tbc steaming caps before and after pasteurization is entire)3r done away with since these closures have been found to remain im- movable at the pressures generated in the bottles during the steaming process. Another and considerable advantage possessed by these closures is that they can be removed from tbc bottles with ease by use of special accompanying openers, or, in tact, with any pointed instrumenl, or by hand, and thus prevent agi- tation of the beverage while the bottle is being opened. BOTTU-CLOSINC IfACHINES. The machines employed for inserting or aflixing the different closures described are, with the exception of coilcing maddnct, manufactured especially for nsc with each style of closure. Corking Machines differ little from each other in the prin- ciple of operation, which is as follows: The corks are thrown into a funnel, and drop one by one into a cylindrical clamp, where, by means of a horizonlally- acting plunger, having a cir- ci'lar-shaped recess, the cork is compressed to a size somewhat smaller than the opening in the bottle. While in this state a vertically descending round plunger forces the compresseti cork into the bottle, where it expands and conforms in shape to that of the inside of the bottle, thereby effecting an alr>tight seaL COBK-CLEASINC, SOFTENIKG AND WASHING MACHINES. Cork-cleaning, softening and washing machines consist of a revolving horizontal drum, having its cylinder constructed from slats or strips of wood, arranged with spaces between them. The corks are placed in this cage-like cylinder, whicb is then revolved, whereby the tine, powder-like substances contained in the out- side veins of the cork, and which might otherwise find their way into the bottle, arc removed or shaken out by the concussion of the corks against each other. Other forms have this blinder placed over a tank so as to partly revolve under water lor the purpose of soaking or cleaning ihe corks, or else have a cen- iral water pipe with perforations lengthwise as a means of sprink- ling the corks for soaking and washing purposes. A cork, when properly treaVed. sHovli Nii; eW,\\t iwl whtn in *K compressed state prcvioudy to \n«tV\'y(iTOto *«.VKaft,&eA& SOTTLlKG DftPARTMEMt. 90t dM Bive ofF MBj pretMd oat liquid, aince this liquid is likely lo dnp into, or come in contact with, the beer, and affect its bril- licDCj. Tbc corks are first rumbled dry in a revoiving dmm for sev- eral honrs in order to remove the brown cork dust in their veins. They arc then further rumbled with a spray of water for about 30 minutes or, where the apparatus has no central perforated shaft for water to spray, the corks can be placed in a vessel and the water changed continuously for about 30 minutes. The corks arc then put into water of 178* F. (65° R.). Higher temperatures, especially boiling water, may injure the corks. Bisulphite of lime is added to a distinct odor (about one pint to 6 gallons of water) and the corks allowed to remain until soft, which nmally requires from 15 to 30 minutes. The corks are ihen transferred to a wire basket and immersed in a glycerin solution of 156° F. (s5° R.) and kept here for about 30 minutes. This glycerin solution is made by adding one volume of glycerin to about three to five volumes of water, according to the quality of the corks used or softness desired. The corks are finally allowed to drain, and then stored in a clean perforated barrel, that is. one having holes bored through the sides, bottom and cover. By this treatment the corks will be ready for use in about 24 hours and will remain in condition for immediate use for three to four days. CORK PREPARING APPAKATUS. As it is a difficult and slow operation lo impregnate wet or soaki'cl corks, that is, such as have their pores full of water, nith a different kind of liquid or solution by contact, a special apparatus for rapidly and thoroughly Accomplishing this process has lately come into use. The principle here empl- placed. The drum is then hermcticaWy c\q«A, wv4 tcw.\t. The c^wdty of this machine, when properly o^"*^*^- ^ *''^'- ^'«*^'^«*»» I BOTTLING t^PARTUBNT. 903 per honf I wlileh ia approximately four times the number usually Ibiflbcd wbed done t^ hand. Afltjle of bottle cap much used and easily affixed and removed. Hma the bottle consists of a flat tin disc, lo which three strips UC attacbed and bent downward at right-angles. The strips an acajn attached at their tower ends to a circularly-bent tin band or strip having a slot cut at one end. and the other end tnered so u to fit into this slot. In affixing the cap, the tapered end ia inserted through the slot and its protruding part bent backward, whereby the circular strip is tightened or clamped ■round the flange on the neck of the bottle, for the purpose of holding the disc firmly over the cork. , CAPnuC AND WIRING MACHINES. In order to bring the cost of corking, capping and wiring to ' a minimum, an automatic machine, combining these three opera- tions, has been designed and placed on the market In the oper- ation of this machine the botiles are placed into a revolving ■ttac)iment holding six bottles, in which ihey are successively corked, capped wilh a disc and wired automatically at the rate of about twenty bottles a minute by but one operator. This machine adjusts itself lo t^ikc any size bottles, and the corks need not be handled, as they discharge automatically from a. hopper to where warned. The machine has another advantage in the fact that the cork is compressed before the bottles come under the compressor, preventing the troublesome cork juice from dropping BOTTLE BOXES. These are so well known in general appearance as lo require no detailed description. Attention should, however, be called to the construction of the cross-partitions separating the bottles, which should either be raised from the bottom of the box or tapered downward. This causes the bottles, when the case is placed on end, as is a common custom of the consumer for the purpose of ecoaomiztng space, to assume a slanting poution, with bottoms lower than the necks, and thus prevent them from falling out. PASTEURIZATION, OR "STEAMING." The process in the bottling department knowtv ».* ^a«.«N«viat- tioa h the manipatation of heatins t.\« ^»t(M \n ft* >»«.•&«». v* -i 904 BOTTUKG IKFARTHENT. cerUJn tarperatOK, boldins this tcmpcntarc onutuit for a certain length of time, and. finally, cooling to nearlj ordimrT alnxispberic temperature. The object of this heating of the beer ii to kill any yeast cells or other tnicro-orgaaisms that may be oootained in it, or to weaken their vitality to such an extent u to render them inactive, and thereby prevent any further fei^ mentation or decomposition of the bottled beer which might otherwise have taken place. In order to carry out this pasteurJEation manipulation, the bot- llea containing (he beer ar« placed in a tank, which la then filled with cold water. This water is gradually heated to the desired temperature by means of injected live steam (hence the more popular [erm "steaminfc") ann the warm water after- ward gradually cooled by being mixed with an incoming stream or jet of cold water. By this means the beer is gradually heated by taking up heat from the surrounding water, and, later on, giving off this heat to the cold water. lUPORTANCE c There is no part of the botlltng manipulation of more impor- tance, nor one which, if improperly cKecuied, can give rise to more serious -innoyances and loss of money or reputation for excellence of the bottled product, than this process of "steam- ing" or pasleurizing. During all of the many stages or processes through which the beer passes while being manufactured, any abnormal change in ils quality or appearance can be readily de- lected by a competent and careful brewer, and the proper rem- edies applied before the product has left ihe brewery. An excep- tion to this, however, is Ihe pasteurisation of the bottled beer, since this part of the process takes place just previous to ship- ping or placing the beer in the market, and it is, therefore, prac- tically impossible to test it in the time at disposal. Hence, any deterioration of the beer, due to improper or incomplete pastetir- ization, usually manifests itself while the product is in the hands of the consumer. The results, in this event, are. almost univer- sally, thai the brewer is blamed for having produced an inferior beer, even though, in reality, the beer may have been of excellent quality and the greatest care and skill possible been exercised during every stage of its production in Ihe brewery. At the present time. insWnces ■w\\eie all the beer contained in the "steamiag" tank has proved lo Wv*. Vea \mv.i are not of such frequent occurrence as was formerly lUe case. There is one trouble, however, that quite frequently presents itself, and has puzzled many brewers. This is where tile beer from the same chip cask has been filled into bottles and "steamed" in the same tank at the same time, with the result that a few of the bottles of beer proved to have been improperly "sleamtd." while the others had been properly treated. The cause of this trouble has usually been found either in the defective construc- tion of the lank or heating apparatus, causing the lower tiers of bottles or those in the corners of the tank to be insufficiently heated on account of defective circulation of the water, or else In an improper arrangement of the bottles themselves, being placed eiliier loo close together when the tank was filled with single bottles, or being put in wooden l>o>:es made of solid liii;\rcl< and allowing practitaHy no circulation of the water throuBli them. PHECAUTIOMS I In order properly to carry out the steaming or paslcurizing process in the most economical manner, the following precautious should be observed : 1. The raising and lowering of the temperature of the water surrounding the bottles should be done gradually in order to reduce the liability of breakage of bottles, 2. The length of time for holding beer at the desired pasteur- ization temperature shoidd be such that all the contenl:i of the bonle are subjected to the same maximum icniperalure. As the beer in the bottle remains at rest during steaming, there is practically no circulation or mixing of the warmer beer from the outside with the colder inside portion. Furthermore, as the l>ottom of the bottle is usually of thicker glass than the w.iUs. and rests upon the wooden grate or support, thereby coming only partly in contact witji the warmer water, it is evident that up and down circulation is prevented and it takes con- siderably longer for this central portion to warm to the desireresenting average temperatures. The water Wat in every test raised to 140° F. (48° R.} in 30 minutes. From these results it will be seen vVmX ^mts require ao n aad quarts 35 minutes longer heavm^ \iefcTc »\\ Cutw t BOTTLING DEI'ARTMF.NT. DO- reach 48* R. thin doea the water, while, when tlie cooling begins, the decrease in lemperaturc is quite rapid. It is also seen that the opinion of some bottlers. Ihat the beer will hold the highest temperatiire for as long a lime after cooling begins as it took to K«in it after the water had reached it, is incurred. For in- stance, at ten minutes before the lime quarts reach 48° R.. their temperature is 47.5' R„ while that of the water is 48° R.. a dif- ference of half a degree, whereas during (he first ten minutes of cooling there is a difference in IcEuperatiire between the beer and the water of 8° R. I start beat li^U m. ■ K. IH.- R. . II. ' K. t.lt II. 'K ). H. ISmlnutcs 101. ■■ K. ffi. H. j W.»- K. SJ.tf- K. HS.l ' t'. i!.J ■ K. SOlnlnuips ...I 144). 'R 48. ■ R- l».6' V. ll.fl'K. 'lil.a ■ K. 3tA- \t. »nlniit«x I im.T- p', IR.*'H. 'liB.-J - K. «.3' It. 40mlnii1fs I llM.3 P. «.3" K. jllH.T " K. W.e- 11. Wnalnu'cM | "IW.U- K J7.S' H. lai 4 ■ P. 4fl< It. ISOmliiiiU's lltO. K. 48. -It. ia7.Kft- K. IT, K. BJmlnnl^- I , IIW.OH K. 4T .=> It eomliiiiii'- i ' 'iM.ff.' I'. IT.H- R. IhoiirSmliiiilc-....; I ^140. ' \-\ 48. •' K, Sinri.iK.)jiit; IIO.-I''. IB.- H. .110. ' P. IB. - R. ItO. • P. 1» H. Bmlimli"' I ISI." P. II.'B. lias.S' P. IT.S' R. llW.T ' K. IT.I' R. IDiiiltiilti-^ IK.'- P. « - R, laj.lTP. 4I.>I^I{. ni.7 ' K. IS, KM!. iftmiii"U-« J_iia_'^ !;■, 3H_-lt. ■iiK v, ill, • B_ jxi fl ■ K. ii,il_R, OrKHATING THE STtAMINR AfPARATUB. In the ntanipulalion of a steaming apparatus, the attendant very often, after having properly filled the tank with hollies, and also gradually heated the water, will leave llic lank to itself the moment the water shows the desired maximum degree of heat, and attend to other work. When lie comes hack he finds that the water has considerably cooled. He ilien again turns on the steam, quickly heats the water and again leaves. Thi^ is an improper procedure. Ii is evident that when the water reaches ihe maximum temperature, the beer, Iwing then considerably cooler, instantly lakes up heat from the water, cooling the latter, anil especially the small columns of water beV-ncMv \V«. Ni«iV*«.^. •vhich cool the most rapidly, since l\icu \ci\>Hwt \^ wwiKv ■«* V^ g06 DOTTUNG DEPARTUEKT. portion to the vblome of siiiTotinditig beer. In order to (fis- lodge these cooler, stagnint ccdnmnt of water, the drcnlalioo abonld be kept up continuallj during the entire time of holding the maximnm temperature, and the attendant should stand by, with thermometer in hand, and keep the temperature of the water In order to hold this temperature aulomatically an automatic temperature control is now on the market. This is i^entH bj compressed air and haa a thermostat, servit^ to turn on or shut oR the air, operating the sream valve by inflating the diaphragm above it. The water can be safely heated a degree or two above the maxi- mum temperature desired for the beer during the first third or half of the time for holding, since during that time the beer is not warm enough to run the risk of overheating, and, further- more, in many styles o( tanks the water at the top. where the (cmperalure is taken, is generally a degree or two warmer than the water at the bottom, or between the tx)lllcs, even when proper circulation is kept up. Care should be taken not to allow the water to rise above the maximum temperature during the last part of the holding period. The minimum time which the highest temperature. 140* F. (48° R.) should be held is 30 minutes for pints and 45 minutes for quarts, in both cases healing the wai'.'r gradually to that temperature or slightly above, as dcscrilxi], in 45 minutes. Tonic or malt extract pints, on account of their somewhat larger diameter, were found, by tests, to require 5 minutes longer heating than export pints. The cooling can be done as rapidly as ihe Iwitlles will allow without breaking, but should not be done in Ic^s than 30 min- Sleaining Cu/-!.— In order that the corks may not be forced out of the bollle by the increased pr-ijsure generated during steam- ing, metal clamps, n'ade of sheet iron, or differently bent wires, are clamped over the necks of the bottles previous to placing them in the tank. Straniing Trays or Boxes. — .As wooden boNcs. to hold the bot- tles during steaming, almost universally present Ihc defects above ineniioned, later styles are constructed of galvani/ed perforated sheet fleet, which allows consideraWe opporvviwwv ^oi water at- —lalion without loss Of the necessary rigvAWij w 4\«**:\Vi- flOTTLINC, IHil'ARTMIiNT. i/ij Another style consists of a basket made nf woven wire, llic whole being galvani^icd. Whatever style of tray is ustil. llu-y j^limild tifver lie paokcii in the tank so as to touch each other at their sides or c^nds. Even though the spaces may be siifficient, it may happen, if perfir.itcil or slotted boxes are placed against each other, that the open ings in one box arc covered or closed by Ihe solid parls it\ Ibc cext box. A space of at least two inches all around tlic Imw^ should be allowed in placing Ibciii in the lank. The almost universal form of steaming device now in u.=c is ■■he tank coiisiiling of a square tT rcctanKidar wooden l)i>x, sonic- tiiiics made of iron, but I'ncb siyk- i;iii[)loyinR a dilTLTinily ci n stnicted healing device or means for circuhling Ibc water in the lank or of moving the IjokIcs. The iirinci|iles nnderlyiny llK-ir operation are. however, in the main, two; In one ty]),' the botlles of beer to In; pastciiri«-d remain stationary and other type water bavinc dilTcrcnl lemiKralnrcs is conlaincd In different snlidivisiuns or cunipartments of the tank and the Lit (Ics arc passed through Ibem. Operating on the fiirmtr principle arc the foMi)wiiiB: Singh- SU-am-Fil:. Taid:— One of the simplest construction of tanks consists of an ordinary wooden lank, bavins a healing device made on the injector principle. A piece of .i-inch iron pipe, o]icn at both end*, is bolted or clamped 1o the iHittmn longilnciinaHy. this pipe being about ifi inches sborler than the tank so that it reaches to almul '} inches from each, of the tank ends. At one of the open ends is inserted a smaller steam pipe, extending sevrral inches inward. When the steam is injected Into this larger pipe, it draws the cold ivalcr in with il. heats it in the Hihc. and forces it out al the other end warmer than the bulk of tlie water in the lank, thus causing a circulation as well as healing of the water. Perforated Steaml'ipe Tank.— In another style the heating device consists of a ntimber of perforated steam pipes branching out from a main supply pipe. .^Imvc these pipes a perforated false iNittom of wood is placed for the purpose of further dis Iribuling the water and holding the botUts. l/frig/'l Sicam Injector Taptk.— In anottiM, xVt \i.Mk>lv«t. ■»«^ ^O BOTTUHG DEPARTMENT. nttu GonsiBts of an tqwi^t tnbe, havinK its alom injectar at hi lower end, which allows the water to be drawn from all dinc- tiou toward the center or tube. The water then paues t^waid, is heated and flowi ontward acain in c^tpoaite directions throa^ two series of c^eningi at lop of the tube. SffffMN Ini*ctor Tout.— Another device employs a cenbal tnbe injector heating apparatus, but difFers from those des c r i bed in the fact that the steam enters the tube at the top, thus deUvcrioK Ibe wanner water to the bottom of the tanlt, where it spreads and rises among; the bottles to the iqiper part. OverMow Water. — In ail these steam injector heating devices the same water is circulated; that is, the water passes through the injector, is heated, passes out, circulates to where it was taken from, again passes through the injector, is heated some- what more, etc, etc. The surplus water due to the condensation of the injected steam runs off through an overflow pipe. When it is desired to cool the water, the steam is simply supplanted by cold water, and the cooling and circulation proceed in the same manner as in heating, except thai there is more overflow Sfiral Conveyor Tank. — Another style accomplishes the mixing of the water by means of a spiral conveyor screw, placed length- wise through lank at about the center of its ilepili. The sicant healing coil Is placed at the bottom, and tlit? cooling pipe for sprinkling cold water is placed al the top. The temperature of the water is equalized by agitating iho water by means of the conveyor screw, both during healing and during cooling. Brass Ejector Tank. — Widely different from the devices above described is one which has for its chief feature a specially con- structed brass ejector or pump. To this ejector is connected a system of piping, one branch of which is placed at the bottom of the lank and forms the dlscliarge through which the water, heated or cooled in the ejector is evenly distributed throughotit the lank. The other branch of piping is placed outside of and near the top of the tank and is used as an overllow to the water. After the bottles are placed in the lank and this vessel is filled with water to a height suflicient to submerge the return or over- Bow oprnings and fill the connecting pipes, steam is turned on. The stcani in entering the ejectot dt ^mto? il once propels the ■"*«/■ in it forward, and at the same vvmt ^«»V* Av "Tofc >«»»«* BOTTLING DKPARTU l£NT. 9I I ter is then forced through the bottom perforated system of ing upward through the water and bottles, thereby slightly ling the temperature of the bulk of water in the lank. As the ited water passes upward, an equal volume of the cooler water m the top of the tank passes downward into the ejeclor, is re heated, and in turn passes upward as described. This con- uous circulation and gradual heating is kept up automatically Jl the desired temperature of the water is obtained. In cooling the water the same manipulalion takes place, except that, in- id of steam, cold water is run through the ejector, whereby ■ cooling proceeds in the same gradual manner as the heating, little above the return overflow openings another opening is ced, through which an increase in water by condensation of ani during beating or injected water during cooling can ape. The advantages of this system are, first, economy of steam, as live steam whatever enters the tank, but is all absorbed and idcnsed before being introduced and distributed into the bot- n of the lank. The steam required to operate the pump is sniulE in proportion to the immense amount of water it moves It a sudden rise in temperature and overheating of bottles in impossibility. The cooling of the beer is conducted very rap- y and evenly, no cold water striking the hot bottles to cause equal contraction of the glass and consequently loss by break- ; is reduced to a minimum. Another advantage of this sys- 11 is that the ejector and pipe connections can easily be at- hed In a tank already in place, as they can be made to fit - ■Owto-K!^ ; tvik pass two iink belt endlws chavm, ««\w«s;\.«i Vi TOiveA c . 913 BOTTLING DEPABTlfENT. rods, w as to be in ■ppeannce more like as endless flcxiUe Ui- der. To the cross-rods are attached tarass wire spring book damps for holding the bottles by their necks during their pas- sage through the tank. At the contact between the unddk and the end oMiipariments are placed two sprocket puDejrs, so tbrt the passage of the bottles throagh the tank is as ftdtowa; Tbe bottles are submerged into the first compartment containiilg water at about one-half pasleuriiatkin temperature, are partly bested and then pass into the middle tank, where the pastcurintkn takes place. From here the bottles pass into the second attetnperttnig tank, where they are partially cooled. After emerging from this place they are further cooled, and at the same time rinied bf a spray of water. The advantages claimed for this tank are the following: A saving of labor, as only two boys are necessary to load and unload the racks; the regularity of the pasteurization process, ench bollle receiving exactly ihc same treatment as the next; the smaller percentage of loss by breakage, due to the fact that the temperature in the various balhs ean be controlled and sud- den variations of lemgierature thus prevented. Another advan- tage, which is a considerable one in the cost of operating the bottle shop, lies in the fact that the water in this tank is' not heated, cooled and run out at each steaming, preventing a waste of water and fuel. The water remains the same, and all the heat and water that must be supplied is only such as is lost by radia- tion and evaporation, which is comparatively little, and that heat absorbed by the bcer- FINISHIKG THE PACK.\GE. BOITI.E LABEUNC. Even though all the necessary precautions may have been taken, in both the brewery and bottle shop, for the production of a sound and durable bottle beer, there still remains another feature which quite often considerably influences the product's popularity, or often unjustly enhances or detracts from its quality in the imagination of the consumer. This is the general appearance of the bottle or package as put upon the market, which is gen- erally determined bj- the style of label and cap. or the neatness nilh which these are afUxcd. T^iw "w wv*^\iUs the case with export or "shipping" bottle bc«, ^ta* tvwto o\\.wv%»&fc'*x-w«i BOTTLING DKrABTMENT. 9I3 into tbe bands of distant consumers possessing little or no judg- ment as to quality, and who, if thry nrc not inHucnccd in their choice by the reputation of the brewer, ate entirely so by tht appearance of the package, preferring lliose which are nicely In most bottle shops the labeling of ihe bottles is still done by hand, which offers many drawbacks as lo neatness and econ- omy. Such work may be defective in thai, if performed by a careless workman, even though a fine label be used, the neat appearance of ihe bottle can greatly be dttractcd from by his pasting on the labels in a crooked position, at unequal heights on different bottles, or by smearing paste upon the label or bottle. In order to overcome these defects and to lessen ihe time necessary to affix the labels, machines for thai purpose arc now used in many of the larger bottling departments, which, by the uniformiiy and speed so far attained, certainly recommend their The principle of operation of the differenl labeling machino now on the market is very niuch the same, and in a general way is the following: The labels arc held in large numbers by a label plate or holder, from which they are taken one by one by a picker and placed upon the bottle. This picker, before taking up a label, passes over a roller, or other device, holding paste, by contact with which it is covered with the proper amount of paste, and transfers it by contact lo the laliel, which it jiicks up. When ihe label touches llic bntclc the pickers are disengaged and ihe [iresHurc necessary to tighten the label is supplied by a set of rubber wipers. These arc similar to the well-known window- cleaners, and in their action much resemble the wiping done by hand. The whole operation is automatic; all that the operator need do is to have a bottle in position when the picker and label come toward it. The bottle rest is adjustable as lo the depth to which ihe bottle can be inserted, thereby regulating the height at which the label is put on the bottle. The rest is also adjust- able as to height, so that hollies of different diameters can be centered. The general advantages to be derived from the use of automatic labeling machines are; Speed of operation, no experience of operator being necessary to properly run mathmf, c\ta.^i.i>.«sft. **- finishnl botth, since no paste can gel upon \Vv«\»\iA o^ 'Cftt'^a«i^- \5«*'*\j^ ieJations.") FIQURINQ IN THE BREWERY. {Temperatures in this chapter are given in degrees Reaumur only because calculations are simpler than with Fahrenheit de- grees, and the Reaumur thcrmomclcr is more generally cinpUiyed for these purposes in American 6r«ecl»- Extract Sacch&- Bi tract Sweh.- BltOKt Exlr.cls Per rometer. Per romeler. Per_ ro meter, WrOnt. Barrel Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Iten'el. I •• t.OD S.8 MM 18.4 2.as 1B.S3 '.{& IB.E 61:4s 7M le.s ;> S.K 7.1 !>3:0B ata 7,! 19.16 ll.4> 38 i8:b 52. 19 19.42 3B.«7 i«-e fn.HK lis 3S.M 1.7 i.is 19:97 IS^S SB.Bfi «:» 4.l» 7.« B0.» 30-63 4.91 SCI.B2 x.m 19.8 63:to w-o 51,30 «.l SM sroT sriso -M.49 S.O 21 .3S i3:» 37. «t le.e *.a S7.97 1.4 i4la 38.211 t.s 6:58 bIs ffl;i7 38.66 Ffi:7o K.4g 3B,W «o.o S.7 iB.JS 3S.13 £.M 23. W 38.41 se:oi j'.tut si? 2S.!» 38 70 ao's a« 7.BS 40.(0 20.4 57:21 S.I isib 40.28 67 &3 S.Z M.W «.6 40.57 40. «T ai.j M^m islo 41.16 20,8 .^< 43 sin 4I.4.'> 209 «l.o MM 2r:m 6.3 43:03 !W3S 69. W 1^9 io;»i 2fl:(m 59.80 40 lO-MI 2«.» &.« 42.91 00.27 20.81 6.7 4il.30 21 -S i'.S ItiM 2a. w .S.H «l\Wt 4.3 lO.I 3J.1H 81.19 i':" Hi.a 27 46 27.73 If 44:37 21 .d 21,9 44 te 1M.O fl2 M i^iw 2N.29 2i 1 13.W ».»« 46:26 22.3 b2:m 10.7 i».m 46. Vi SI. 04 4K.H 1 '.» 91:42 1 .73 ii>t 11,1 W.iX) 22:7 61 2; ] .KS 11.3 w.w 1 a 30. 4B 47:32 33:9 !a 19. n «8.0 1 ;oj 17:3 47:91 231 232 4ti:&o CO «.»> ui 1 .IS 11.9 K.IS 17.7 48.10 23.S M 70 12. U 23.6 1 '.m 12. n 49:ae 23.7 1 -M 1 12.2 n.10 ISO fiu-oo ^k.* 1 .«> \ 12. S 33.39 \ Has, \\ ^'^ S3.«7 w'.s \ »-■» \*** / /l.fi 33 9K \ W.t» 9l8 FIGURING IN THE BREWERV. materials By thia abridged fbmnda the following values can be calcnlatsd: 1. Weight of I bbl. won = 3» + B. (aS9+B)XB 2. Lbs. extract in i bbl. wort = . 100 (259 + B) X B X this. 3. Lbs. total extract in total wort = , too 4. Yield as above. Exttmpte 2. — Same as in t ; 6,600 pounds of material give CV barrels of wort in cellar at 13 per cent Balling. What is the yield? Soltklion.— (359+1.1) X 13X IM Yield = . 6600 = 6+3. /4Hjwcr.— Yield = fti.3 per cent. or. the sntnc result as above. CAI.CUL.^TINIJ VIELD FOR TWO DIFFERENT MATeRlAr.S. If two different materials are used together (niMl and raw cereals), the total yield of mixed materials, or the .iverage yield, is calculated the same as above. But if it is desired to find the yield of one of the two materials, for instance, the raw cereal, it is necessary to know the yield of the other. Tor instance, the malt. If an approximate value is sufficient for the purpose in hand, the average yield of a malt of the quality in question is taken. To be accurate, it is better to take the yield obtained in a pure malt brewing. ExamfU t. — K brewing with 3.500 pounds of malt and i.goo pounds of raw cereals, gives 95 barrels of wort in the cellar at 14 per cent Balling- The yield of the mall in a pure malt brewing nas 6j per cent. What is the vie\4 of the raw cereal? Solulian. — First figure ovrt t\\e ^o^»\ ff.M^'S. K^w(\ ft* total ■feriaf; from the total ma- FIGURING IN THE BKEWERV. 9I9 (259+14) X 14X95 Total extract: lO = 3639-9=31531. We have, therefore, 3631 pounds exli [eridl. Next, calculate the extract from the malt: too lbs. malt yield = 63 lbs. extract. 3500 lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 3500X63 = 2205. We have, therefore, 2205 pounds malt extract. Deducting the malt extract from the total extract, extrnci from the raw cereal : 3631 lbs. total extract. 2205 lbs. malt extract. I42<5 lbs. raw cereal extract. This amount of extract was obtained from igoo lbs. rj igoo - = 7S- AiiS7Vcr. — Yield of extract from raw cereal = 75 per cent. Example .?.— 6500 pounds of material, consisting of 60 per cent malt and 40 per cent grits, give 130 barrels of wort in the cellar at 12.5 per cent Balling. The malt yield is 63 per cent. What is the yield of the grits? There are two ways of solving this example. Solulion I. — First calculate the number of pounds of malt and grits used, respectively. 100 lbs. materials contain 60 lbs. malt. 6500 lbs. materials contain ? lbs. malt. 6500 X Co FIClHtntG IN THB OtEWKSV. gives a6oo Hm. grhs. s abore: (^S9+t2.i) X 12.5X130 J3!0.75 X I3D = 44ii-ft or 4412. 100 lbs. malt jridd 63 lbs- extract 3goo lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. leaves 1955 lbs. grits extract from 2600 lbs. grits. 2600 lbs. grits yield 1955 lbs. exlract. 100 lbs. grits yield ? lbs. extract. 1955 X 100 — 75.2. 2600 Ansmrr.—YieH of grits — 75.2 per cent, Solulioii 2. — Calculate the average yield of ihc mixed materiils: (259+12.5) X 12.5 X 130 Yield of mixed materials = 441 187 6500 6500 = 67.8. The average yield is 67.8 per cent. i. e.. loO lbs. mixed ma- terials yield 67.8 lbs. extract; too %&. in\xed materials consist of 60 lbs. malt and 40 lbs. grits. DeivwA ftve «:».«»« ■ co eii deTalil y Mam that required what the wort leaves the kettle. In order to con- centrate the wott to the required density a certain amoBnl of water most be drawn off Iqp evaporation in boiling. The cpiestion is, how mnch should be evaporated, or bow moch should the wort be boiled down? The answer is found Iqr the following fonnnla: BUa. wort I BbU. of wort before boD. X Balling before faoiL after bailing \= Balling after boiling " Examfilt. — A sample of wort from the kettle after being cooled to 14* R. shows 12 per cent Balling. It is required to have a wort of 13 per cent Balling, when nuuing from kettle. How much should the wort be boiled down in the kettle, the total amount of wort on hand being 320 barrels? 320X12 Solution. — Bbls. wort after boiling = ^= 295.4, con- "3 sequently the 320 barrels of wort must be boiled down to 9954 barrels. 320 — 295.4 = 24-6- Antmtr.— Amount of water to be evaporated = 24.6 barrels. CALCULATING THE MATERIALS. If the question is, how many pounds of material are required to produce a given number of barrels of woit of a certain Balling indication, ihe yield of the material should be knovm. The formula for this calculation is as follows : (259 -h B) X B X bbls. Materials in lbs. = . Yield. MALT. Example I. — How many pounds of malt will be required for a brewing of ISO barrels in the cellar at 13.8 per cent Balling, tiie mail yield being 64 per cent? Solulioii.— (2594 13-8) X 13^X150 Materials = FIGURING IN THIi ItREWKRY. 923 564696 64 = 8823 Antwer. — Required: S823 lbs. malt. tlALT AND RAW CEaEALS. Example i, — How many pounds of malt and how many pounds of grits are required for 300 barrels in the cellar at 12.5 per cent Balling, using 65 per cent of malt and 35 per cent of grits, the yield of mall being 64 per cent, of grits 75 per cent? Solution. — I. Calculate the average yield : 100 lbs. malt yield 64 lbs. extract. 65 lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. = z6,2 lbs. grits extract. !0O lbs. mixed yield 67.8 lbs. 1 /J/wn'cr. — Average yield = 67,8 per cent. 2. CalciiUtc tbe total materials; (259 + B) X 1 Total material = Yield (259 f 12.5) X 12 67.8 101812.S 67.8 = IS016. Total maieriaJs rwjiiired = 15016 Vo%. FIGURING IN THE BKICWERY. 3. Calculate the pounds of malt and grits, 100 Ihs. matcnals contain 65 lbs. malt. 15016 lbs. materials contain ? lbs. mall. 5256 lbs. grits. /Jiwiocr.— Required: 9750 lbs. malt and 5256 lbs. grits. CALCULATING THE COST. To calculate Ibc cost of a barrel of wort (in cellar) a laterial is concerned, the following values i . be 1. Saecharomcter indication of the wort in cellar. 2. Percentage of each material of the total. 3. Yields of ibc materials. 4. Cost of the materials. This calculation will be illustrated by the following: Example. — A wort o[ 13.5 per cent Balling in the cellar is to be prepared from 60 per cent malt, 40 per cent rice, and 1.5 lbs. Imps per barrel. What is the cost of llie materials per barrel at the following prices : Malt 58 cents per bushel of 33 lbs., rice 210 cents per 100 lbs., anil hops 18.5 cents per pound. Yield of the malt 64 per cent, of the rice 78 per cent? Solution. — Find ihe anionnt of materials required for a barrel Calculation of average yield: 100 lbs. malt yield 64 lbs. extract. (a lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 60X64 = 38.4 lbs. niah e gA ncURING IN THE BlUWERY. too lbs. mixed yidd 6i>.6 lbs. extract (^IculatioQ of total materiala: <»59 + IJ.5) X 13.5 Total materials for one barrel = 367&75 = 32-9- Total materials required 5^4 lb*, of which 60 per cent malt and 40 per cent rice. In too lbs. materials fn lbs. malt. In 53.9 lbs. materials ? lbs. malt. 52.9X60 gives 31. albs. rice. Thi.- nMtcriats n-quired for a barrel of wort, therefore, are: 31.7 lbs. mall. 21 .3 lbs. nee. 1.5 lbs. hops. The cost of ihcse materials it found in ihc following manner: I. Malt. 3.1 lbs. malt COM 58 cents. 317 lbs. malt cost ? cents. 317X58 = 557. 33 Cost of malt = 55.7 cents. 2. Rice. 21-2 lbs. rice cost ? cents. 2i.a X 210 Cost of rice = M-S twv^. FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 937 3- Hops. 1 lb. hops cost 18.S cents. 1.5 lbs. hops cost f cents. 18.5 X IS = 2?7. Cost of hops := 27.7 cents. In conclusion the malt cost 55.7 cents. the rice cost 44.5 cents. the hops cost 37.7 cents. Total materials cost 127.9 cents. /tiiswer.—Thc cost of the materials per barrel of wort amounts to $1.27. FIGURING COST OF ONE BARREL OF BEER. If wc want to find the cost of material used in producing a bar- rel of beer ready for delivery we must add to the cost of a bar- rel of wort as figured above the cost of the beer lost between starting tub and racking bench. (See "Losses from Malt Mill lo Racking Bench.") Examt-le.^U loo barrels of wort in starling tub equal gs bar- rels m.irkelabic beer (loss 5 per cent), and the cost of the nia- [erial for the production of one barrel of wort is $1.27 what would be (he cost of a barrel of beer? Solution. — If 95 barrels of beer are obtained from 100 bar- rels of wort it takes = I.OS barrel of wort lo obtain one 95 barrel of beer. Since one barrel of wort costs $1.27, 105 barrels of wort cost !,05X 1.27 = $1.33. Answer. — Cost of material for one barrel of beer $1.33. CALCULATING THE MATERIALS ACCORDING TO M. SCHWARZ. In figuring out the amounts of malt and adjuncts required for a brewing, the percentage of yield of extract from the various ma- terials should be first determined. Average values for yields are given in the following tables: 1 bu. uncleaned maW =^ 24 %%. I bu. cleaned maU = 35 \\». 93B flGUSUIG IN TUE BREWERY. I bo. cleuMd malt yieldt ai pounds of cztnct 100 lbs. cleaned malt jrieldi 63.6 pounds of extract 100 lbs. com (fine) yielda 76 pounds of extract 100 lbs. flalces yields 78 pounds of extract 100 Ibfl. rice yields 82 pounds of extract too lbs. glucose or grape nigar ytelda 79 pounds of extract 100 lbs. anhydrous grape sugar yields 97 pounds of extract 100 lbs. cane sugar yields 100 poundt of extract One busbel of malt is replaced by 37.63 lbs. com. 3&ga Iba. Hakes. SS^i lbs. rice. 9&58 lbs. gtococe or gra^ sugar. 31^6 lbs. anfaydfons grape sugar. 31.0 lbs. cane sugar. 100 tbs. corn takes the place of 3.62 bu. malt. 100 lbs. flakes takes the place of 3.7 bu. matt. 100 lbs. rice takes the place of 3-9 bn. malt. TOO lbs. glucose or grape sugar takes the place of 3,8 bu. malt 100 lbs. anhydrous grape sugar takes the place of 4.63 bu. malt. 100 lbs. cane sugar takes the place of ^.76 bu. malt 100 lbs. corn takes the place of 100 lbs. flakes takes Ihe place of.... icm lbs. rice takes the place of 100 lbs. glucose or grape sugar takes the place of 100 lbs. anhydrous grape sugar takes the place of 100 lbs. cane sugar lakes Ihe pi: 10 gal. syrup takes the place iig.5 lbs. cleaned malt. 122.6 lbs. cleaned malt. 128.9 lbs. cleaned malt 124 2 lbs. cleaned mah. 152.5 lbs. cleaned malt. f 157.2 lbs. cleaned malt. 147 lbs. cleaned malt. Inserting the respective values from the above tables in the formulas given below, the anvount ol mwetak for a brewing can *e readily calculated. FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 929 ALL MALT. The question is: How many bushels of malt are required in order to obtain a certain number of barrels of wort of a given percentage of extract, either in the kettle or in the fermenler? het B = the bushels of malt to be found, W = the barrels of wort, p = percentage of extract in the wort, F ^ a factor which is equal 125 for wort in the kettle and 133 for viort in the fermenler, taking an average malt yield of 60 per cent. Should the yield not be 60 per cent, deduct 2 from the factor F for each per cent above 60, and add 2 lo the factor F for each per cent below 60. The formula then is: WXPXF Example I. — How many bushels of malt are required to get 165 barrels of wort of 12.8 per ceni extract in the fermenting cellar, the malt yield being 60 per cent? Solution. — W = i6s, F = 133. P = 12.8. 16s X 12.8 X 133 280896 B = = = 280.9. 1000 1000 Answtr.—The required amount of malt is 28o.g, or nearly 281 bushels. Example 3. — How many bushels of malt are required to gel in the kettle aoo barrels of wort of 13 per cent Balling, the malt yield being 62 per cent? Solution.— W = 200, p = 13, F = I2S —(2X2)= 121- 200X 13X 121 314600 B = = = 314.6. 1000 1000 Answer.— 'T\\^ required amount of malt is 314.6 bushels. MALT AND ADJUNCTS. If adjuncts are to be used with malt, calculate first ttw. a\wiMv>x of malt that would be required if the btevtm^ -ww^ \o ^l«■ ^w***- o!al} tnah. after whicii replace the dwVrcA vartwa oV. "^o.^ *^'-'^ 930 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. for malt 1^ the adjunct that is to be tised,Jnsertiiig the values given in the tables above. Example /a.— Taking Example i, above, under "All Matt," and saying that 30 per cent of the materials is to be replaced bgr flakes, what amounts of malt and flakes would be required? Solution, — ^Total materials if malt alone was to be used would be 280.9 bushels, as calculated above. Of this amount 50 per cent is: a8o.9X30 = 84.3 bushels (approximately). 100 This amount is to be replaced with flakes. One bushel of malt is rq>]aced by 26.92 pounds of flakes. Hence, multiply 26.92 by 84.3. 26.92 X 84.3 = 2269.3 The amount of flakes to be taken is 2,269.3, or in round num* bers 2,270 pounds. The quantity of malt is to be reduced 30 per cent Hence, 280.9 — 843 = 196.6 is the amount of malt to be used. Ansufcr. — 2^70 pounds of flakes and 196.6 bushels of malt is the required amount of materials. Example ib. — Still taking Example i (above), under "All Malt,*' and saying 20 per cent of the malt is to be replaced by corn grits and 20 per cent by grape sugar. What amounts of malt, grits and grape sugar are required? Solution. — The required amount of malt, if an all-malt brew- ing was intended, as calculated above, would be 280.9. Of this amount 40 per cent is: 280.9 X 40 = 1 12.4 (approximately). 100 Half of this amount = 56.2 bushels is to be replaced by corn grits, and the other half by grape sugar. There remains malt 280.9 — 1 1 2.4 = 168.5 bu. One bushel of malt is replaced by 27.63 pounds of com. Hence, the amount of corn required is 27.63 X 56.2 = 1553 lbs. w round numbers. One busbcl of malt is replaced b| ;i6.^ ^msA^ ^ ^sns^ sn^ar. y^ FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 93 1 Hence, the amount of grape sugar required is 56.2 X 26.58 = 1494 lbs. in round numbers. Answer. — The required amount of materials is 168.5 bushels of malt, 1,553 pounds of grits and 1494 pounds of grape sugar. MATERIALS ADDED IN KETTLE. Where grape sugar, glucose or other adjuncts are used, which arc directly soluble and are added in the kettle, another formula may be used. The question here is, what amount of glucose, syrup or sugar of any kind, of known yield, should be added in the kettle in order to raise the percentage of extract in a given number of barrels of wort to a certain figure? Let W = the barrels of wort, p = the percentage of extract in the wort, q = the required percentage of extract, pi =: the percentage of extract of the adjunct, F = a constant factor = 250, G = the required amount of the adjunct in pounds. The formula then is: (FXW)X(q-p) G = . Pi — q Example. — How many pounds of glucose of 80 per cent ex- tract are required in order to raise the percentage of extract in 210 barrels of wort from 13.2 to 14.4? Solution. — W = 210, p = 13.2, q = 14.4, F = 250, Pa = 80. (250 X 210) X (i4«4 — 13.2) 52500 X 1.2 G = : = . 80 — 14.4 fe.6 ,' 63000 = = 960. 65.6 Answer. — The required amount of glucose is 960 pounds. YIELD CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO M. SCHWARZ CALCULATING YIELD FROM WQRT IN FERMENTER. Taking a wort of 13 per cent extT2ic\, ^VlvOcv \% >^\'«^ ^=<^'^^2^ density for most beers in the United Stal^^, N«\v«^?ai VJt«. «v^^ 932 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. gtmvHy becomes a oonstant &ctor, the foUonring formidR it deemed accurate enough for practical purposes : Let W = barrels of wort in fermentcrs, p = saccharometer reading of such wort B = total materials expressed in bushels of malt, Y = the yield The formula then is: _ WXpX8 B Examplf, — 500 bushels of malt yield a88 barrels of wort in fermenters at 13.5 per cent Balling. What is the yield! SoluHon. — W = 288, p z= 13^, B = 50a 288 X 135X8 31104 Y = = = 62^ 500 500 Answer. — The yield is 62.2 per cent. CALCULATING YIELD FROM WORT IN KETTLE AFTER BOILINa The amount of wort which leaves the kettle differs from that which reaches the fermenters, since in passing from the kettle to the fermqnter the volume of the wort shrinks on an average 10 per cent, while the density increases by the evaporation of wa- ter, causing an increase of 4 per cent in extract. If it is desired to calculate the yield from the amount of wort in the kettle after boiling, the formula given for calculating the yield from the amount of wort in the fcrmenter can be used with this modifica- tion that the specific gfravity factor 8 is changed to 7.5. Let W = barrels of hot wort in the kettle, p = Balling reading at 14* R., B = total materials calculated in bushels of malt, Y = the required yield of extract. The formula then is: J WXPX7.5 B Example. — Taking the example given for calculating yield from amount of wort in fermenter, as above, there is obtained the following: Solution. — Taking into consideration the contraction of the volume of wort from kettle to icnnftuXfcx^ VSast ^.mwsvx. ^1 wort FIGURIKO IN THE BREWERY, 933 of 13 per cent in the kettle, according to the above figures, is 320 barrels. Hence, W = 320. p = 13. B = 500. 3»X I3X75 31200 Y = = = 62.4. 500 500 Antvier. — The yield is 62.4 per cent. MECHANICAL YIELD CALCULATOR BY J. E. SIEBEL. A device for calculating the yield mechanically has been in- vented by J. E. Sicbcl, and is shown in the accompanying illus- tration. It is of a size to allow the printed matter on its dial to be read with ease, tiic illustration being considerably reduced The inside dial bearing the legend, "ifOMtta^ o\ m^s^tiv^? -i™- be turned around the center, and ttw Vmivi« ot viiy^'^'-* "^ 934 fIgueing i^ f He BREWfittv. drde, showing oo one divisioo gravity of wort and on ano t he r jrield in per cent, can also be turned around partiaUy. The dial showing the nnmber of barrels of beer, or rather wort, re- mains stationary. The dials comprise a range of material from 1,000 to 40,000 pounds^ and from ao to 800 barrels of wort The gravities shown on this diagram indude the degrees 7 to 16^ and the yields from 45 to 88 per cents, but the range of these figures may be enlarged, if desirable, on the same principle. It will be observed that in using this device it is inmiaterial what kind of saccharometer is used to determine the gravity of the wort, as it gives the percentage of yield always in the samM denomination corresponding to that of the saccharometer. More- over, the instrument is equally applicable if different weights and measures are used to indicate quantities of wort and raw material if the zero or starting point on the margin is shifted to a position which can be readily determined. Thus in using the point XO a little to the ri|^t of the zero point, as such, the instrument gives correct indications of yield if German pounds are used for material and hectoliters for barrels, hi other words, by shifting the zero point to a point readily ascer- tainable in any given case, the apparatus may be adapted to any system of measurement, number of gallons per barrel, etc. HEAT CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO M. HENIUS. THE BREWEX'S HEAT UNIT. For practical purposes when making calculations in the brew- ery we do not employ the heat unit as given in the chapter on Physics. A heat unit, as understood for the purpose of practical figuring in the brewery, is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one barrel of water one degree Reaumur. The heat required to raise the temperature of larger quantities of water of a given temperature is governed by the weight of the water and the number of degrees by which the temperature is to be raised, but is independent of the original temperature of the water. In other words, in order to raise one barrel of water from o** R. to 10* R., an equal amount of heat (= 10 heat-units) is required as to raise one barrel of water from 15*^ R. to 25* R.. the rise being 10° in each case, and each degree requiring one heat-unit per barrel of water. Likewise, in order to raise five barrels of water of 20* R. to Bo* B.., fese \\mt^ ^ wwiVv heat is FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 935 required as to raise one barrel water from 20** to 80°, viz., 5 X 60 = 300 heat-units. To heat 1 bbl. water from 0° R. to PR. or by 1«», requires 1 h. u. To heat 1 bbl. water from 0** R. to 10° R. or by 10°, requires 10 h. u. To heal 1 bbl. water from 85** R. to 50<* R. or by 15**, requires 15 ti. u. To heat t bills, water from 3B*» R. to 50" R. or by IB", requires 2x15=30 h. u. To heat 80 bbls. water from IS** R. to 80" R. or by 65", requires 50x65=3250 h. u. The amount of heat contained in a given quantity of water de- pends upon the weight of the water and its temperature. Thus, one barrel of water of 50° R. contains 50 heat-units, 20 barrels water of 50* contain 20 X SO = 1000 heat-units. Remark: The temperature of boiling water and boiling mash is taken at 78° R. in all subsequent calculations, since the water loses about 2** R. during its passage through the pipes. CALCULATIONS WHERE WATER ONLY IS USED. TO FIND TEMPERATURE OF MIXTURE OF WATER. Example i. — 75 bbls. of water of 15** R. is mixed with 50 bbls. water of 70** R. What is the temperature of the mixture? Solution. — 75 bbls. water of 15° contains 75 X I5 = 1125 heat-units. 50 bbls. water of 70** contains 50 X 70 = 3500 heat-units. 125 bbls. mixed water contains 4625 heat-units. One barrel mixed water, then, contains the 125th part of the total heat of 4625 units. 4625 -r- 125 = 37, or 37 heat-units. Water possessing 37 heat-units per barrel has a temperature of 37®, hence: Answer. — Temperature of the mixed water = 37® R. TO FIND TEMPERATURE OF COLD WATER. Example 2. — By mixing 20 barrels of boiling water with 12 barrels of cold water, the temperature of the mixture is 54** R What was the temperature of the cold water? Solution. — 12 bbls. water ? R. 20 bbls. water 78** R. contains 20 X 78 = 1560 heat-units. 32 bbls. mixed water of 54° contain 32 X 54 = 1728 heat-units From the total amount of heat of 1728 units, deduct the heat supplied by the boiling water = 1560 units. T\\o\\\tv^ hi^V^x. FIGURING IN THE BftEWEftY. 937 Solution 2 (Abridged). — ^Write the three temperatures in a column, beginning with the lowest and finishing with the highest. Take the difference between the first and the second temperatures, multiply it by the number of barrels, and divide the product by the difference between the second and third temperatures. The result is the required number of barrels of boiling water. 20 bbls. water 30° 56° 78^ 26X20 = 23.6. 22 Anszvcr. — 23.6 barrels of boiling water. TO FIND AMOUNTS OF COLD AND OF BOILING WATER. Example 3. — I low many barrels of cold water of 12** and how many barrels of boiling water arc required to secure 35 barrels of 64**? Solution (Abridged). — Write the three temperatures in a col- umn as in ICxainplc 4. nuiltiply the number of required barrels by the (lifTerenoc between the first and second temperatures, and divide by llio diffcrcnrc between the first and third temperatures. This gives the barrels of hot water required. Deducting this number from the total amount of water gives the barrels of cold water. 35 bbls. water 12 52X35 66 78' = 27.5. o •3 52 66 35 bbls. total water of 64". 27.5 bbls. boiling water of 78®. 7.5 bbls. cold water of 12". /insu'cr. — It requires 27.5 barrels of boiling water and 7.5 barrels of cold water. 938 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. CALCULATIONS WHERE MALT OR RAW CEREAL AND WATER ARE USED. Whenerer malt or cereals are to be mixed with water and it is desired to determine the temperatures of such mixtures (mashes) or find the required temperature of either of these materials it must be borne in mind that it takes less heat to raise the tem- perature of malt or cereals than it does to heat i>^ater. Taking water as a unit it requires only o^ of the heat used in heating water to raise the temperature of an equal weight of malt an equal number of degrees. The figure 04 is called the specific heat of malt. (See "Physics.**) For specific heat calculations in the brewery it is convenient to take 1,000 pounds of malt as a *basis and to express its heat capacity in barrels of water. One barrel of water weighs 258.5 pounds, but results suffi- ciently accurate may be obtained by taking the figure 250 as the weight of one barrel, or 1,000 pounds for four barrels. In short : 250 pounds malt = i barrel of water in weight, or 1000 pounds malt = 4 barrels of water in weight. Since the specific heat of malt is 0.4. >%e have 1000 pounds malt = 4 barrels X 0.4 =1.6 barrel of water, as to heat capacity. In order, then, to find the heat capacitj* of a given quantity of malt or cereals calculate 1.6 barrel of water for each 1,000 pounds of malt or cereals, or divide the number of pounds of malt or cereals by 1000 and multiply by 1.6. Example i, — 5400 lbs. malt of i8* R. is doughed-in with 50 bbls. water of 33° R. What is the temperature of the mash? Solution. — 5400 -7- 1000 = 5.4. 5.4 X 1.6 = 8.64. 5400 lbs. malt correspond to 8.6 bbls. water as to heat capacity. 8.6 bbls. water of iS** contain 8.6 X 18 = 154.8 heat-units. 50 bbls. water of 33** contain 50 X 33 = 1650 heat-units. 58.6 bbls. mash contain 1804.8 heat-units. 1804.8 -T- 58.6 = 30.8. Ansxccr. — Temperature of mash = 30.8° R. FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 939 CALCULATIONS AT THE MASH TUB. TO FIND THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DOUGHING-IN WATER. Example. — 6500 pounds of malt of 15® R. is doughed-in with 60 barrels of water. The temperature of the mash is to be 30** R. What should be the temperature of the doughing-in water? Solution. — 6500 -f- 1000 = 6.5. 6.5 X 1.6 = 10.4. 6500 lbs. malt correspond to 10.4 bbls. water as to heat capacity. 10.4 bbls. water of 15° R. contains 10.4 X I5 = 156 heat-units. 60 bbls. water of ? R. 70.4 bbls. mash of 30** R. contain 70.4 X 30 = 2112 heat-units. From the total heat-units of the mash deduct the amount oi heat supplied by the malt, and the result will be the heat contained in the water. 70.4 bbls. mash contains 21 12 heat-units. 10.4 bbls. water (malt) contains 156 heat-units. 60 bbls. doughing-in water contains 1956 heat-units 1956 -T- 60 = 22.G. Answer. — Temperature of doughing-in water = 32.6** R. to find the final temperature (temperature of the tofal mash). Example. — Doughed-in in the mash tub, 8750 lbs. malt with 80 bbls. water. Temperature of malt mash = 32**. Doughed-in in rice cooker, 6500 lbs. grits and 1900 lbs. malt, with 84 bbls. wa- ter. What is the temperature of the total mash, after the cereal mash has been run into the malt mash? Solution. — First find how many bbls. mash arc contained in the mash tub and how many in the rice cooker: I. Malt mash. 8750 -T- 1000 = 8.75. 8.75 X 1.6 = 14.0. 14 bbls. water (malt). 80 bbls. water. 94 bbls. malt mash. 940 FtGUftING IN THE BttEWERY. 2. Oreal mash. &S0O lbs. grits. 1900 lbs. malt 8400 lbs. materials. &I00-T- 1000 = 84. a4 X liS = 13.44- 13.44 bbls. water (materials). 84. bbls. water. 97.4 bbls. cereal mash. 94 bbls. malt mash of 32* contains g^ X 3^ = 3008 h. u. 974 bbls. cereal mash of yS** contains 97.4 X 78 = 7597.2 h. u. 191 .4 bbls. total mash contains 10605.2 h. u. 10605.2 -T- 191 -4 = 55-4- Answer. — Final temperature = 55.4** R. TO FIND THE DOUGHING-IN TEMPERATURE (TEMPERATURE OF THE MALT mash). Example. — E>oughcd-in in the mash tub. 6800 lbs. malt with 62 hbls. water. In rice cooker 5200 lbs. grits and 1500 bbls. malt with 64 bbls. water. Final temperature, i. e., temperature of total mash to l>c 56°. \Yhat should be the temperature of the malt mash when the cereal mash is run in? Solution. — First find the bbls. of malt mash and cereal mash, respectively. I. Malt mash. 6800 -=- 1000 = 6.8 6.8 X 1.6= 10.88. 10.88 bbls. water (malt). 62 bbls. water. 72.9 bbls. malt mash. 2. Cereal Mash. 5200 lbs. grits. 1500 lbs. malt. 6700 lbs. materials. 6700 -r- 1000 = 6.7. 6.7 X 1.6 = 10.72. FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 94I 10.72 bbls. water (materials). 64 bbls. water. 74.7 bbls. cereal mash. 72.9 bbls. malt mash of ? degrees. 74.7 bbls. cereal mash of 78** contains 74.7 X 78 = 5826.6 h. u. 147.6 bbls. total mash of 56° contains 147.6 X 56 = 8265.6 h. u. From the heat-units of the total mash deduct the heat-units of the cereal mash: leaves the heat-units contained in the malt mash. 8265.6 h. u. in total mash. 5826.6 h. u. in cereal mash. ' 2439.0 h. u. in malt mash. 2439.0 -7- 72.9 = 33.4. Answer. — Doughing-in temperature = 334° R. TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BARRELS OF CEREAL MASH. Example. — Doughed-in in mash tub 5400 lbs. malt with 54 bbls. water. Temperature of mash = 35** R. How many barrels of cereal mash of 78* R., or boiling water, are wanted in order to raise the malt mash to 58**? 5400 -7- 1000 = 5.4. 5.4 X 1.6 = 8.64. 8.64 bbls. water (malt). 54 bbls. water. 62.6 bbls. malt mash. Proceed according to abridged solution of Example 4. "Cal- culation where water only is used": 62.6 bbls. mash. 35** 58'^ 78' 62.6X23 71.99. 20 Answer. — Required, 72 bbls. cereal mash. TO FIND THE BARRELS OF THICK If ASH. Example. — Doughed-in in mash tub 10500 lbs. malt with 100 bbh. water. Temperature of mash = 3QP. T\vt xww^v V8» V^Xsfc. heated by a thick mash to 40*. by ai %tJCKya^ ^^r*- 'ck*'^ ^*^ '^ 942 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. and by a "lauter^ mash to 60*. How many barrds are reqnired- of the first and second thick mashes and the tauter mash? Solution, — IQ500 -h 1000 = 10.5. las X 1-6 = 16^ 16.80 hbls. water (malt). 100 bbls. water. 116^ bbls. malt mash. Proceed as in Example 5, ''Calcalation when water only is used": 1. Thick mash. 1 16.8 bUs. nudt mash. 30' 7^ 116.8X 10 = 24.3. 48 To raise the mash to 40* R. requires 24.3 bbls. thick mash. The total mash then has a temperature of 40°. 2. Thick mash. 1 16.8 bbls. malt mash. 40' ••^- 78 116.8 X 12 - = 36.9. 40^ 52^ '?«^^ 12 J8 38 To raise the jnash to 52*^ requires 36.9 bbls. thick mash. Tem- perature of total mash = 52*. 3. **Lauter** mash. 1 16.8 bbls. mash- 52^ 60 78 116.8X8 = 35.9. 26 To raise the mash to 60^ requires 35.9 bbls. lauter mash. Answer — First thick mash = 24.3 bbls. Second thick mash = 3j5.q bbls. FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 943 CALCULATIONS BY MEANS OF LATENT HEAT, ACCORDING TO M. HENIUS. COOLING CAPACITY OF ICE. If heat IS applied to ice of o** R. it melts and changes into ice-water. Though a large amount of heat is expended in melting the ice no rise in temperature is indicated by the thermometer as long as any ice is present. The heat so absorbed is called latent heat. It has been found that the amount of heat it takes to melt one pound of ice will raise the temperature of one pound of water from o** R. to 63° R., or is equal to 63 heat-units. The cooling capacity of ice is, therefore, 63 heat-units. We may here also, as in the calculations with specific heat, take for our practical figuring one barrel of water (250 pounds) as the unit of weight, and a heat-unit will then be the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of one barrel of water one degree Reaumur. MIXING ICE AND WATER. To illustrate the difTcrence between ice and ice-water as to cooling capacity, the following examples will suffice: Example i. — Ten barrels of water of 78** R. are to be mixed with 10 barrels of water of o** R. What is the temperature of the mixture? Solution. — 10 barrels of water of 78* contain 10 X 78 h. u. = 780 h. u. 10 barrels of water of 0° contain 10 X o h. u. = o h. u. 20 barrels of water contain 780 li. u. or one barrel contains 780 heat-units -f- 20 = 39 heat-units, hence : Answer. — Temperature of the mixture is 39** R. Example 2. — Ten barrels of water of 78** R. arc to be mixed with 10 barrels of ice (250 pounds each) of o** R. What is the temperature of the mixture? Solution. — The 10 barrels of water contain 78 X 10 heat units = 780 heat units. The 10 barrels of ice absorb 10 X 63 heat units = 630 heat units and are then changed into 10 barrels of ice water of o** R. The heat units so absorbed are taken from the 780 heat units of the hot water, and aiXftx Tw\^^ '^^'^ ^^^^ 944 nGUUNG IN THE BEEWSRY. lo Imrfclt of water ooataining 150 hcA units 10 twrrcls of water containing o heat units 20 tNurels of water containing 150 heat units. One barrel contains 150 -^ 20 = 7.5 heat units. Answer. — ^Temperature of the mixture is 7.5^ R. We see from- the two ezamiftles that while 10 barrda of ice- water of o* R. cools the water of 78* R. to ap"* R. only, the same qtumtity of ice reduced the temperature to 7.5** R. OOOUNG WATSR BY ICE. If ice is melted and the resulting ice-water of o* R. is raised to a higher temperature, then the heat absorbed is the sum of the latent heat and the heat required to raise the temperature to the desired point Example 3. — We want to cool 10 barrels of water of 78* R. to 4* R- with ice. How many barrels of ice does it require? Solution,— To cool 10 barrels from 78* R. to 4° takes (78 — 4) X 10 heat units = 740 heat units, which must be absorbed by the ice. Each barrel of ice, when melting, absorbs 63 heat units, and as the water should have a temperature of 4° R., the melted ice must absorb four more heat units in rising from o** to 4*^ R., or in all 63 + 4 = 67 heat units. As 740 heat units must be absorbed it takes 740 h- 67 = 11 barrels ice to cool 10 barrels of water from 78*' R. to 4** R. Answer. — It requires 11 barrels of ice (250 pounds each). From the data given above we may construct the following formula : Bbls. ice required j '^ No. bbls. water X (high temp. - end temp.) (250 IDS. each; ^ Cooling capacity of ice + end temperature It being more practical to get the result in tons of ice (2,000 pounds) instead of barrels of ice, i ton = 8 barrels, we can. by multiplying the barrels of ice, the latent heat and the end tem- perature by 8, change the formula as follows: I Barrels of water X (high temp. — end temp.) Tons of ice = ^ Cooling capacity X 8 + (end temp. X 8) or taking latent heat 63 X & = S^ as 500 and abbreviating still fartbcr we iiavc ^ . Tons of ice = FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 945 Barrels of water X (high temp. — end temp.) 5CX) + (8 X end tcinperature) Example ^.— (Abridged Method.) Taking Example 3 as an illustration, we have: Solution. — Barrels = 10. High temperature = 78° R. End temperature = 4** R. ioX(78 — 4) 10X74 740 Tons of ice = = = = 1.39 500 + (8 X 4) 500 + 32 532 Answer. — 1.39 tons. We found in Example 3 that we required 11 barrels of ice; as 8 barrels of ice = i ton of ice, we have 11 -f- 8 = 1.38 tons, and in Example 4, using the formula, 1.39 tons, which proves that our formula answers all practical purposes. COOLING WORT BY ICE. If we have to cool wort by means of ice we may employ the formula for water without any changes, because the heat ca- pacity of a barrel of wort is about the same as that of a barrel of water, as the following reflection will show : One barrel of ordinary cold wort of, say, 13 per cent Balling weighs 259 + 13 = 272 pounds and contains 35 pounds extract and 272 — 35 = 237 pounds of water. The 35 pounds of extract have a specific heat of 0.4 or a heat capacity of only 0.4 X 35 = 14 pounds of water. The heat capacity of a barrel of wort of 13 per cent Balling is, therefore, equal to 237 + 14 = 251 pounds of water. Example 5. — 131 barrels of wort is to be cooled Ky ice from 7** R. to 3** R. Solution. — Barrels = 131. High temperature = 7** R. End temperature = 3° R. 131 X (7 — 3) 131 X 4 524 Tons of ice = =: = = i. 500+ (8X3) 500 + 24 524 Answer. — We use i ton of ice to cool 131 barrels of wort from 7" R. to 3^ R. When figuring v/ith hot wort, a baTT^\ ol >n\C\Ocv ^^x^'s* V.^ 00 946 FICUHIHG IK THE BREWERY. than a barrel of cold wort, the fonnula gives reanhs anfficieittly accurate for all practical pnrposes. In all the calculations no acconnt has been taken of the ke melted by otttside beat. LATSNT HEAT OF STEAK. If a pound of steam of So' R. is forced into water of o° R. and condensed, the heat Ihns given out «ill raise the terapcratnre ot S-37 pounds of water from o* R, to Sd" R., which is equal to & X 5-37 = A3P heat units. This amount of heat will also be ahsorbcd in changing one pound of water of 80* (just oa the verge of boiling) into one pound of steam of the same tempera- lure or 80°. This heat is called the latent heat of vaporiiation, and is very nearly seven times the amount of heat absorbed by melting ice. The latent heat of steam at different pressures varies from that of steam of 80* R., but the differences being slight arc not considered in the following. The calculations for healing water with steam are very simitar to those for melting ice, as a few examples Kill show. Example I. — flow many pounds of steam are needed to heat 10 barrels of water from 14" R. to 40" R. Solution. — Ten barrels of water equal 10 X '5o or 2,500 pounds of water, which, when, warmed from 14° R. to 40°, or 26' R.. re- quire 2.500 X 26, or 65.000 heat units. One pound of sieam gives off in the form of latent heat, 4^0 heal units, and the wa- ter so formed when cooling from 80° R. to 40° R., the desired lemperaturc, an additional 40 heat units or 3 lotal of 430 -|- 40 = 470 heat unils. As the water needs 65,000 heat units and each pound of slcam supplies 47° heat unils we require 65,000 -i- 470 = 138.5 pounds sleam. ^ n Jiff r.— 138.5 pounds of steam. The formula, then, for figuring the number of pounds of steam il requires to heat a certain number of barrels of water would be Bbls. water X 250 X (end temp. — low temp.) Lbs. of slcam = Latent heat of steam (430) -j- 80 — end temp. Barrels X 250 X (end temp. — low temp.) FIGUSINC IN THE BRKWERY. (Ji\J Example 2. — How many pounds of stcain does it lake (o heat 120 barrels of water from io° R. to boiling, 80° R,? SoluHon.— Barrels = 120. End temperature ^= 80° R. Low temperature =: 10° R. 120 X 250 X (80 — 10) 30000 X ?o Lbs. steam = ^ = 4884. 510 — 80 430 ^Rjwirr.^4884 pounds of steam. If we take the power of evaporation of 1 pound of coal to be 4&S4 8 pounds of water, it would take = 610 pounds of coal 8 to heat 120 barrels of water from 10° R. lo boiling. CALCULATION OF ATTENUATION. In the calculation of attenuatiron Balling's treatise on attenua- tion (attenuate = thinning, decreasing the amount of extract) was used as a basis, but in a modified and simplified form, so as to meet the requirements of the practical brewer, for whose purpose the results obtained, which, lo some extent, differ from those obtained by an exact chemical analysis, are sufficiently ac- BALLING OF WOKT AND APPARENT EXTRACT. In a wort the saccharotneter (see "Saccharometry") indicates the number of pounds of extract contained in 100 pounds of wort, the Balling of wort. After adding yeast to this wort fermenta- tion sets in (sugar is split up into alcohol and carbonic acid gas) and the saccharometer indication decreases day by day until the fermentation comes to a stop. The indications of the instrument, however, no longer, as they did in the wort originally, corre- spond to the extract really contained in the fluid because the beer contains alcohol which, being specitically lighter than wa- ter, allows the saccharometer to sink lower than it would do in a fluid containing an equal amount of extract dissolved in water only instead of in a mixture of water and alcohol. In other words, the saccharometer apparently indicates the extract con- tained in the beer while in reality it shows less than \% -v^'a:£&^ present. The saccharometer indication oi » ^w "«, ■CtvtitX™^. called apparent extract. 948 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. f« In the following the* apparent extract will be designated as the Balltng of beer/' which is identical with "saccharometer indi- cation of beer," or "density of beer/* while the "original den- sity/' "original gravity/' "original wort/* or "extract of wort" will be designated as "Balling of wort/' which then means the number of pounds of extract contained in one hundred pounds of wort in the cellar. SEAL BXTKACT. In order to find the actual amount of extract contained in beer by means of a saccharometer it is necessary for reasons given above to remove the alcohol by distillation, and then add water again until the original weight is restored. In the liquid so ob- tained, free from alcohol, the saccharometer will show the ex- tract contained in the beer. This is called the "real extract." If we know the extract contained in the original wort, "Ball- ing of wort" and the extract (sugar) fermented, we can readily ascertain the extract of the beer by deducting the extract fer- mented from the "Balling of >\ort." APPAKENT ATTENUATION AND REAL ATTENUATION. The difference between the Balling of wort and the Balling of beer is called the "apparent" attenuation. It is the decrease of the saccharometer indication during fennentation. The difference between the Balling of ^ort at the time when fermentation began, and the extract in the beer, is called the "real*' attenuation, because it shows the actual decrease of extract by fermentation and represents the amount of sugar that has been fermented. CALCULATING ALCOHOL CONTENT. Since the real attenuation represents approximately the fer- mented sugar, it serves as a basis from which to figure the amount of alcohol in the beer, the effect of fermentation being to split up the sugar into two almost equal parts, one of alcohol, the other of carbonic acid. The latter escapes almost wholly, whereas the alcohol remains in the beer. The amount of alcohol can be found, therefore, by dividing the real attenuation by two. The alcohol can also be calculated from the apparent attenua- tion by multiplying the same by a given alcohol factor, which dif- fers according to the original density of the wort. For an original density of ii per cent Balling tVit 3\coVvq\ l^cXox *v& ^avjn fee « FIGURING IN THK BREWERY. 949 wort of 14 per cent it is 0.423, average 0.42. Now, the Balling indication of nearly all worts lies between the figures given. For practical purposes sufficient accuracy is, therefore, obtained by using 0.42 as the alcohol factor. The alcohol content of beer, accordingly, can be calculated in cither of two ways: 1. by dividing the real attenuation by 2, or 2. by multiplying the apparent attenuation by 0.42. And, vice versa, the two attenuations can be found from the ahrohol content, that is, 1. the real attenuation by multiplying the alcohol con- tent by 2, and 2. the apparent attenuation by dividing the alcohol con- tent by 0.42. ATTENUATION FORMULA. Summarizing we have: Saccharometer indication = Balling = B. Original wort extract = Balling of wort = B. W. Apparent extract = Balling of beer = B.B. Balling of wort — Balling of beer = Apparent attenuation = A. A. Apparent attenuation X 0.42 =: Alcohol = Al. Alcohol X 2 = Real attenuation = R. A. Balling of wort — real attenuation — Real extract in beer = R. E. Example J. — A wort in the cellar weighs 13 B. After fermen- tation the saccharometer indicates 4 B. How much alcohol and extract does the beer contain? What is the real and what the apparent attenuation? Solution. — Balling of wort = 13 Balling of beer = 4 Apparent attenuation = 9 X0.42 Alcohol = 3.78 X 2 Real attenuation = 7.56 Balling of wort = 13 Real attenuation — 7.S6 Real extract ^= SA^ 9^ FIUUKING IN THE BREWEKY. Antwer.—Tht beer a>nttiM 3.7S per cent alcohol and $-44 ptt cent extracL The real attcniiatKni is 7.56, the apparent attenna- tion, 9. APPARENT AND RIAL DEGREE OF ATTGNUATIOK. In comparing two beers as to their apparent or real Utenna- tion it is obvious that satisfactory results cannot be obtained if we do not know the perce»tagt of the extract, which apparent or really attenuated, and this we can only figure out if the Ball- ing of vi>3rt is known. The following will serve as an illustration; The analyses of two beers gave these results: No. I. No. a. Balling of wort 15.5 15.0a Balling of beer 3-5 Soo Apparent attenuation laoo laoo Alcohol 4.3 4.3 Real aitenuation 8.4 84 Real extract of beer 5.1 6.6 It wilt readily be seen from the above figures that if we were lo judge the two beers as to their composition, and only kiiew either the apparent or the real atteiiualion. or both, we would be justified in calling these beers identical. That thry, however, are different wc learn by noting the Balling of wort, which is different in the two beers, but still we cannot form an opinion as lo Iheir attenuation (real or appaienl) before we have found the percentage of the extract thai really or apparently fermented. This can easily be calculated by dividing the real or apparent attenuation by the Balling of wort, and multiplying by lOO. We thus convert the apparent, or real attenuation into per cent of ap- parently or really fermented extract, and the figures so obtained we niay, for purposes of convenience, which will be readily an- derstood, term "apparent degree of attenuation" and "real de- gree of attenuation." The apparent degree of attenuation then shows how many out of a hundred parts of extract at-porcnlly fermented, the real degree of attenuation, how many parts out of one hun- dred parts really fermented. Apparent attenuation X 100 ^ Apparent deg. of attcn. = A. D. A. B;)/fiosof wort FIGURIHG IN THE BREWERY. 95! Real attenuation X 100 = Real degree of attenuation ^ R. D. A. Billing of won Example. — Balling of wort is 14. Balling of beer from Ibis wort is 4.5. What is the apparent degree of fermcnlallon and what the real degree of fermentation? SolulioH. — B. W. (Balling of wort) 14 B. B. {Balling of beer) 4.5 A. A. (apparent atEenua(ion) g.5 Al. (alcohol) 9.5 X 0.42 = 4 R. A. (real attenuation) 4X^ = 3 R. E. {extract in beer) 14 — 8 = 6 A. A. X 100 95 X 100 A. D. A. = = = 67.8. B. W. 14 R. A. Xioo 8X100 R. D. A. = = = 57-1. B. W. 14 Answer. — Apparent degree of attenuation = 67.8. Real degree of attcmiation = 57.1. SUGAR DECBEE, The extract of wort consists of a number of substances, chief of which are sugars, then follow dextrins, malto-dexlrins, al- buminoids, mineral substances, hop extract, lactic acid, etc. It has been customary heretofore to express the relative amount of sugar in the extract in the form of ratio of sugar to the other substances (non-sugar), taking either 100 or i as the sugar basis, but as the figures so obtained are misleading, especially if 100 is taken as a unit, and consequently the percentage, of sugar and the ratio of sugar are often confounded, we have adopted, in conformity with the terms real and apparent degree of attenuation, the term "sugar degree," which simply means the parts of reducing sugars (commonly called sugar) con- tained in 100 parts of extract. Sugar X 100 S. D. (sugar degree) = . B.W. Example. — By analysis it was found that a wort contained 1% per cent of extract, g parts of which vtCTC. xt&wXwi ws^-k^^- Wliat is the sugar degree? 953 FIOUUHG IK THE BREWERV. 5'ahil*Mi.-^ii 13 parts of nctnct, g an sugar, how nuny pMrti in 100 will be sugar? g X 100- _ 900 _ 13 13 Antwer. — Sugar degree is 69^ KATIO OF SOGAM 10 MOK-SUGAR. If it is desired to find the ratio of sngar to nim-sugar proceed in the following manner: Example. — In 13 parts of extract, 9 parts were sugar, conse- qaently 13 — 9 = 4 parts were non-sugar. SclmHon.— 9 : 4 = loo : ? Sugar Non-sugar Sugar Non-sugar. 4X100 = Non- sugar. 9 44 = Non- sugar. Antwer. — Ratfo of sugar to non-sugar too : 44. or, if the sugar unit is one, 1 : 0.44. nCURING IN ENGUSH BREWERIES- Onc barrel (English) = 36 gal.. 10 lbs. each = 360 lbs. A quarter (English) ^ 8 bu.. 42 lbs. each ^ .136 lb<:. A- hundredweight (cwt.) = 112 lbs. L = saccharometer indication according 10 Long's scale (see atAvnv. By "Gravity" the English brewer understands either "Brewers' Pounds" or "Degree of Specific Gravity." brewers' powds and lanQ's scale. "Brewers' Pounds" expresses the number of pounds a barrel of wort weighs more than a barrel of water of 360 pounds at 60° F, If a barrel of wort weighs 375 pounds the wort will theh be called a 15-pound wort (375 — 360 = 15). .-Xflcr fermentation, this beer would still be called a 15-pound beer. Long's saccharo- nieter, which is in general use, indicates "Brewer?' Pounds," // we fate r.ooo parts o( water as a unit of weight and weigh n equal volume of wort (or beer) aV v\»t saroe y.tTO\«:iWMt,*«a FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 953 the relation between the weight so obtained and 1,000 gives us the specific gravity of the wort or beer. It is not customary, however, to give the specitic gravity of the wort or beer, but simply to use the figure in excess of i.ooo whicli is called the "degree of specific gravity." ExamfiU.—It the specific gravity of a wort is I.OSO, then we apeak of the wort as a 50 gravity wort (i.oso — 1,000 — go), or the degree of specific gravity of the wort is 50. TO CONVERT RECREES OF SPECIKIC CHAVITV INTO brewers' [IICNDS. From the above it will be readily seen thai i.ooo holds ilie same relation to "degree of specific gravity" as 360 to ''brewers' iiounds" (or Long). Brewers' lbs. 360 0.36 D.S.G. ~ 1,000 - , -"■ Therefore, by multiplying the degrees of specific graviry by 0,j6 we obtain the equivalent in brewers' pounds. Example. — Degree of specific gravity of a wort is 60. State equivalent in brewers' pounds. Solution.— 60 X 0.36 = 21,6. Answer. — Brewers' pounds ^ 21.6. By dividing the brewers' pounds by 0.36 we obtain the degree of specific gravity. Example— How many degrees specific gravity are 15 brewers" pounds? Solution. — '5 = 41.67. 0.36 Answer.— 41.67 degrees specific gravity. We may also multiply by 2.78 (i -i- 0,36 = 2.78). Taking above example we have 15 X 2?8 = 41.7. SOLID EXTRACT PER BARREL. The brewers' pounds per barrel shows us the excess weight of a barrel of wort as compared to a barrel oi waVw , \i>A ^st~. w"- ■>>** 954 FIGUUNC IH THE BKEWEKV. iaEonnatioa about the »Mal qnantity of solid extnct contained in a barrel of worL Id order to understand the relation between tbe brewers' pounds and the actual pounds of solid extract con- tained in a barrel of wort the following will serve as an illnstra- tion; One barrel of water weighs 360 pounds. If we mix 35 gallons of water with one gallon of dr; sugar, a gallon of water wrighing 10 pounds and a gallon of sugar weighing 16 pounds we hare 35 gala, of water, 10 lbs. each, weighs 350 lbs. I gal. of sugar, 16 lbs. each, weighs 16 lbs. 36 gallons of water and sugar weighs 366 lbs. Brewers' pounds of this wort are 6 (jG6 — 360 = 6), while the barrel contains 16 pounds of solid extract ; therefore, tbe ratio between the solids contained in the wort and the brewers' pounds is 16 to 6 or about 3.67- (The correct figure is 2.59, but 2.6 is generally employed.) This calculation is based upon the fact (hat cane sugar has the same sp. gr. as dry malt extract. As i brew- ers' pound =^ 2.6 pounds sugar (or extract) i pound of sugar =: ri or 0.39 brewers' pounds, and a cwl. of sugar = 112 X 0.39 or 43.68 brewers' pounds, or I ewt. of dry cane sugar will yield 43 brewers" pounds. A glucose, although apparently dry, may have several per cent water and will consequently yield less than 43. TO CONVERT BItEWERS' POUNDS INTO SOLID EXTEACT PER BAKRFJ. Rule. — Multiply brewers' pounds by 2.6. Example. — Brewers' pounds of a beer ^ 35 ; how many pounds of solid extract does the barrel contain? Solution. — as X 2.6 = 6s- Ansn-cr. — A barrel contains 65 pounds of solid extract. TO CONVERT POUNDS OF St By multiplying brewers' pounds by a.6 we find, as shown above, the number of pounds of solid extract contained in a barrel of *ort. Knowing now the weight of a barrel of wort (360 + L) and the solid e\tract contained therein (L X 2.6) we can readily ascertain the pounds of solid extract contained in 100 parts of (he »ort, or tbe ilaJling indication, u fQ\\<»i«-. FIGURING IN THE BREWEKY. 955 LX2 6X 100 260 X L. B = = ■■-■ 360 -I- L. 360 + L. Example. — What is the Balling of a 25 pound wort? SolulioH.— 260 X ZS 6500 360 + 25 38s AnsiDeT.—j6.g Balling. In England it is customary to express the yield in pounds ex- tract per quarter of malt, which, of course, is entirely arbitrary and has nothing in common with the yield proper that expresses the number of pounds of solid extract obtained from 100 pounds of material. By multiplying the number of barrels oE wort ob- tained in a brew by the gravity (Long) and dividing by llie num- ber of quarters used, we obtain the extract yielded per quarter of malt. If sugar is used the extract obtained from the sugar must first be deducted before division takes plaee, barrels X brewers' lbs. (Long) Brewers' extract yielded : Ors. Rule. — Multiply number of barrels by brewers' pounds (Long) and divide by number of quarters. Example 1. — 100 barrels brewed at 20 pounds employing 23.5 iiuarters of malt; state the yield. Solution. — 100X20 = 8S. 23- S Antwfr.—\\t\A per quarter 85. Example 2. — 300 barrels wort were brewed at 20 pounds from 57 quarters of malt and 30 cwt. of sugar (sugar yielding 35 ex- tract per cwt.). State the yield. Soluiion. — (300X20) — (30X35) 6000—1050 57 M Ansu^.—Sy yield extract per quatXer, 956 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. SaUD BXTKACT R> QUAKIXK. The solid extract of a quarter can readily be toanA by mnltipljr- ing the extract per quarter tiy 3.6 (this factte:» w«v \« \wao& luhiptying the number o! bands \o bt >«««** Vj ft>^ 4««^ FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 957 gravity (pounds) and dividing by the extract yielded per quarter. If materials other than malt arc to be employed the extract yielded by them should be deducted from the extract yielded by the malt before dividing by the extract per quarter of malt. Barrels X brewers' pounds (L.) Quarters = -.. Extract per quarter Example i. — In producing 200 barrels of 18 pounds a malt is employed yielding 86 pounds extract per quarter. How many quarters of malt are required for the brew? Solution. — 200 X 18 = 41.9. 86 Answer. — We employ 41.9 quarters of malt. Example 2. — The same number of barrels of same strength as in Example i are to be brewed from malt and sugar, using 20 cwt. of glucose (yielding 36 pounds per cwt.). How much malt is required? Solution. — (200 X 18) — (20 X 36) 3600 — 720 = = 33.5 86 86 Answer. — We employ 33.5 quarters of malt. SUMMARY. In figuring according to English usage it should then be borne in mind that : 1. Brewers' pounds = excess of weight, in pounds, of a barrel of wort (or beer) over a barrel of water (360 pounds). 2. Pound beer or pound gravity or saccharometer indication ac- cording to Long = L. = brewers* pounds (see i). 3. Specific gravity or degree of specific gravity = excess num- ber over 1,000 (the unit of water). 4. Extract, or brewers' extract, per quarter, generally 80 — 90 pounds, is an arbitrary figure based upon the extract as indicated by the Long saccharometer. 5. Dry or solid extract = real extract contained in wort or beer. 6. Extract per cent = solid extract per 100 pounds of \va^.wv3\. 7. Material = quarters of malt. 8. Final attenuation of a beer is tVie sacc\v^xovcv«X&x Vsx^x^-as^^^ pf the beer according to Long. THE BREWER'S CHEMICAL LABORA- TORY. In this chapter are given mch analylical methods as are med most commonly in the examioattoas required to be made in the practice of brewing, when it is desired to examine materials em- ployed, or the product in its various stages, in testing iiutramcnts and appliances, or detemiining the properties of the finished article. Examinations of this character are necessarily confined to what the brewer, in the course of his rejpilar occupation, can attend to, and it is not purposed to go into the more thorough and detailed analytical methods, which are employed in the scientific laboratories. The object is to aid and refresh the memory of a brewer who has taken a course in scientific brewing, but may not be aUe, where his mind is taken up in the work of curative brewing, to remember the details of every method and, therefore, will be grateful for a handy reference book to which he can turn and quickly find the necessary information. Originality is not claimed for all the methods here given. The effort hiis been to select those which combine in the highest pnc- lical degree the two qualities most needed for the work in the laboratory, viz., reliability and dispatch. Some of the methods differ litilc from those given in the standard treatises. The meth- ods for analyzing beer. won. malt and barley, are practically identical with those in vogue in Europe, and those for water have also been in common use for a long time. Of the rest, many can be classed as distinctly American, having been evolved under the requirements peculiar to the brewing industry of the United Slates. They are. in a large measure, the result of patient, care- ful, and in part, at least, original work on the part of the scientific station of ll'afil and Henius of Chicago, devised with a view to supplying the needs of the American \«e««, in regard to brewing materials, tbis tta^w ■«^\ »M.ViS«roM& 958 THE BSEWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 959 that devoted entirely to that subject, as far as methods of exami- nation are concerned. To make Ihe descriptions more complete, mention is made of the apparatus and chemicals required to equip a chemical laboratory sufficient for a brewer to do his work, and the tests given by which the fitness and accuracy of the appliances may be deter- mined. ANALVnCAL CHE MISTS V. Analytical chemistry treats on the determination of the ele- ments of a cornpound, the proportion of the constituents and the presence of impurities. If we merely take into consideration the kind of their con- •tituents the analysis is a gualitative one, as testing for starch in wort and beer; iron in water, lupulin and sugars ; tannic add in lupulin. If, however, the amount of each constituent is determined, then the analysis is a quantitative one. Volumclric analysis is the analysis by measure. Gravimftric analysis is the analysis by weight. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. To Find Iht SpcciHc Gravity of Solid Bodies.— The simplest method of finding the specific gravity of solid bodies is based on the principle of Archimedes. According to this principle, a solid body immersed in water apparently loses weight, and this apparent loss is equal to the weight of the water which it dis- places, or to its own volume of water. To determine the specific gravity of a solid body, such body is first weighed in air, next suspended from the balance pan by a fine thread or horsehair and immersed completely in pure water of 60° F. and again weighed while immersed. It now weighs less, the difference being the weight of the displaced water. Dividing the weight of the body in air by the weight of an equal volume of water we obtain the specific gravity of the body compared to water of 60° F. Example. — A stone weighs in air loStbs. When suspended in water the same stone weighs Ts" Difference, being the weight of an eqaaX No\iimt -a^ ■«-iL\.« J8 lbs., and 108 -h 3S = 3.S4. the speciftc gTiN*! ^^ '^'^'^ **^*^- g6o THE brewer's chemical laboratory. To Pmd the SfecUte Gravity of Gates. — Gases are compared to air as standard. The specific gravity of a gas is found in the same way as that of a solid, that is, by weighing equal volumes of the gas and air, and dividing the weight of the gas by the weight of the air. ExantpU. — One cubic foot of carbonic acid gas weighs. ...1.97602. One cubic foot of air weighs 1.3 " 1.976 -T- 1.3 = 1.52 ; hence the specific gravity of car- bonic acid gas is 1.53, that is, carbonic acid gas is i-S^ timet as To find the specific gravity of li■ specific gravity of 3 liquid is to let a body lighter than the liquid float in it. The denser the liquid is, the Uss deep docs the floating body sink into it. Water at 15° C. has been accepted in the brewer's laboratory as a convenient standard of specific gravity for worts, beers and other liquids, the specific gravities of which vary with the amounts of alcohol, sugar or other substances held by them in solution. The piciiomcter is the only strictly reliable instrument for the determination of the specific gravity of a liquid, from which the quantity of sugars and other solids, or of alcohol, present in a uon or beer, can be found by referring to proper tables. Balling's extract tables give, in convenient columns, the amounts of extract corresponding to aptcifet ara-itties, M.\.« v\«.\a»«i %as THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 961 been obtained by the instrument, the corresponding weight per cent of extract will be found in the table. Alcohol tdhles give the weight per cent of alcohol in beer for a certain specific gravity of an alcoholic solution. THE PICNOMETER. This instrument should hold very nearly (within a decigram) 50 grams of distilled water at 15** C. Before using, the pic- nometer should be dried completely, which can be most easily ef- fected by rinsing with 96 per cent alcohol, which, in turn, is re- moved by air from the bellows. The instrument is then accurately weighed, together with its capillary stopper. A quart pail, or dish, is filled with hydrant water, and some pieces of ice are added to hasten the cooling. The picnometer is filled with distilled water and immersed in the pail. A clean, dry, thin and accurate centi- grade thermometer is used to indicate the temperature in the picnometer, and as a stirring rod. When the distilled water has a uniform temperature of 15** C, the picnometer is drawn from the pail, filled to the brim with distilled water and closed with the stopper containing the capillary tube, care being taken to avoid bubbles between stopper and liquid. The top of the plug is dried with a soft, clean, dry towel, and the whole instrument immersed so as to be almost covered by the cooling bath. The cooling liquid should not show more than 4 or 5** C, and in a warm room the cooling must be continued longer than in a cold room, so that the liquid in the picnometer may not expand and escape from the capillary stopper, while weighing the instru- ment. The plunging of the picnometer in the cold water causes the glass to contract, and a small drop of water is forced out at the top of the stopper; it sinks back again, however, as soon as the water in the picnometer begins to cool below 15° C. When the water has contracted to the bottom of the capillary tube of the stopper, draw the instrument from the cold water, dry it carefully with a soft, clean, dry towel, and weigh to milligrams. From this weight of the full picnometer, deduct the weight, previously ob- tained, of the empty picnometer. The difference will be the weight of the distilled water contained in the picnometer. After finding the weight of the picnometer and the weight of ^the water it can hold at 15" C, we ascertain the weight of a wort, beer, or alcohol solution, in precisely the same v\\a."W5\R.\ -*& >^Na5<- ^^ distilled water, the same precautions \)em^ c\si?»«r^^- %>a?^v^«^ a THE brewer's CHEMlCAi. LABORATORY. & THE BREWER^S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 963 the picnometer flask weighed 28,500 grams, stopper included, and held 50.003 grams of distilled water at 15** C. Let the weight of the flask filled with wort be 81.627 grams at 15° C, the flask weighing 28.500 grams, then the wort weighs 53.127 grams, where an equal volume of water weighs 50.003 grams. The re- sult is now obtained by dividing 53.127, the weight of the wort, by 50.003, the weight of the water, equals 1.06248, specific gravity of the wort. The following abridged formula can be used: Double the weight of wort, or other liquid, and subtract double the excess over 50 grams of the weight of water contained in the picnometer at 15** C, and divide by 100. Taking the preceding case, in which we supposed that the weight of the wort was 53.127 grams, and an equal volume of water weighed 50.003 grams, then, twice weight of wort = 106,254 grams, less twice excess weight of water 0.006. Divided by 100 = 1.06248, specific gravity of wort. HYDROMETERS. Floating instruments used to find the specific gravity of liquids are called hydrometers. They consist of a h.ollow cylinder of thin metal or glass, having a weight beneath to keep it in an upright position, and a stem above bearing a divided scale. The liquid to be tested is poured into a cylindrical jar, and the instrument im- mersed. The denser the liquid, the less of it will be displaced by the same hydrometer, and the higher will the instrument rise, whereas it sinks deeper in a liquid of less density, as the instru- ment displaces exactly its own weight of liquid. When the hydro- meter is at rest, the mark on the scale at the liquid level may be read off. There are different kinds of hydrometers bearing dif- ferent names according to the kinds of liquid for which they are intended. They arc known as "acidometers/' "alcoholometers," "lactometers," "saccharometers," etc. THE SACCHAROMETER. Saccharometers (from the Latin words Saccharum, sugar, and metio, I measure) are a special kind of hydrometers used to find the per cent of sugar in saccharine solutions, and the amount of extract in wort and beer. The first saccharometer constructed ot\ Sic\ev\V\?vc ^\\x^^v^«^^ "^^!lx made in the year 1787, by Richardson, *m ^ixftV^tvd, -aw^ V\s vc\^>^ 9G4 '^BB brewer's chemical laboratcay. of detemiiiiiog the mmoant of extract in wort is still in use. He . also introduced the term "attenuation** to designate the decrease of the extract daring fermentation. Later, Prechtl, in Germany, constructed a saccharometer for a temperature of 12^ R, with a scale 'showing both per cent extract and the corresponding ^ledfic gravity figures. In the year 18133 Balling introduced his saccharo- meter in the form substantially as it is known at present* and fj[aiser*s per cent areometer appeared in 1838. If a saccharometer is to be used exclusively for estimating the amount of extract contained in wort or beer, expressed in per cent, it would, of coarse, seem quite proper to graduate the in- strument by dissolving dry extract of malt in water to of known percentages, and immersing the instrument in these lutions, graduating the scale of the saccharometer accordingly. The same results should be obtained by a modification of tUs plan, according to the methods used by Schultze and Ostermann, and by H. Elion. These investigators determined the specific gravity of a wort, a weighed quantity of which was then evapo- rated to dryness and dried by Schultze-Ostermann at 70** to 75* C. at ordinary air pressure ; by H. Elion at 97** C. in a current of dry air in a partial vacuum. The English chemists, Brown and Heron, and later, O'Sullivan, determined the specific g^vity of solutions of maltose and dextrin, that is, the two principal constituents of wort, in a solution con- taining 10 g. per 100 c.c. Following the principle of the English investigators, Elion determined how much the specific gravity of water is increased by each gram of dry extract of malt per 100 c.c. of solution. The results of all these investigations differed considerably on account of the impossibility of getting malt-extract of one and the same composition from different malts, and on account of the diffi- culty of determining when the extract really was dry, as too high a temperature or too long an exposure was found partly to decom- pose the extract and thus to influence the results. For this reason the idea of using dry extract of malt for grad- ing the saccharometer was abandoned, and in its place was selected a substance that differs but little from extract of malt in its specific gravity, and which, on the other hand, can easily be had in a uniform degree of dryness and purity. This substance is pure, dry cane-sugar. Cane-sugar )KaA ^xeai^i \sfcwv >asft4 Vpj Ball- THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 965 ing for the construction of his saccharometer as he supposed that cane-sugar and extract of malt influenced the specific gravity of the solutions in the same way. This is, however, not quite ac- curate, as a solution of malt-extract shows a slightly higher specific gravity than a solution of cane-sugar of equal percentage. The differences are, however, not great enough seriously to impair the value of such a saccharometer for practical use. There are, at present, four saccharometers in use, named from their inventors: Balling's, Kaiser's, Long's and Gendar's. Balling's saccharometer is in general use in the United States, Germany and Austria. It is usually graduated for a temperature of 14° R. (17.5** C.) and at this temperature indicates how many per cent by weight of dry, pure cane-sugar are contained in a sugar solution, and in a wort or beer how many per cent of dry extract the liquid contains. In other words, if the saccharometer, when immersed in a wort, sinks in to the 12 mark, it indicates that one hundred pounds of this wort contains 12 pounds of dry extract of malt. The line to which the instrument sinks in pure water of 14*^ R. is marked o and is found at the upper part of the stem. The instrument is graded by floating it in sugar solutions of the same temperature, but of different strength, and the depth to which it sinks is marked with the corresponding number of per cent. Balling's saccharometers are generally graded up to 20 or 25 per cent, and each per cent subdivided in tenths. The indications of the instrument are correct only at the tem- perature of 14** R. If the solution is warmer than 14* R. the indication is too low, as the liquid becomes less dense at a higher temperature. At a lower temperature the indication would be too high. To avoid the difficulty of always getting the liquid at the same temperature, a correction-scale is added to the instru- ment, indicating how many tenths of per cent should be added at temperatures higher than 14* R., or subtracted at lower degrees. In this case, the weight at the lower end of the instrument, which serves to float it pcrpcndictilarly, is the bulb of a mercury thermometer, the scale of which is inserted in the wider part of the saccharometer, and opposite each degfree of temperature is found the corresponding tenth per cent correction. To obtain correct readings, the instrument tw»&\.\st ^-^x^^^^ handled. It must be cleaned imtned\a.le\v ^^^^^^^ \s€vws^ >5.^^V 966 THE BSEWES'S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. hdd by the upper end and gradually lowered into the liqiiid, avoiding dipping it in too deep, as the liquid remaining on the stem above the surface of the liquid would tend to make the in- strument heavier. The liquid must be free from foam and no gas bubbles should adhere to the saccharometer, which must float free in the liquid without touching the sides of the vessel. The reading should be done according to the directions on the instrument, and generally from above. Beer must be freed from carbonic acid gas l^ pouring it from one dish into another repeatedly, and by warming it gently, before it can be weighed by the saccharometer. Besides the ordinary Balling saccharometer there is in use, especially in sugar factories, the so-called corrected Balling or Brix saccharometer. When cane-sugar is dissolved in water a contraction takes place, and this contraction varies with the con- centration of the sugar solutions. Brix calculated these contrac- tions and made the corrections correspondingly. Kaiser's Saccharomeicrs of the modem type are made exactly like Balling's and give the same indications, only the per cent is subdivided in %. %. % per cent instead of tenths per cent. Long's Saccharometer is used in England and indicates how many pounds an English barrel (36 gallons) of wort weighs more than a barrel of water at 6o* F. (15.6* C). Gendar's Saccharometer indicates how many pounds a barrel of beer or wort weighs more than a barrel of water (of 30 gal- lons) at 70** F. (21. !• C). Hot wort saccharometers are, as the name indicates, used to find the per cent of extract in hot wort, and are generally graded at 70* to 75** R. (87.5** to 93-4* C). These hot wort saccharome- ters are often made of metal, and are expected to give only an ap- proximately accurate value. All the above mentioned saccharometers gfive the amount of ex- tract by weight contained in a certain weight of solution. Krieger's Extractometer differs from all of them in this respect : It indicates how many grams of cane-sugar (or approximately malt extract) are contained in 100 c.c. of the solution at 14* R. For the construction of this saccharometer Dr. Jos. Krieger pre- pared a solution, containing ten grams of cane-sugar in 100 c.c The specific gravity of this solution at 14" R. was found to be o.oj8a taking water of 14' R. as a umX. K% Vtx^ ^^m^ ^1 cane- THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 967 TABLE FOR THB COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SACCHAROMBTERS WITfi SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND GIVING POUNDS OF EXTRACT IN WORT PER BBL. OF 31 GALS. a 0.00 .25 .50 .75 1.00 .25 .50 .75 2.00 .25 .50 ,75 3.00 .50 .75 4-00 .25 .50 .75 5.00 .25 .50 .75 6.00 .25 .50 75 7.00 .& .50 .75 8.00 .26 .50 .75 9.00 .25 .50 .75 1000 .25 .50 .75 11.00 .25 .50 .75 aj • »4 '/i 08 'u. -a a d ^ 0.00 0.00 .36 .30 .72 .60 1.08 .90 .44 1.20 .80 .50 2.16 .80 .52 2.41 .88 .40 3.24 .70 .60 3 00 .96 .80 4.32 .60 .68 .90 5.04 4 20 .40 .50 .76 .80 6.12 5.10 .48 .40 .84 .70 7.20 6.00 .56 .30 .92 .60 8.28 .90, .64 7.20 9.00 .50 .36 .80 .72 8.10 10.08 .40 .44 .70 .80 9.00 11.16 .30 .52 .60 .96 .96 12.32 10 26 .68 .57 18 M .88 .40 11.19 .76 .50 14.12 .81 .48 12.11 .84 .42 15.21 .78 .58 13.06 .95 .87 16.82 .68 .69 14.00 17.07 .32 00 1.000 1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.006 1.006 1.007 1.006 1.009 1.010 1.011 1.012 1.013 1.014 1.015 1.016 1.017 1.018 1.019 1.020 1.021 1.022 1.028 1.024 1 025 l.C»26 1 027 1.028 1.029 1.030 1.031 1.032 1.0832 1.0342 1.0352 1.0368 1.0374 1 0884 1.0894 1.0401 1.0415 1.0425 1.0136 1.0446 1.0457 1.0467 1.0478 &3 ^a 0.00 065 1.30 1.95 2.60 3.25 8.91 4.57 5.22 5.88 6.54 7.20 7.86 8.58 9.19 9 86 10.52 11.19 11.86 12.53 13.20 13.87 14.56 15.22 15.90 16.58 17.26 17.94 18.62 19.30 19.99 20.67 21.36 22.05 22.74 23.43 24.12 24.81 25.51 26.20 26.90 27.60 28.80 29.00 29.70 30.41 31.11 31.82 to c 12 00 .25 .50 .75 13.00 .25 .50 .75 14.00 .25 .50 .75 15.00 .25 .50 .75 16.00 .25 .50 .75 17 00 .25 .50 .75 18.00 • /So .50 .75 19.00 .25 .50 .75 20.00 .26 .50 .75 21.00 .25 .50 .lb 22.00 .25 .50 .75 23.00 .26 .50 .75 24.00 OB a o 21, 22. 17.46 .83 18.21 .60 .99 19.38 .77 20 16 .56 94 33 72 11 .50 .89 23.27 .66 24.05 .44 .83 25.21 .61 26.00 .89 .78 27.17 .56 .96 28.36 .76 29.16 .56 .95 30.34 .73 31.12 .50 .87 32.25 .64 33 04 .44 .84 34.23 .63 36.0^ .43 .83 86.23 ce a o O 21 14.64 .96 15.28 .60 .92 16.24 .55 .86 17.17 .48 .80 18.12 .43 .75 19.07 .89 .71 20.08 .35 67 00 .38 .66 .99 22.82 .66 .98 23.31 .64 .97 24.:)0 .63 .96 25.29 .62 .95 26.27 .60 .98 27.26 .59 .92 28.25 .68 .91 29.24 .57 .90 80.23 1.0488 1.0498 1.0509 1.0620 1.0530 1.0&40 1.0651 1.0662 1.0572 1 0582 1.0)93 1.0604 1.0614 1.0626 1.0636 1.0646 1.0657 1.0668 1.0679 1.0600 1.0700 1.0711 1.0722 1.0733 1.0744 1.0755 1.0766 1.0777 1.0788 1.0799 1.0810 1.0821 1.0832 1.0843 1.0864 1.0865 1.0876 1.0887 1.0698 1.0900 1.0920 1.0931 1.0942 1.0953 1.0964 1.0975 1 .UHOO 1.0997 1.1008 32.52 33.23 83.94 34.65 a'>.36 36.07 36.79 37.50 38.22 38.94 30.6rt 40.38 41.11 41.83 42.65 43.28 44.00 44.73 45.46 46.19 46.92 47.66 48.39 49.13 49.86 50.(30 51.34 52.08 52.82 53.57 54.31 55.06 .S5.80 .'J6.55 57.30 58.05 68.80 50 66 60.31 61.07 61. H2 62.68 63.34 64.10 64.86 65. 6:^ 66.39 67.16 67.92 yfiB THE brewer's chemical laboratcmky. sugar in loo cc. had incrofied the specific gravity of water hf 00586^ one gram of cane-sugar irould, consequently, increase tm speynfic gravity by 0.005861 This factor, aooj86, was used in the construction of the new scale, each degree of which means an in- crease of 0.00586 in the specific gravity. The per cent extract of this scale are, therefore, changed into per cent of the Balling scale hy dividing them by the sp. gr. of tiie solution. The advantages claimed for this scale by Kricger (Der Amertkanische Bierbrauer, i8pi, p. 86) are as follows: 1. Taking the weight of a barrel of water as 258 pounds, the weight of a barrel of wort is found by adding the saccha i omc tei reading to 258, or, calling the saccharometcr reading Sa, Weight of a barrel of wort = 258 + Sa. 2. Multiplying 258 by saccharometer reading and dividing by too (or cutting oflF two decimals) gives the pounds of extract per * barrel, or pounds extract in one barrel = Sa X 2*58 -r- loa 3. The specific gravity of wort is equal to saccharometer read- ing multiplied by o.ooj86 and added to i, or Sp. Gr. = Sa X 0.00386 + i, or, equal saccharometer indication added to 258, and the sum divided by 258, thus: Sp. Gr. = Sa + 258 -T- 258. 4. The alcohol factor remains constant for varying per cents of extracts of original wort, and is equal to 04. While admitting that the claims of Dr. Krieger are valuable it will be seen that the Balling saccharometer can be used, as sug- gested by R. Wahl, for the purpose of calculating the weight and pounds of extract per barrel, as well as for practical brewery calculations. (See "Figuring in the Brewery/' also Der Brau- meister, 1890, p. 315). ALCOHOLOMETERS. These instruments are used to find the strength of mixtures of alcohol and water. Tralle's Alcoholometer gives per cent alcohol by volume, or how many volumes of absolute alcohol are contained in 100 vol- umes of the dilute alcohol at I2.5* R. (15.6* C. ). The scale reads from o per cent to 100 per cctil m absolute alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.7939 at W.S** R. (\^ff C->. THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 969 The indications are correct only in solutions of alcohol in pure water. Corrections on account of temperature are much higher than when using the saccharometer and amount to full per cents. The corrections, however, go the opposite way to those of the saccharometer. The more alcohol is present the less dense is the mixture, and a higher temperature, making it less dense, causes the indications to be too high, and consequently the rule is, for temperatures above 12.5° R., subtract, and for temperatures below 12.5° R., add, as many per cent as indicated by the correc- tion scale. TESTING THE SACCHARO METERS. Saccharometcrs are usually tested at o, 5, 10, 15 and 20 per cent. The latter four solutions can be approximately prepared by dissolving 25, 50, 75 and 100 grams of pure, dry cane-sugar in water and weighing each solution up to 500 grams. Testing at o is accomplished by immersing the saccharometer in distilled water of a temperature of 14" R. (17.5° C). In order to determine the correct percentage of extract contained in each of the above sugar solutions, the specific gravity is taken by means of the picno- meter and referred to the Balling extract table. The percentage of extract thus obtained should be indicated to within 0.1 per cent by the saccharometer when tested at 14° R. (17.5** C). THE BALANCES. As all analyses are either directly or indirectly based upon the correct indications of the balance, this instrument may be consid- ered as the most important apparatus in the chemical laboratory, and it is necessary that it should be sensitive and accurate to the full limit of its carrying capacity. ANALYTICAL BALANCE. The balance can be easily adjusted by the regelating screws, if necessary, and is then ready for testing. This delicate instrument must, when carrying a load of 100 grams (should that be the maximum weight) in each pan, be sufficiently accurate and sensi- tive to show no change of swing on an interchange of weights, and one milligram added on one side must increase the swing of the needle one or two divisions to the other side. TECHNICAL BALANCE. This balance, although not so accurate as tVsft ^tl^^xv^'^^^s^^^^^'^- is nevertheless a necessity in the cViem\ca\ V^Xwt'atovi • ^'^ '^'^ ^'^" g/jo THB brewer's chbuical iIaboratory. flawed for ■"■''"g ■ocli aialj*et in whkh the weight ex c wM i the ouryins capacity of a more sensitiTe boUnce, or where it ia not required to uk the milligiain weishta, for instance, in tbe determinatioii of the yield and moisture in nuH, com p r od u c U , rice, barley, etc The needle must swing eqoally far on both sides of the o inark when two kilogram weights are balanced, and also when the lame ffdgbts change pans. If a centigram weight is added to either pan the needle must show an increased swing of one divioioa of the scale to the oppoahe sidb -^*^i^J Each balance should h; reeling a set. proct'ed a: should be equal ; (hey mui nilligraTn weights must be eqi ■rbala set of weights, wo lo-milligram ce a 20-inilligram Two twenties ai eights >eight. should counterbalance a 50-m[lltgram weight, etc. shovid never come in cotitact viith acid or other vapors, correctness will be impaired. TV\tj a\i(»A4 nt-iw \>c ■ the fingers, but always wiA snalft v«k«v THE BREWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORV. 97I THB raOCESS OF WBIGUIHO. The substance to be weighed is placed on the left scale, and the other scale is accurately counter- poised against it. In counter- poising substances on the balance, a. systematic course ought to be pursued. The following is an illustration; Suppose we want to weigh a crucible, the weight of which was subsequently found to be 7.727 grams; say 10 grains is placed on the other scale against it, we find this is too much ; we place Ihe weight next in succes- sion, i. e., five grams, and find this 100 little; next eight, too much; seven, too little; 7.5, too little; 7.7, too little; 7.8, too much; 775, too much; 77^, too little; 7.73, too much; 7.735. too little; 7.727. right. TESTING PIPETTES. To test iS C.c. Pipettes and flu«HM.— Put a beaker on one pan of the scale and counterbalance it on Ihe other. Run 35 c.c. of distilled water at 15' C. into this beaker and weigh it. The pipette is pronounced correct if the weight is within 5 centigrams of 25 grams. Proceed in the same way with the other pipettes. Burettes are tested in the same way. To test 100 c.c. Flasks.— Wash a 100 c.c. flask with water, then with alcohol, and dry. Counterbalance the flask and fill to mark with distilled water of 15° C, It should then ■we.\it\\ Vq •«\'^^vtv ^ decigrams of 100 grams. Proceed simWaA^j \ot *fi t,^., ■«« '^-'^ sjo c.c, M liter, and i liter flasks. 973 THB brewer's chemical laboratory. THE THERMOMETER. This consists of a bulb connected with a tube of uniform bore^ and partly filled with mercury or alcohol. The upper part of the tube is exhausted of air and closed air-tight If the instru- ment is brought in contact with a warmer body, both the glass and the liquid of the thermometer expand, but, as the expansion of the glass is small compared to that of the liquid, the latter win begin to rise in the tube. The change in volume is measured cm a scale attached to the tube. Mercury freezes, or becomes soKd, at low temperatures, and for still lower ones the alcohol thermometer is used. "Thermometer Scales." A thermometer has two fixed points, called the freezing point and the boiling point The first is the temperature of melting ice, the other the temperature of steam escaping from water boiling under normal atmospheric pres- sure. The distance between these two points is divided into equal parts, called degrees, which vary in the different scales. STANDARD SCALES. There are three of these scales in use, viz. : "Fahrenheit," "Reaumur" and "Celsius" or "Centigrade." . The boiling point is called: on the Fahrenheit, 212; on the Reaumur, 80; and on the Centigrade, 100. The freezing point is called: on the Fahrenheit, 32; on the Reaumur, o; and on the Centigrade, o. Between the freezing and boiling points there are on the Fahrenheit. 212 — 32, or 180 degrees ; on the Reaumur 80 degrees; and on the Centigrade, 100 degrees. To Reduce Degrees of One Scale to Those of Another. — The same rise in temperature, from the freezing to the boiling point of water, being divided into 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit. 80 deg^'ees on the Reaumur, and 100 degrees on the Centigrade thermometer, it follows that 180 degrees Fahrenheit (written i8o* F.) = 80 degrees Reaumur (8o* R.) = 100 degrees Centi- grade (loo* C.) = or, dividing by 20. that 9* F. =4** R. = 5* C; 4 5 9 5 and I* F. = — • R. = — • C : i* R. = — ° F. = — • C. ; i*» C 9 9 4 4 9 4 S 5 THE fSEWES's CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 973 And since the point marked 33" F. corresponds to o* R. and 0° C. we may reduce Reaumur degrees to Fahrenheit by multi- plying by 9, dividing by 4 and adding 32; and Centigrade degrees to Fahrenheit by multiplying by g, dividing by 5 and adding 33. Thus: 30X9 270 30= R. = 1- 32, or h 32, or 67-5 + 32, or 99-S" F. 30° C. = + 32. or S4 + 32. or 86' F. 5 Similarly, we may reduce Fahrenheit degrees to Reaumur by subtracting 32, multiplying by 4 and dividing by g; and Fahren- heit degrees to Centigrade by subtracting -^i, multiplying by S and dividing by g. Thtis: 4(60 — 32) 4X28 112 6o* F. = , or , or , or 12.44" *• SX28 140 r 15-55° C. TESTING THE THntMOHETERS. The accuracy of a thermometer at the boiling and freezing points of water may be ascertained approximately in the follow- ing manner : Immerse the thermometer in boiling water, care being taken not to touch the sides of the vessel containing the water or to have the mercury bulb come in contact with the bot- tom of the vessel. The thermometer after a few minntes should read 212° on the Fahrenheit scale, 100° on the Celsius and 80' on the Reaumur. For the freezing point immerse the thermometer in melting ice. It should then indicate 32° F., 0° C, o* R. WORTS. The wort is filtered while cold. Note the color, brilliancy, presence or absence of starch or erythrodextrin. ■XTBACT. The specific gravity is taken by means of the picnometer at 15° C. and converted into per cent extract b^ »«fa^\TO.t x** ■^t Bailing table. iDoruiKMriaK F. W. ;^ F- iia 8. G i R. c. ! g- g. c HI >>i.a **. H S.I x.a M — ■:■ -•.7 mi i« li B a.T ■.1 ia -S. -7.* no IS fl sr.B — T.8 a» ™; ssis «; 8 wis ir.i — a.i «n W.8 IM «-S S 11.1 M.- 10 -7. -e.» !o tt!o 13 -w-a SM ». «.< IW W.O , w 10.0 M-« r 1! -0.8 -11. 1 n 10. 1 B.a 1 ■■ -a. —11 .7 7b! MA T< IS.; SIS 10 — n.i TO. n.» in «> 71 IS.l a.i " -toit -».» n.» IM w.t . n 17.8 K.l \ » -to -I1.I m u.s IT.l «.7 -u.a in n! bi!e U.I 70 in ji. ai.7 IB «.■ la:* tola -u:o ^;o m n.9 BI.I IS « 18.0 M.0 i -11. -tt.O us to.s m!d 87 iB.e 1 3 IN r!o w.o ID 1 S.l -m;7 IM 71. »A Its n.t 4,T 18.3 1 -n,i w «.T S3 M 4.1 17.11 -17 .8 «.l fi 3.8 —1 — h! —IB .3 HO ts.f IM n. s 1.1 — la.a in -M.l isr ag.u TO-1> IIS ilia wit M S.} ^» toa wn ai.i an.i) ffi ».i no M.T' W.S — fr IN «.7 TO-S wo - a" ^2-^ -»:s MB W,i 72-J w » -a* l« K.fi Mt »» XA a -aio «J ^'■' s S.1 at.s If _KS Ji-il Es iSJ =£1 HO 31,1 ■ 31 -».« -I CONVBR8ION TABLES OP THB THBRMOMBTBR SCALBS. Reaumur to Fahrenheit and Celsius. R. P. c. R. o V. 0. R. o p. c. o R. o F. C. o o o o o o O • o 80 212.00 100.00 40 142.25 61.25 18 72.50 23.50 —13 2 75 -16.25 79 209.75 98.75 48 140.00 60.00 17 70.28 21.26 —14 0.50 —17.50 78 207.50 97.50 47 137.75 58.75 16 68.00 20.00 —15 - 1.75 -18.75 7T 205.25 96.25 46 135.50 57.50 15 85.75 18.76 -16 — 4.00 -20.00 76 203.00 96.00 45 133.25 56.26 14 63.50 17.60 —17 - 6.25 -21.25 75 200.75 93.75 44 131.00 55.00 13 61.25 16.25 —18 — 8.50 -22.50 74 196.50 92.50 43 128.75 53.76 12 50.00 15.00 -19 —10.75 —23.75 73 196.25 01.25 42 126.50 52.50 11 56.75 13.76 —20 —13.00 —25.00 72 194.00 90.00 41 124.25 51.25 10 54.50 12.50 -21 -15.25 -26.25 71 191.75 88.76 40 122.00 50.00 • 9 52 25 11.25 -22 —17.50 —27.50 70 189.50 87.50 39 119.75 48.75 8 50.00 10 00 —23 -19.75 —28.75 m 187.25 86.25 38 117.50 47.50 7 47.75 8.75 -24 —22.00 —30.00 68 186.00 85.00 37 115.26 46.25 6 45 50 7.50 -25 -24.25 -31 .-.SS 67 188.75 83.75 36 113.00 45.00 5 43.25 6 25 -26 —26.50 —32.50 66 180.50 88.50 35 110.75 43.75 4 41 00 5.00 -27 -28.75 -33.75 65 178.25 81.25 3t 108.50 42.50 3 38.75 3.75 —28 —31.00 —35.00 64 176.00 80.00 33 106.25 41.26 2 36.50 2.50 -29 -33.25 -36.25 63 173.75 78.75 %i lOl.OO 40.00 1 34.25 1.26 —30 -:i5.50 -37.50 62 171.50 77 50 31 101.75 38.75 32.00 0.00 -31 — :rr.75 —38.75 61 169.25 76.25 30 99.50 37.50 — 1 29.75 — 1.28 —32 -40.00 —40.00 60 167.00 75.00 29 97.25 36.26 - 2 27.50 — 2.50 —33 -42.25 -41.25 50 164.75 73.75 28 96.00 35.00 — 3 25.25 — 3.75 —34 —44.50 —42.50 58 162.50 72.50 27 .92.75 33.75 — 4 23.00 - 5.00 —35 —46.75 -43.75 57 160.25 71.25 26 90.50 32.50 — 5 20.75 - 6.25 -36 -49.00 -45.00 56 158.00 70.00 25 88.26 31.25 — 6 18.50 — 7.50 —37 -51 .25 -46.25 55 156.75 68.75 24 86.00 30.00 - 7 16.25 — 8 75 — :« -53.50 —47.50 54 153.50 67 50 23 83.75 28.75 - 8 14.00 —10.00 —89 -.'V5.75 -48.75 53 151.25 66.25 22 81.50 27.50 — 9 11.75 -11. £5 —40 -58.00 -50.00 52 149.00 65.00 21 79.25 26.28 -10 9.50 -12.50 51 146.75 68.75 20 77.00 25.00 —11 7.25 -13.75 50 144.50 62^ 19 re C. 74.75 23.75 -12 ir am 1 r. 5.00 1 Pabre —15.00 *"• i Isius to R. o Reaumi f7 ' nheit. c. 0. R, o R. I~P." R. P. G ° : o 1 o o o 1 00 80.0 212.0 72 .57.6 161.6 ' 44 35.2 111.2 16 12.8 60.8 99 79.2 210.2 1 71 56.8 159.8 43 34.4 100.4 15 12.0 59.0 98 78.4 , 20H.4 , 70 56.0 158.0 42 : 33.6 107.6 14 11.2 57.2 97 77.6 ' 2U6.« 1 69 55.2 156.2 41 32.8 105.8 13 10.4 55.5 3? 76.8 , 2W.8 68 54.4 154.4 40 32.0 , 104.0 i 12 9.6 5:). 6 9^ 76.0 1 203.0 67 53.6 152.6 39 31.2 102.2 , 11 8.8 , 51.8 94 75.2 201.2 66 52.8 150.8 38 30.4 100.4 1 10 8.0 50 93 74.4 199.4 65 52.0 149.0 37 29.6 98.6 , 9 7.2 48.2 92 73.6 1 197.6 01 51.2 147.2 36 28.8 96.8 8 C.4 46.4 91 n.S • 195.8 63 50.4 145.4 35 28.0 1 95.0 7 5 6 ' 44.6 90 Ti.O I 194.0 62 49.6 143.6 34 27.2 93.2 6 4.8 42.8 89 71.2 ! 102.2 '61 48.8 141.8 3:^ 26.4 91.4 5 4.0 41.0 88 70.4 190.4 09.0 188.6 60 48.0 140.0 32 1 25.6 , 80.6 4 3.2 30.2 87 59 47.2 138.2 31 24.8 • 87.8 3 2.4 37.4 86 68.8 186.8 56 46.4 136.4 30 ! 24.0 ■■ 86 2 1.6 35.6 85 68.0 1 185.0 57 45.6 134.6 29 2:^.2 ' 84.2 1 1 0.8 :{3.8 84' 67.2 183.2 66 44.8 138.8 28 22 4 82.4 ; 0.0 32.0 83 66.4 181.4 56 . 44.0 131.0 27 , 21.6 80.6 I -1 -0.8 30.2 82 65.6 179. 6 54 43.2 12d.^ 26 ' 20.8 78.8 -2 -1.6 28.4 81 64.8 177.8 1 53 . -42.4 127.4 25 20.0 . 77.0 1 -3 —2.4 26.6 80 04.0 176.0; 52 41.6 126.6 24 i 10.2 75.2 -4 -3.2 2-J.8 7» 63.2 • 174.2, 51 • 40.8 123.8 23 18.4 73.4 5 —4.0 1 23.0 78 62.4 . 172.4 1 50 40.0 122.0 22 i 17.6 71.6 - G -4 8 21 2 77 61.6 170.6 49 39.2 120.2 21 ' 16.8 69. H -7 - ^ t*. \^ .V 7B: 60.8 168.8 48 38.4 : 118.4 20 , 16.0 «iv.vi ^ — \s 75, 7*1 73/ 60.0 i67.0i 47 37.6 116.6 Vi \ \f».i <5fo.^i -m.2 i M5.2I 46' 36.8 114:8 I ^^ V ^.^ 58.4 103.4 J: 451 96.0 113.0 1; n , ^ «4.' A- IVJ^^ _->-"- ^— mQ 976 THE brewer's chemical laboratory. SEDUCING SUGAIS (SUGAR). Measure 25 c.c. of the wort and dilute to 250 cc After shaking thoroughly, run 25 cc. of this mixture into a boilinf Fehling solution and boil four minutes. Treat the red precipitate as in the case of sugar determination in beer. Subtract three milli- grams (0.003 g.) from the total oxide of copper found; nraltiplj by 26.3, and divide by the specific gravity of the wort The resolt is the percentage of reducing sugars (sugar) in the wort yolumttric Estimation of sugars and calculation of sugar s x^» ^-a^^^^ 978 THE brewer's chemical laboratory. • of the beer, free from Garbontc add, and add 50 cc of dis- tilled water. Connect with a condenser, and distfll about 80-90 cc. of the diluted beer into the second, previously weighed, cleaned and dried Erlenmeyer flasic After cooling, fill up both flasks, adding carefully distilled water from a wash bottle, to a weight of 100 grams over and above the weight of the empty flasks. Take the specific .gravity of each with the ptcnometer. and then refer to Balling's extract taUes and Baumhauer's alcohol tables (15* C.) to obtain the respective per cents, by weight, of real extract and alcohol. By sul^tracting the appar- ent extract from the real extract and multiplying by 2.22 Ihe approximate percentage of alcohol is obtained, which may serve as a check on the results. The following method, although not as accurate as the preced- ing one, will serve in cases where the approximate percentage of alcohol is desired. After the beer has been freed from car- bonic acid, determine the a4>parent extract by means of the saccharometer ; 200 g. is now weighed in a copper beaker, using the technical balance. Heat to boiling and allow to boil until about one-third of the volume remains. Cool and add enough water tp make the original weight, i. e., 200 g. plus the weight of the empty beaker. After mixing thoroughly, again de- termine the Balling by means of a saccharometer which then shows the real extract of the beer. The approximate percentage of alcohol is then obtained by subtracting the apparent from the real <:xtract of the beer and multiplying by the factor 2.22. FIXED ACID. Measure 50 cc. of the extract solution obtained as above described (after determining the specific gravity), in a small beaker, and titrate with decinormal caustic soda solution, until a drop no longer gives a reddish tinge to blue litmus paper. Multiply the number of cc. standard soda used by 0.018 to get the percentage of fixed acid in the beer. VOLATILE ACIIK Measure 50 cc. of the above obtained alcohol distillate in a small beaker and add enough tincture of cochineal to give a de- cided yellow color. Run in a decinormal solution of caustic soda from a burette, one-tenth cc at a time, until a reddish color ap- pejtrs. The number of one-tenth cc used multiplied by oxx>i2 '"'« the percentage of volatile acvd *\n Vjww. THE BREWER'S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 979 PHOSPaOBIC ACID. Measure out 50 c.c. of the original beer, free from carbonic acid, into a small beaker. .Add -5 c.c. of an acid solution o[ sodium acetate, and heat to boiling. Run in from a burette standard uranium acetate solution, one-half c.c. at a time, test- ing each time until a drop of the beer, when placed on a white plate, colors a small crystal of potassium ferrocyanide slightlj brown. The number of c.c. of the uranium acetate solution necessary, multiplied by o.oi, gives the per cent of phosphoric acid (anhydride) in the beer. TOTAL ALBUMEN. Ueasure out 25 c.c. of the beer, free from carbonic acid, into a Kjeldahl flask. Evaporate to a syrupy consistenlcy on a sand bath. When cool, add about 0.7 gram of yellow mer- :ntrated chemically pure sulphuric acid. Heat again on a sand balli, in a hood, until almost color- less. Add 10 the somewhat cooled liquid gradually small quanti- tics of powdered, chemically pure permanganate of potash, until a green color remains upon stirring, and allow to cool. Fill a half- lilcr Hrlcnnieyer flask to a depth of about half an inch with dis tilled water, and run in the contents of the Kjcldahf flask, carefully rinsing witli distilled water. Add 10 c.c. sulphide of potassium solution and one or two pieces of pure granulated >;inc to prevent bumping. Add enough caustic soda. aoW\!wm *A^<;t VtoTO, nitrogen) to make it aJkaline (about 70 to fto tx, nd divide by the ipedfic gravity of the beer, to obtain the per cent of total aJbtunen. Exptanation of the factor 0035. — One ex. of the one-tenth standard soda solntioa correspomU lo 0.0014 g- nitrc^en. The nitrogen, when multiplied by the factor 6.25, gives the albumen. As the albumen was determined in 25 c.c. of beer, it would be four limes more in lOO cc; therefore 0.0014 X 6.25 X 4 = O.03S. REDUCING SUGARS (WALTOSE). Measure oiil 25 c.c. of ihe beer free fiom carbonic acid into a 100 c.c flask, and add dislilled water up to Ihe mark. After shaking thoroughly, prepare a Fehling solution in a glass beaker of about ,100 c.c. capacity, by mixing 30 c.c. of ihc blue solu- (jon. 30 C.c. ot the white, and 60 c.c. distilled water. Heal 10 boiling and ihen run in imme4ia\e\K Vtciwv % vvette 25 c.c. THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. g8l of the diluted beer, and allow to boil for four minutes. Filter the red precipitate of oxide of copper, while hot, through an ashless filter paper, and transfer carefully any particles of the red precipitate that may adhere to the sides of the beaker to the filter by washing with hot water. Continue washing with boil- ing water until the sides or rim of the filter paper show no longer an alkaline reaction by testing with red litmus paper. Dry in a hot air bath at lOO to 105* C, and ignite in a weighed platinum crucible, cool and weigh. The increase in weight, minus 0.003 g» gives the amount of oxide of copper. To find the per- centage of maltose in the beer, multiply the number of grams of oxide of copper by the factor 11.32 and divide by the specific gravity of the beer. The factor 11.32 is found in the following manner: 25 c.c. beer diluted to 100 c.c. = 4 times dilu^e^; as the maltose was determined in 25 c.c. of the diluted beer, then the total dilu- tion = 4 X 4 or 16 times. The oxide of copper is calculated as copper by multiplying by 0.8. This result divided by the factor 1.13 =: maltose; therefore, 16 X 0.8 = 11.32. 1.13 The subtraction of the three milligrams from the total oxide of copper is an allowance for the alkali, which it is impossible to wash out. ASH. Evaporate to dryness on a water bath 100 grams of the beer in a platinum dish of known weight. Ignite directly over a Bunscn burner until the ash assume^ a white appearance. Cool in desiccator, and weigh. The weight of ash in grams gives the per cent of ash in the beer. DEXTRIN. Fifty c.c. beer and 15 c.c. hydrochloric acid of specific grav- ity i.i^s ^rc diluted to 200 c.c. The flask, after being fitted with a wide glass tube about three feet long, is kept in the boiling water bath for two hours, cooled, neutralized with caustic soda and filled to 250 c.c. (or 300 c.c. with a beer of high extract) ; 25 c.c. of this diluted solution is taken and tmw voX.^ -a. X^^S^v^-sfe. Fchling solution (30 c.c. blue, 30 c.c. viVvvVt, fe c.c. ^ti-aX^Ov , '5»sn.^'^- 982 THE brewer's chemical LABORATYHCY. lowed to boil for two miiitttcs. Filter, and detemriiie the amoont of oxide of copper, as in maltose determination tnbeer. llnU^ily the oxide of copper found by o^ to obtain the cor resp onding amoont of copper, and refer to F. Allihn's dextrose table. The amount of dextrose thus found, multiplied by 20 (or 24 if dUntod to 300 cc.) and divided hf the specific gravity, equals the dextioae in the l^|d. Take this percentage of dextrose, subtnct ||*of tH^ffrcentage of maltose in the original beer, and multiply hy A which gives the percentage of dextrin in the originid beer. WATER ANALYSIS. TOTAL SOLIDS. Evaporate to dryness on a water bath aoo cc of the sample in a weighed platinum dish. Dry in the hot air bath at 105-110* C, until no further diminution of weight takes place. Subtract the weight of the empty dish and multiply by 5. The result is the total amount of the solids in milligrams per liter, or parts per million. LOSS BY IGNITION. Heat the contents of the platinum dish to a dull redness. In case it blackens (which is an indication of organic matter), continue heating gently until it appears white. Cool, moisten with an ammonium carbonate solution, and evaporate to dryness on a water bath. Heat gently over a Bunsen burner and cool in a desiccator. Weigh and multiply the loss in weight by 5. Result is the loss due to ignition. TOT.\L SULPHATES. Treat the ignited residue with a small amount of water and add. carefully, dilute sulphuric acid (1:4) in moderate excess. Evaporate to dryness on a sand bath and then heat directly over a Bunsen burner in order to expel all the free sulphuric acid. Cool in a desiccator and weigh. Multiply by 5 to obtain milli- grams per liter or parts per million of the sulphates of all the bases. When dissolved in water the total sulphates so obtained nmst show a neutral reaction. OXIDES OF IRON AND ALUMINUli Acidify 200 cc. of the water with i cc. of reagent hydrochloric acid, and concentrate to about *4i of the original volume, then Md(l enough ammonium hydrate (,aqu:a amrnwivii^ Vo t«A« \Vft THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 983 solution slightly alkaline. Should a precipitate form, redissolve in hydrochloric acid and reprecipitate with ammonia and evapo- rate until the odor of ammonia has almost entirely disappeared, i If iron and aluminum are present, the former can be distinguished 4 by its rust-colored appearance. Filter (the filtrate still contains the calcium, magnesium and sodium salts) through an ashless filter paper into a medium-sized beaker. Wash tJ^orecipitate that may adhere to the sides of the beaker with hoWlliter, ^nd transfer to filter. Continue washing the precipitate with hot water until a few drops of the filtrate, when collected in a test tube, show no turbidity upon adding a few drops of silver nitrate solution. Concentrate the filtrate and washings to about 50 c.c, and re- serve for the calcium and magnesium determinations. Dry the precipitate in the hot air bath, and then carefully bum in a weighed platinum or porcelain crucible. Cool in a desiccator and wei8;h again. The increase in weight shows the number of milli- grams of oxides of iron and aluminum in 200 c.c. of water. Multiplied by 5, gives the parts of oxides of iron and aluminum per million. OXIDE OF CALaUM. The above mentioned filtrate, which was concentrated to about 50 c.c, should be kept hot, add a few c.c. of ammonium chloride solution and then 5 to 10 c.c. ammonium oxalate solution, and place on water bath until the' precipitate has settled. Then add carefully a few drops more of the ammonium oxalate solution to be sure that all the calcium was precipitated. If it was, no further precipitate will be produced. The solution containing the white precipitate (which is calcium oxalate) is no\^ filtered through an ashless filter paper into a 200 c.c. beaker. Wash the precipitate with hot water and transfer to filter; continue washing until a few drops of the filtrate, when collected in a test tube and treated with a solution of nitrate of silver, remains clear. The filtrate and washings are now concentrated to about 50 c.c, and re- served for the magnesium determination. The precipitate is dried in a hot air bath, burned in a weighed platinum or porcelain crucible over a Bunscn burner, and then in the flame of a blast lamp until the weight remains constant. The weight cvl ^^^R. substance in milligrams multiplied by S ^'^^^ ^^^ w>\tc\«x oK ^rar^^-*^ of oxide of csLlcium per million. 984 THE BKBWES'S CHEMICAL LABOKATOBY. MAGIIBSIinf OXIOB. Determined as magnesintii fiyrophosphate. — ^To the filtrate from caldnm oxalate, which was ooocentrated to 50 cc, add a few cc of ammonium chloride solution, if not added already when precipitating the lime, and a slight excess of ammonia. (Should a precipitate form upon the addition of ammonia, it iiofild in- dicate that not enough ammonium chloride had been used, in which case enough is added to effect the re-solution of the prcci^* tate formed.) To the clear liquid is added sodium pho^hate so- lution and the mixture stirred, then add dilute (i :3) ammoiua gradually to the amount of % of the liquid. Cover and allow to stand for 12 hours. Filter through an ashless filter paper, and wash out any particles of the precipitate that may adhere to the sides of the beaker, with a portion of the filtrate, or dilute anunoma. The precipitate is now washed with a mixture of 3 parts. of water, and one part solution of ammonia of 0.96 specific gravity, the op- eration being continued until a few drops of the liquid passing through the filter when acidified with nitric acid, produces only a slight milky color upon the addition of a drop of silver nitrate solution. The precipitate is now thoroughly dried in a hot air bath of 105-110** C, and then transferred to a weighed platinum or porcelain crucible. Heat gently at first, and finally to intense redness ; continue the heating over a blast lamp for about five min- utes, cool and weigh. If the magnesium pyrophosphate is dark colored, moisten with a few drops of nitric acid, warm carefully till dry, and ignite again, cool and weigh. The weight of the magnesium pyrophos- phate X 0.56 gives the weight of magnesium oxide in 200 c.c; the weight of magnesium oxide in milligrams X 5 gives parts of magnesium oxide per million. ■ SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE. Determined as barium sulphate. — Measure out 200 c.c. of the water into a beaker of about 400 c.c. capacity, acidify by adding I c.c. of hydrochloric acid and evaporate to about 50 c.c, add to the hot liquid a solution of barium chloride (8-10 cc), proceed . then as in the determination of sulphuric acid as described under preparation of sulphuric acid. The weight of barium sulphate X 0.34s X 5 gives the weighl oi sulphuric anhydride in milli- -'rams per liter or parts per mvWioci. THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 985 CHLORINE. Measure out 100 c.c. of the water into a beaker of about 200 c.c. capacity, add 3 drops of a solution of pure potassium chromate. Then run from a burette a decinormal silver nitrate solution very slowly, stirring constantly. Each drop pro- duces, where it falls, a red spot, which, upon stirring, disappears. Continue to add the silver nitrate drop by drop, until the red coloration ceasi;s to disappear, and note the number of c.c. it re- quired. 1 c.c. of the dccinormal silver nitrate solution = 0.00585 gram of sodium chloride, or 0,00355 gram chlorine. Suppose it required 0.5 c.c. of silver nitrate solution, then 0.00355 X O.J = 0.001775, amount of chlorine in 100 c.c, or 17.75 in 1,000 c.c., or milligrams per liter. Milligrams per liter and parts per million being identical, then the parts per million of chlorine in this case would be 1775- FSKE AMMONIA. Take 200 c.c. of the water in an Erlenmeyer flask. Add about one gram of pure, dry, sodium carbonate, and distill through a Liebig condenser into a 50 c.c Nessler tube. Two c.c. of Nessler reagent are dropped into the 50 c.c. of distillate, and if any am- monia is present it will assume a rich brown color; the more ammonia, the deeper the color. Now. imitate the depth of color given by the distillate. In order to do so, another clean 50 c,c. Nessler tube is taken, and to it is added a certain measured volume of the diluted standard solution of ammonium chloride, and then filled with distilled water to the 50 c,c. mark and stirred tlwroughly. Then 2 c.c. of Nessler reagent is added, and com- pared in color with the 50 c.c. of distillate, by placing the two tubes side by side on a white surface, looking through and noting which is of the deeper color. Should they be of equal depth, the Nesslerizing is accomplished, if the two solutions be not of equal depth, another standard must be made up with water, dilute standard atimionia. and Nessler reagent, and another comparison must be made. CaUuiaiion. — The dilute standard solution of ammonium chlor- ide contains o.ooooi gram of ammonia in i c.c. If it required 5 c.c. of the sland.ird solution to imitate the color of the distillate. IS 0.01 milUgiun, or <,C.e- twrRiwi.'a.'a^.'^'™' r taken cootam tjjo^ ■Ka\\Y(p».m ««iMn«v ■»«> 986 THE bkkwsr's chemical laboratory. 1,000 cc or I liter, therefoic, contain 025. In tins case, tlien, the free ammonia would be 0^5 parts per million. ALBUMUfOin AMMONIA. To the water left in the Prienmeyer flask after distilling off the 50 cc for free ammonia, as above^ add 2$ cc of alkaline pennan- ganate of potash solution, and distill another 50 cc into a Nessler tttbc Add 2 cc of Nessler reagent, and proceed the same as for free ammonia. The number of cc of standard anunonia solution it required, multiplied by aos, gives the parts per uiUUon of albuminoid ammonia. OXYGEN CONSUMED IN MOIST OOMBUSTIDN. Measure out 100 cc of the water .into an Erienmqfcr flask of about 8 ounce ca^dty. Run in from a burette 20 cc of the potassium permanganate solution of known strength and M cc of caustic soda solution (1:2). Boil lor ten minutes, then add while hot 20 cc. of f }« normal solution of oxalic acid and 5 cc of sulphuric acid (1:4); after shaking, run in from a burette the permanganate of potash solution about V2 cc. at a time, finally ai cc, shaking after each addition until a permanent pink color ap- pears and remains for a minute. The number Of CC it re- quired times 0.8 gives the parts per million of oxygen consumed in mcHst combustion. I cc. of the permanganate solution = 0.00008 g. oxygen. TEMPORAItY AND PERMANENT HARDNESS. Measure out 250 cc. of the water and pour into a glass tieaker of about 400 cc. capacity. Cover with a watch glass and boil, keeping up the volume with distilled water for about i honr. Filter through an ashless filter paper and wash with hot water, using a "policeman" (rubber- tipped glass rod) to remove all traces of the precipitate adhering to the sides and bottom of the beaker. Dry in a hot air bath, bum, and ignite the filter paper in a weighed platinum crucible. Heat over blast lamp until weight remains constant, cooling in desiccator. The number of milligrams, multiplied by 8, g^ives the approximate amount of temporary hardness in parts per million, or carbonates of lime, magnesia, iron and alumina, the latter two being very sddom found. The lime and magnesia ate weigjied as the oxides, and ty maJtiplying the same by 2 we ctofcam iv^twxoa^^s ^Safc wet*. THE brewer's chemical t-ABORATORY, 987 apondins amount of carbonates in 250 c.c, of water, or, in milli- grams per liter, by multiplying by four. The permanent hardness is that part of the total residue which is not removed by boiling. SUSPENDED UATTEK. if amount appears to be in excess, lake a liter of the water, after shaking thoroughly, and pour it through a dried and weighed paper filter. Wash a few times with distilled water in order to remove any traces of suspended matter that may adhere to the sides of the flask. Dry at 105-110° C, in air bath, cool, and weigh. Weight found in milligrams per liter is parts per million of sus- Ignile the weighed paper filter in a weighed platinum crucible, cool, and weigh again. Number of milligrams of ash is parts pel* million of inorganic matter in suspension. Subtracting latter from total suspended matter, we obtain the organic suspended matter in parts per million. The inorganic matter in suspension can be further examined for silica, iron, alumina and lime, by dissolving in dilute hydro- chloric acid and evaporating to dryness, redissolving the residue in dilute hydrochloric acid and water. Filter and wash with hot water, ignite and weigh; the result is the amount of silica. In the filtrate, iron, alumina and lime arc determined as above. Evaporate in a small beaker 100 c.c. of the water until about [O c.c. remains. Filter while hot through a small paper filler into another small beaker, washing a few time) with hot water. A few drops of cochineal tincture is added to the filtrate. If it is alkaline, a red or violet-red color appears. Titrate from a bur- ette until a yellow color is produced upon the addition of dcci- normal sulphuric acid (Va ec- at a time). The number of c.c of dccinornial sulphuric acid required multiplied by 53 gives the parts per million of alkalinity, or of carbonate of soda in the J NIISATCS. Into two Ncssler tubes measure oirt. a.\toa\. a* ^-^- 'A "Cnt •«■»^.«^ w each. In one of these tu\K» V^« » ^iwat (A. VM«- ■*a=«™»*^ 908 THE BREWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. zinc, and to both add i c.c of dilute sulphuric acifl and i cc of a solution of zinc iodide and starch. Keep in a dark place for ten minutes. If no blue coloration appears, no nitrites nor nitrates are present. A blue color in the lube containing the zinc shows the presence of nitrates, Uue coloring of the same depth in both tubes shows presence of nitrites, while Mue color in both, but stronger in the tube containing the zinc, indicates the prcieiicc of nitrites and of nitrates. BARLEY. The nioislure, bushel weight, ^assy and half-glassy kernels, are determined in the sanM way as given under malt, while the yjetd is determined as for grits. For sulphur test see under CBOWTH. , Steep 100 kernels of barley for 36 hours in water of room temperature. After steeping, place the kernels with their root en,1s downward in the 100 holes of a porcelain plate constructed tor the purpose. Cover the barley wiih a thin layer of clean sand well saturated wilh distilled water. The tray containing the lOO grains is kept over a dish of water at a temperature of 25-30° C. for 4 days. The grown kernels are then counted, and in a good barley should atnount lo 95 per cent. In the absence of the perforated porcelain plate the too kernels may be tnade to sprout alter steeping between layeirsoi'wtllnKiKax.tntiW.i.w v>V^^- 1S««» THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 989 at a temperature of 25-30° C. for 4 days, taking out each day such barley kernels as have attained a full growth. WEIGHT OF 1,000 KERNELS. Weigh 100 kernels of barley on a weighed watch glass, using the analytical balance. The weight in grams multiplied by 0.353 equals the weight of 1,000 kernels in ounces. MALT. The malt is first sifted through a 20 mesh sieve in order to get rid of the rootlets and any particles of dust and dirt it may contain. MOISTURE DETERMINATION. Use technical balance. Weigh out about 21-22 grams of the sample, grind and weigh exactly 20 grams of the ground malt in a previously weighed glass dish. Close dish with a weighed glass cover, a*nd dry in a hot air bath for 3 hours at a tempera- ture of 100-105° C, removing lid while drying. Cover with lid, and aflcr cooling in desiccator, weigh again. The weight of the dried malt -|- dish + cover is subtracted from the weight of the empty dish -j- cover -{- 20 grams malt, and the difference mul- tiplied by 5 gives the percentage of moisture. YIELD. Use technical balance, weigh out about 51-52 grams of the sample, grind and weigh out exactly 50 grams of the ground malt. Heat 300 c.c of distilled water in a weighed copper beaker to 45" C. add malt and keep at 45° C. for half an hour. Raise tcnipiTaiure 5" every five minutes until 70' C. is reached; keep between 70-73'' for half an hour. Conversion is complete when a drop of ilie mash shows no further blue or reddish color on nrj.iiiion of a drop of iodine solution. Ccx>l to about 17° C, dry outside of beaker, and rinse stirring thermometer with pure water. Weigh up to 400 grams plus the weight of the empty beaker, that is, if, for instance, the weight of the dry empty beaker was 200 grams, add distilled water until the weight is ex- actly 600 grams. Mix thoroughly by stirring with a glass rod Or thermometer, and filter into a clean, dry pint Iwttle. If neces- sary, refilter the first part of the filtrate a few times in order to obtain a clear wort. Let the wort drain, cool to 15" C, and wei^K with the picnometer. or an accurate saccVwsLXcwcveXftx , "a."^^ >^>5s» obtain the Balling or extract of iW wotI. 990 THE brewer's chemical laboratory. CALCULATION OT THE YISLD. The yield is calculated by substituting in the following formutas for M the per cent of moisture and for B the per cent of extract : (700 + M)XB yield X 100 = yield ; = yield of malt in Water- loo — B 100 — M free condition. Suppose the Balling was found to be 9 per cent, and the Moisture 5.5 per cent, then by substituting in the above formulas we have: (700 + 5.5) X 9 6349.S = = 69,77 yield. 100 — 9 91 6977 = 73.83 yield of malt in water-free condition. 94.5 EXPLANATION OF FORMULAS. Yield. — As the 50 grams of malt were weighed up to 400 grams, the proportion is 350 grams of water to 50 grams of malt, or calculating on 100, the proportion would be doubled. or 700 grams of water to 100 grams of malt. As the moisture in the malt was found to be 5.5 per cent, or 5.5 grams per 100 grams of malt, then the total water is 705.5 grams. Subtract- ing the Balling from 100, we obtain the atnount of water in every 100 grams of wort, or 91 grams. Knowing, then, that every 100 grams of wort contains 91 grams of water and 9 grams of extract, I gram of water holds in solution *,*, of 9. or 0.09S9 grams extract, and 705.5 grams of water hold in solution 705.5 X 0.0989 = 69.77 grams extract, or 100 grams malt have yielded 69.77 grams ex- tract, i. e., yield of malt is 69.77 per cent. Yield of Malt in ll'aier-free Condition. — The yield, or 69,77. comes from only 94.5 grams of dry malt, the remaining 5.5 per cent being water. It. then, a yield of 69.77 per cent is obtained from 1 94.5 grams of drv malt, one gram of dry malt contains of 94.5 69.77, or 0.7583 grams extract, and 100 grams of dry malt contain 100 times as much, or 73.83 grams extract, or yield of malt in wa- ter-iree condition is 73.83 per cent. THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 99I DETERMINATION OF THE GLASSY, HALF GLASSY AND MEALY KERNELS. • The simplest method of determination is by the bite, glassy kernels being hard and offering a strong resistance to crushing, while mealy kernels are soft and can be crushed very readily. Half glassy kernels are neither soft nor hard, but medium. Grobecker^s Grain Tester for the Determination of Glassy, Half Glassy and Mealy Kernels. — This is an instrument in which 50 grains of malt are cut with a sharp blade, so as to leave a smooth surface on each grain. Each half-grain is then tested for glassy, half -glassy and mealy condition, by applying a sharp knife-point and noting the resistance. ALBUMEN. Weigh out exactly one gram of malt and transfer in Kjeldahl flask, after adding 0.7 gram mercuric oxide and 20 c.c. of chemic- ally pure sulphuric acid ; proceed as in the determination of albu- men in beer, using the factor 0.875 in place of 0.035 to obtain the percentage of albuminoids in malt. Explanation of the factor 0.S75. — One c.c. decinormal sodium hydrate solution = 0.0014 8f- nitrogen. The nitrogen, when mul- tiplied by the factor 6.25, gives the albumen, or, 0.0014 X 6.25 = 0.00875 in one gram (as one gram of malt was taken), or 0.875 >n 100 grams. GROWTH. 100 kernels are counted out and sorted in five groups, according to the length to which the acrospire has grown. The lengths are o — %. % — %, % — %, % — I, and over one or overgrown. To obtain the length of the acrospire, the husk of the malt is peeled off with a knife point, on the round side of the grain, beginning at the root end. The length of the acrospire is then compared with the entire length of the grain, and placed in one of the five groups. In a good sample the acrospire should have attained the length of % — i, in at least 75 per cent of the kernels. BUSHEL WEIGHT. The apparatus used for this purpose consists of a brass cup and a graduated beam, and is known as a "balance" or "grain tester." The cup is filled with the sifted malt, or barley, and struck off, and the beam so graduated that by balancing the cup it will designate exactly the bushel weight, or h/^H ti\%xv>j v^' it will weigh to the bushel. 99^ THE brewer's chemical laboratory. Shtktrf.'^m gnins of malt are plRced into a gUas beaker con taaning water at ordinaiy temperatore. Barley grafaia, or par tiallsr malted grains will sink to-the bottom, and by counting tin same, the percentage of sinkers will be obtained. It should no exceed 15 per cent in a good sample. UASTATIC rOWlR OP MALT. Lintner^s If ethod.— A solabie starch sohition Is prepared bf cov- ering potato starch with 7.5 per cent hydrochloric add, allowins to stand for seven days at ordinary temperature, and for three days at 40* C, whereby it loses its property of forming a paste. The starch is then rqieatedly washed with cold water (by decan- tation) until it shows no reaction with blue litnnts paper. The wa- ter is now poured off and the starch dried in the air. This prodnci gives a dear sohitioo in water. Two grams of the soluUe starcb is dissolved in 100 cc. of water, and a solution of malt extract prepared by adding to 25 grams of findy ground malt distillees and then all are placed in boiling water for ten minutes. The test tube in which all of the copper has been reduced is deter- mined by filtering and testing the filtrate by means of doubled filtei paper that has been previously moistened with a dilute solution of acetic acid and potassium ferrocyanide (see Volumetric Es- timation of Sugar in Wort). If no red coloration is produced on the under side of the filter paper, the copper is complete!} reduced. If this was found to require between 0.3 cc. and 0.4 cc and a more accurate result is desired, then 10 cc of the original solution of nuilt extract is diluted up to 100 cc. The test is now repeated, using 3.1 cc, 3.2 cc, 3.3 cc, etc., up tc 4 cc Supposing it wa9 now found to require 3.8 cc, then, as the diastatic power is equal to 100 when ai cc of the original sjJKiion of malt extract prepared in the above manner, or 0.2 cc. ^&Ke diluted solution oi maVl txXtv:! completely reduces the THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 993 5 c.c. of Fehling solution, 3.8 c.c. or 0.38 c.c. of original solution will be equal to a diastatic power of 100 X 2 = 52.6. 3.8 CORN PRODUCTS AND RICE. OIL. Grind finely ten grams of the sample. Then place in ex- traction tube of a continuous extractor, and extract with 30 c.c. of ether for three hours, allowing it to collect in a flask previously weighed on the analytical balance. After three hours* extraction disfill off the ether, by allowing the flask to re- main in warm water until the odor of ether is no longer detected. Keep in hot air bath (90° C.) for one hour, cool in desiccator, and weigh. The increase in weight in grams, multiplied by ten, gives the per cent of oil. MOISTURE. Determined in the same way as for malt, grinding being un- necessary. YIELD. When mashed with 60 per cent of malt, 20 grams of the well- ground sample are placed in a weighed copper beaker, and 300 c.c. of water added. Allow to boil for half an hour, adding, if necessary, a small amount of water from time to time in order to prevent the mash getting too thick. Cool to 45° C, and add 30 grams of ground malt, the yield of which has been previously ascertained. Proceed now as for a pure malt mash. Calculafion. — (B represents Balling of wort.) 700 -f moisture in 60^ malt and 40^ cereal X B = total yield, 100 — B or, Yield of 60 per cent malt and 40 per cent grits. Find yield of 60 grams of malt; subtract this malt yield from total yield, and obtain 3ricld of 40 grams of grits. Then by multiplying by 100 and dividing by 40, the jrield of the grits is obtained. (Total yield — yield of 60 malt) X 100 40 994 "^^^ brewer's chemical laboratory. ASH. Three grams of the ground sample are weighed out in a plali nam or porcelain dish, and ignited until ash is white or tb weight is constant The vktigfat of the ash multiplied hy lo and divided hf 3 is the percentage of ash. CORN VLAKKS. Analysis the same as com products and rice, except that in lh< determiaation of the yield it is mashed directly at 67** C BREWING SUGARS. EXTRACT AND MOISTURE. Dissolve twenty grams of the sample in about 100 cc. of dis- tilled water» heat if necessary, until all is dissolved, cool and weigh up to aoo grams with distilled water. After mixing thor- oughly, take the specific gravity at 15^ C. by means of the picnom- eter, and refer the same to Balling's extract tables. The cor- responding amount of extract thus obtained, multiplied by ten, gives the percentage of extract. The extract minus 100 = pei cent moisture. COLORANTS. EXTRACT AND MOISTURE. Twenty grams of the color is weighed up to 200 graflR^ with distilled water. After mixing thoroughly take the specific gravity, and multiply the corresponding per cent Balling by 10, which will give the extract in 100 grams. The extract minus 100 = moisture. SUGAR. Measure out 25 cc. of the above sugar color solution into a 250 cc. flask, and dilute to the mark with distilled water. After mixing thoroughly by shaking, run 25 cc. into a previously pre- pared boiling Fehling solution. After adding, let the copper solution come to a boil and allow to boil two minutes for sttgar colors, and four minutes in case of a malt color. Filter while hot, and continue as under the determination of dextrose in grape-sugar. Refer the amount of copper to F. Allihn's dextrose table. The amount of dextrose thus obtained is multiplied by 400 and divided by the specific gravity of the first solution, and ^he result will be the percenlane ol A^xXioae in the coloring. For THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 995 a malt color multiply the amount of copper by 353.98, and divide by the specific gravity of the first solution to obtain the percent- age of maltose. ALBUMEN. Determined in a ten per cent solution as given under Beer. COLOR STRENGTH. Measure out 25 c.c. of the solution in which the extract was determined, into a 500 c.c. flask, and dilute up to the mark with distilled water. After mixing thoroughly, dilute 25 c.c. of this solution to 100 c.c. and transfer into a clear white four-ounce bottle (tlat). Into a bottle of exactly the same size and shape, add 100 c.c. of distilled water. Now add from a graduated bur- ette I- 10 standard iodine solution, i-io of a c.c. at a time until the same depth of color has been reached. The numbei* of c.c. , of I- 10 standard solution required, multiplied by the dilution, represents the color strength. In this case the sugar color was diluted 800 times. HOPS. PHYSICAL APPEARANCE. Note the general color of the hops and if they have been cleanly picked; size and condition of cones, number and size of seeds, color and amount of lupulin. condition of lupulin as to taste, and aroma. Note if the lupulin is greasy or sticky. SULPHLTl. Soak for half an hour twenty grams of hops in 250 c.c. of dis- tilled water. Meanwhile prepare a generator for hydrogen gas. Place in an Erlenmcycr flask of about 150 c.c. capacity a piece of zinc (five grams) free from sulphur and 20 c.c. of c. p. dilute hydrochloric acid. Stopper loosely with a cork, holding a strip of filter paper on the under side. Moisten the filter paper with a dilute solution of sugar of lead (acetate of lead). If the strip remains white after the apparatus has been run for half an hour, the zinc and acid are pure. Now run in some of the water which has extracted the hops for half an hour. If the strip of fihcr paper is colored brownish to black in five minutes "much sulphur" is present in the hops; "medium" if the colo^ appears in Wn minutes, "little sulithur" if the color appears in fifteen /ninnti's and a ''slight trace'* if it appears \\\ VvacwV'^ vcvvev>\V^s. gg6 THE BSEWEK'S chemical LABCmATOBV. MINERAL OIL. sFionc cuvnY. Into a 100 c.c flask thai has been previously tested and weigbet fill the oil at 15* C. to mark, and weigh. The weight of flask ^0 oil, minus the weight of the emp^ flask, divided by lao, eqnala th spedlic gravity, which can be cOBverted into d^rees Beanme b referring to table. FLASH roiKT. Fill about % full a small porcdain crucible of about 25-50 cc a padty. Suspend a 360* Centigrade ihennomcter in the oil, ■ that the thermometer bulb does not come in contact with the bol torn of the crucible. Heat gradually (about 10* a minute) ovc a small Bunsen flame, testing every s* for fumes by passing lighted ^atch over the surface of the oil and noting the lowc! 'temperature when a flash appears. Into 3 lest tube, containing a small piece of caustic soda, ad about 5 c.c. of oil. Boil carefully for a few minutes over a diret flatne and allow to stand for a few minutes. If the oil become solid it indicates the presence of fatty acids. MINERAL Acns. Shake thoroughly a small quantity of the oil with distilled watei Titrate with decinomial caustic soda solution, using cochineal a an indicator. In case the color changes to violet red after th addition of o.i or 0,2 c.c, the oil may be considered as free fron mineral acids. CHEMICALS, STAND.MID SOLUTIONS AND REAGENTS Chemicals necessary to make the different standard solution and reagents. Acid, acetic, glacial I lb. Acid, hydrochloric. C. P I lb. Acid, nitric. C. P i lb. Acid, oxalic, C. P 40*. Acid, sulphuric, C. P 1 lb. Acid, tannic, pure 4 01. Ammonium acetate. C. P 4 01. Ammonium hydrate. C. P 4 lbs. Ammonium carbonate. C. P ^"'^^ ^mmontura chloride. C '^ ^'*'- THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 997 Ammoniuni oxalate, C, P Alcohol, ethyl, gs* 1 qi. Barium chloride, C.P M,]h. Cochineal Copper sulphate, C. P 2 lbs. Ether, sulphuric 2 lbs. Iodine, resublimed. i o Iron chloride, C. P 10 Lead acetate, C. P ..40 Litmus paper, red and blue. Magnesiun) chloride, C. P. - i^ lb. Mercury bichloride, C. P 4 <: Mercuric oxide 4 c Potassium chromate, C. P 1 c Potassium ferrocyanide, C P i c Potassium hydrate (in sticks), C. P I 1 Potassium iodide, C. P 4 c Potassium permanganate, C. P 4 c Potassium sulphide, C. P 4 e Rochelle salt, C. P 2 lbs. Silver nitrate, C. P Sodium carbonate, C. P Sodium chloride, C. P Sodium acetate, C. P Sodium hydrate, pure : Sodium phosphate Uranium, acetate Zinc, granulated }i lb. Zinc, in slicks t^ lb. Zinc chloride Zinc iodide Deeinortnai Sulphuric Acid. — Dilute 3.5 c.c. concentrated chemi- cally pure sulphuric acid up to i liter with distilled water. Mix thoroughly by shaking. The sulphuric acid is then determined in the following manner : Run 25 c.c. of the solution by means of a burette into a glass beaker of about 100 c.c, capacity, add about 25 c.c. distilled wa.t.« and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Covet ^it^Vw ■wX'Otv ^ -«-a-V'^ g)ass and heat to boiling, add 5 to 10 cc-baiWrn ttAo^Xi*^ «^\>j.<\'i'^^ which will precipitate the sulphuric acid as a -wtox.* v^tc:w>^»■^^ *= 99S THK BttBWEK*S CHEMICAL LABattATORV. barinm ndphale. Allow to settle at a gentle heat or by pladBg o a boiling water bath ontil tolutioa becomet dear. In order to in snre a complete precipitation of the sulphuric add, a tew drops a bariiKD chloride solution are again added. If no further precipi tate ia produced, filter o& the dear Uqnid while hot, diroogh ai ashlcM paper filter. The remaining barium sulphate is noi washed with boiling water and transferred 'to the filter. In orde to wash out all the precipitate contained in the beaker with boilini water, a glass rod with a small piece of rubber tubing attached ti its end is employed, commonly called a "policenian," Th precipitate 00 the filter is now washed with boiling water until i few drops of the filtrate, when collected in a lest tube, produces n turbidity upon the addition of a few drops of silver nitrate aolti lion. Place the filler in a drying oven of about 100' C until dry. Ignite in a weighed porcelain or platinum crucible unti it assnmes a white appearance. Tbe crucible is then allowed ti cool in a desiccator and weighed again. As this is a decinornta solution, the precipilale of barium sulphate should weigh o.ag grams, or 0.291 grams plus the weight of the empty crucible ii order to be correct. Supposing, however, that the weigh! wa: found to be 0.339 grams instead of o.zgi grams, Ihen dilute ac cording to the following proportion: ojgi 10339^ x:iooo that is, 858 c.c. of the solution should be diluted up 10 1000 c.c In order to be a decinorntal sulphuric acid solution ; 25 c.c. of Ihi: must contain exactly 0.291 gram of barium sulphate when pre- cipitated with barium chloride in the manner just described, whtcti should always be carefully done a second lime, to insure aC' curate results. This solution should be kept in a well-sloppere\"ci out -t^.ttVa rolame of the chemically pure concentrated *vi\v>\vaT\'i 't'^*^ ■''^'^** three volumes ol distilled water. CHBHICAL LABOKATOBY. Ib dOntidB auKoitnted wcUm ihnjv poor tbc Kid Amtj into the water, nercr the mter into the mad. DOkU HydrvMorie Acid of R§ag**l Strtnglk.—OM ralima of the C P. conccn t nttcd add ii ponred into three volnmes of di» tiOed water. Hjdroeklorie Acid of tJij SpeeHU Graoity.— To every loo cx of C P. hTdrochloric acid (Sp. Gr. 1.3) add 62.5 cc of water The ipedfic gravis should then be taken by means of the picno meter at 15' C. DSute NUfit Acid. — One volnme of concentrated C. P. nitri) acid to three volumes of distilled water. ZvK Iodide md Slareh SolutioM.—iiix four grams of starcl powder in a glass beaker with a little water, and slowly poor tbi reanltitig mill^ liquid imder constant stirring into a boiling sola tion of twenty grams pure chloride of linc in 100 cc of water Continue boiling until the solution becomes somewhat clear, thei add two grams of pure zinc iodide dissolved in distilled water dilute to one liter, and filter. The clear solution is kept in ] well stoppered bottle. It should give no blue color in ten min- utes when 0.2 ex. of it is diluted to 50 c.c. and acidified witt 3 cc reagent sulphuric acid (1-.4). Fehling Solution. — Blue Solution. 69.27 grams of pure rC' crystallized copper snlphale is dissolved in water and diluted t( one liter. White Solution.— 346 grams Rochelle salt (sodium potassiun tartrate), and 100 grams sodium hydrate (caustic soda), an dissolved in water and diluted to one liter. Filler through glast wool, A mixture of equal portions of these two solutions is called thi Fehling Solution. Gravimetrically 30 c.c. of each and 60 cc. of water is u*ed Volumctrically 10 cc. of each and ao c.c. of waler is used. Cochineal Tincture.— ^\x. grams of powdered cochineal is ex- traded in half a liter of dilute alcohol (200 cc 95 per cent ethylii alcohol diluted to 500 cc with distilled water). Allow to slant for a few hours at room temperature, and filter. Keep in wd Stcppered bottle. Standard Uranium ActMt Solution.— Dissolve 33 to 34 pam! 0/ uranium acetate in abotil aoo c.c. 4w\.\\\e4 -^tA" - "^^ ^ '^s.- « glaciai acetic add, dilute to one Ultr in^i &^4\*4-»i*W- * THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 1001 low to itand for a few days in a dark place, and filter. A soltt- tion of phosphoric acid, of known strength, is made by dissolving 10.085 granu of crystallized C. P. sodium phosphate in distilled waler to one titer (50 c.c. of this solution contain o.i gram PiOt}. When 50 c.c. of this solution is evaporated to dryness in a weighed platinum dish a.nd ignited over a Bunsen burner, finally over a blast lamp, after cooling in desiccator it should weigh 0.1874 Kranis. To test the standard uranium acetate solution, take SO c.c. of the sodium phosphate solution, acidify with 5 c.c. ol acid acetate of soda solution and heat to about 90° C. Now run in from a burette the standard uranium acetate, first 5 c.c, then ¥j cc. at a time, testing after each addition, until a drop, when added to a few small crystals of potassium ferrocyanide, gives a reddish brown reaction. One C.c. of standard uranium acetate, solution should equal 0.005 S''- P>0>, or the 50 c.C. of the sodium phosphate solution should require ao c.c. of the standard uranium solution to precipitate all of the PiOi. Supposing it took ig c.c and we have on hand 980 c.c. of the standard solution; then ig : 20 = gSo : X. i. e., the solution should be made up to 1031.6 cc, tw 51.6 c.c of distilled water is added to the 980 c.c. of the solution on hand. Standard Solution of Silvtr Nitrate. — Weigh 18 grams of C. P. silver nitrate, and dilute to I liter with distilled waler. A testing solution is now prepared in the following manner: Ignite moderately about 4 grams of C. P. powdered chloride of sodium, cool, and transfer into a clean and dry test tube that can be well closed. Place in a drying oven at a temperature of 100 to 105° C. for about half an hour, cool in desiccator, and weigh. Carefully shake out a small quantity (about o.i gram) into a dry beaker. close quickly, and weigh again. The difference in weight repre- sents the exact amount of salt taken. Now dissolve in about 50 c.c. of distilled water and add a few drops of potassium chromate so- lution. Run in slowly from a burette the silver nitrate solution. constantly stirring the testing solution until a slight red coloration remains. The number of c.c. used, multiplied by 0.00585 should be equal to the quantity weighed out. Supposing it required 16.5 c.c. to precipitate the chlorine in loO milligrams of salt, then the solution must be diluted according to the following ^tq^^vjkv-, ioo:5.8s = i6.<|-.x. t0d2 THE BRBW£K*S CHBltlCAL LABOKATOBY. i. e., if 965 c.c. of the decioonnal aolntton is diluted to 1000 ex. then it would require 5^5 grami of salt, or i c.c. of the deduoi^ mal nitrate of silver solution corresponds to aoosSs g. NaCU or 003SS B. Ci. Ammonia Fluid.— t part of ammoniB water specific p^vitr 0^9I and 3 parts of water. Sodium Phojphate Sohilion. — For precipitating m^^esia. One part of C. P. sodium phosphate in 10 parti of distilled water. Ammonium Carbonait Solution. — i part of C. P. ammonium car- bonate in 4 parts water; add I part ammonia fluid. Ammonium Chloride Solution. — To keep the magnesia in solu- tion when precipitating lime. One part C. P. chloride of ammonia in 8 parts water. Ammonium Oxalate Solution. — i part C. P. ammonium oxalate in 25 parts water. Barium Chloride Solution. — For precipitating sulphates. One p.irt C. P. barium chloride in 10 parts of water. Lead Acetate SolHlion. — For sulphur test. Concentrated solu- Silver Nitrate Solution. — For qualitative tests. One part of sil- ver nitrate in fifty parts of water. Potasiium Ferrocyanide Solution. — For volumetric estima- tion of sug&r. One part in twelve parts of water. Potassium Chromatf Solution.— For chlorine titration. Dis- solve one part of C. P. potassium chromate in ten parts of water. Potassium Sulf-hidc Solution. — For albumen detennination ; Dissolve 40 grams of potassium sulphide in one liter of distitlrd Acetic Acid Solulion. — For volumetric estimation of sngar. One part glacial acHic acid in ten parts of water. Chloride of Iron Solution. — For qualitatiiT test. One part in icn pans of water. Dccinonnal Iodine ^c/ii/ton.— Dissolve 12.7 grams of iodine niid twenty-five grams of potassium iodide in distilled water, ;ind dilute to one liter. Oxalic Acid Solution ,;„ Xormal. — Dissolve 0.63 grams oxalic ncid C. P. in distilled water and dilule to one liter. /'•■rinansaitate of Potash Solution ,;,. .Vonnal.— Dissolve 0.34 f;r.iiiis pcrnmngannte of potash in SvuWXti ^awi a^ii fcXiv't vo one liter. THS BKEWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 1003 In order to test the above two solutions, take 30 cc of tha oxalic acid solution, add 5 c.c. sulphuric acid (1:4). and heat to boiling. Ran in dowly from a burette the permauKanate of potash solution until it assumes a distinct reddish tinge. The solution, in order to be correct, should require ao c.c Suppote, however, it re- quired 19.8 c.c, and vk'e have 950 c.c of the solution left, then dilute in the following proportion; I9.8;ao = 950:x, X = 959-5. L e., add 95 c.c of distilled water to the permanganate of potash solution. LIST OF APPARATUS. Air Bath (copper) and Support; not smnller than 8kio; used (or drying purposes. Aspirator Bottle, one gallon, for distilled water; tubulated on foot. .Analytical Balance, short beam, with rider attachment, sensitive to one milligram; and a set of weights from fifty grams down to one milligram. Technical Balance, capacity one kilc^ram ; set of weights from one kilogram down to one cenligram. One Platinum dish of lOO c.c. capacity. One platinum crucible 10 c.c. capacity. Bohemian Glass Beakers — Griffins, low, wide-shape, with lip; ca- pacity 150 c.c, zoo and 300 cc. about half a dozen of each. Bellows — Foot Blower Blast Lamp for gas and air. Reagent Bottles, one pint, about one dozen ; narrow mouth. Small Glass Stoppered Reageni Bottles, with chemical names dis- tinctly blown in glass. Glass Tubing, assorted. Glass Rods, assorted. Graduates— one 120 c.c, and one 250 c.c. Test Tube Brushes, half a dozen. Camel Hair Brushes, several. . Five so c.c. Burettes, graduated in i"* c.c. Bunsen Burners, about half a dozen. Iron Stands, with clamps, universal; two. Clamps (Hofmann's), several. Clamps (Mohr's), several. Glass Condensers, about 12 inches \on%; \Vt«e o^ \raoK- Iron Wire Gauze, for coverinK tripoda. 1004 THE BBSWES S CHEUICAI. tABOSATODV. Cofk Bonn, one teL Coifa and Rubber Stoppers, usorlcd. Snail Porcdatn CrodUu, bdghl. i14 inchu; width, iK inche half s dozen. Crucible Tongue, double bent; one. Saccharometer Cylinders. Balling Sacc barometer, o to 90 per cent. Balling Saccbaromeler, 6 to 7 inches Ions, o to to per cent PicntMiKtcr, so cc Nessler Cjlindera, 50 ex. capadtj; two. Deskcalor, one. Porcelain Evaporating Dishes, 4U inclies; half a dozen. Porcelain Evaporating Dish, one large, 10 inches. Fat Extraction Apparalos; one. Munkletl's Swedish Filter Paper No. o; too 7 c. m. and i< 9 c. m. Filter Paper in Sheets, M ream, 20x2a Erlenmeyer Flasks. 14 dorco 9-ox. and 14 dozen 16-01. Measuring Flasks: I liter flask. U Titer flask. 2—250 cc. flasks. 1-200 cc. flask. 2— 100 C.C flasks. Funnels : 2— 5-in. a-2%-in. MorUrs with Pesttes: Wedge wood. 5-in. Agate, 3-in. Iron. 6-in. Pipettes: 1—50 cc. 2— 2S cc. /— 2 ex. Rubber Tubing, assorted. Spalula. steel, 4 or 5 inches; oi«- i*lte Stand; oocl THE BREWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. Test Tube Stand; one. Filter Stand; one. Test Tubes, 4 and 5 inches in length ; one dozen, Kjeldahl Flasks, pear-shaped, long neck; one dozen. lOo' Centigrade Thermometers; three. 360° Centigrade Thermometer; one. Oay Triangles ; half a dozen. Tripods ; half a dozen. Water Bath, 8-inch; one. Watch Glasses, assorted ; half a dozen. Copper Beakers, half-liter capacity; three. Separatory Funnel; one. Sand Baths; half a dozen. Wash bottle, capacity about 500 c.c. One Drying Dish, with ground lid. (By Dr. Geon? Holiner Specillc Percent. Epecinc PerCBiil. 6i>ecl5c Per t.eni. ByWelgbl. Omvlly. By Weight. QraHly. By WelKhl. o.wei 1 01 s.oe D.SMR W80 )MS S.M mos i.t7 Mas Ml ».» M04 o'.ven i.a 9M0 S.t1 »» t.IT me B.«! l.M 9001 s.tn l.K D MST 8.49 9M0 )>3« 8.H mea 1.0 9898 5,89 flBBT B.M 0.9970 \.to MSI lira 9898 nan gms nsi mn O.fiWT siee 'ffi WW 8.«S i.3> .89 1 tce« K7 MM 9,43 OBwa 06 na 4:19 0.BB6I mt *-a OBW 8. S3 O.BWD 09881 ■ IS mi o.wsn fl.7? 0M68 .28 mi 4:44 9884 O.SKT mo 4..'» 0.9881 40 a o.Beet fl.OT oiaflM O.BBH .45 i 11 Mie 0:9879 7; IT .flZ «eis 7 2^ o.'»(ni WH *-«r ms I 4.«> , «.■««* o.mt» \ '»'^. .'as c Mil \ b.W ^ ^-^SS. IS! O.S045 1 . .OS t woe \ a» X'-S ^ \ '*'' i.imi I. WIS I.«(I3 I.WII BALUNg's EXIBACt TAILS, vrlllr llr Ccot Bimllli- IVr Cr UM i-Vt Buum^s XTiiACT TABLE— Conttnned KSiS. ffiS.' ffi^.J. WA" SKSHJ. ■SSS' SS^w. rerOiiil — «5r B.SBO 1,04» "iTTkw' lioSM 11.S71 .am i.oRn B.«5 roioi 0.000 .(KTI i.oas8 g.na o.osa WIS ILSIV .oat 11.043 .am siiss .(B7i slsas lioMl S.M3 liMoe S.ffiS 8.488 1.040» CM7fl lone 8.512 1.0410 .0*77 .a!78 e!sai fl.BSS l!08(4 8.6M1 S.MO !:S1! o'.m 0*79 ;s I.M13 0*80 i.8oa '.OHK 1:^ o:«38 r.Kit .a»i 7:000 rosMt R.flXt o.sei 0482 .«7 .034B i!Mia ".E8S .BUI .tot ;a»t bItw i:o4i8 o:b3s .KB 7.0W .OBM 8.731 I.M1S 0.867 0*M .Mi -OSK) LOTS !atvr sIths ■i .a« :raM i'.M&i o:428 .aifo rlBS slew 1.0*23 0.4M MBO 8.8U ilUBl 8.B7T 1.0415 o:uo mi .oa»s iosss 8.MI i.oun OltiS .OMO !UM .OMI S'«M L0I98 ,nBB6 .OWK 8.«5 IMU >o.n» oiee Jw .am Tim ,03!ftm .04M II.IWI i 1 B.floe .04U oa liiow 1!:^ 11 ! «W3 li.m -ttiai 04R? OSW 1 13,ft>7 fl!ltlK !:ljm? b!<»i <>i'» 1 13.KNI K.'mi :S!m ii::»ii Ij 1 "■-•O 1S-0W .lltM ».m7 j.ww .ixnii u.xa \ 1 ff.-j.- 1 li.irai .OtItI Imw t>!iw limoti .OIK ll!»il ,1 I'.wsa* ,\-i!»»> .IBiH K11» iitm »:tE!» luwt ■\ W*-, V v^^^.v'^x «-'si» (.'miw 1 1 OHb />««' ' S^ is »;«6 1 v» \l »_ \\ V *»•>' e;e. %&£r sx. aar -an«- ^im- -iTsr '.am 11. MB .OIM u.ni .OM ii.ne -on i*.ni .om u!» !o>«o .oon u-n .mi IliMl u.m .tMt U.» u.ni U.M> 14.»t .9** U.MB .me u:»T :oui .SMI U.«l .ON) n'.m» U.«M .OSU u.no 'otw .MIS U.0C1 .tua ii:S .OSM li-fMS u.tn .OSIT U.II70 .0SI8 u-on :<»t uim .OUS U.IIS .OHS U.MT .OKB U.UB 11.671 ■OKI U.IM iE S:ilS II.IW ion .tm IS.Hl .MM u:« .» t.oss 1E.M8 ious isItw i.iwa laiTi . HB i WH m 10 «o:« X 8S3 laoj wis ao 131.7 si!« 7» i\\ «5 33^3 N.I 1ft \ ■'^ flfl 33. S 13 03 .0S>VN«» This device consists of : IOI4 THE UREWEB'S microscopical LABORATORY. two nlphnric idd bulbs, with rubber stoppers, thermomct dienno-rtgulator and Buiuen burner. Water Bollte fat holding distilled water. Glass Beakers having a capacity of from one to four ounces. ErUnmeyer Flasks; capacity, two to eight otinces. Petri Dishes; flat glass dishes, fitting inio each other, used I drop cnhurcs, gelatin plates, etc I 'mn Drop CnttHrc S'lidrs; glass slips with cavity drop or droplet cultures. Moist Chambers. Bottcher, confiiiiing of a gbss ring cementt on a glass slide. Used mainly for yeasi culture. Pil>cttcs, small glass tubes of one c.c. capacity, divided ini tenths, for drop cultures and water cxaniinaiinns. Freud-rnTcick or Jianst-n Flasks, for eullivalion of yeasts ar other micro-organisms in sleritized liquids. The Hi-nius Flat is of very simple construction and answers Ihc ^ame purpos< CseeiJluslration). Test Tubes for cuUivalvon ol trntto-cn^Tiv THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. IOI5 beer, wort or yeast The tubes are closed with «b«orbent cotton before sterilizing. Gypsum Blocks for spore cultures. KEACEMTS. Iodine Solution for testing for starch. Starch is colored blue when brought In contact with this solution. It is prepared as follows; Six grains (35 eg.) of iodine and 16 grains (1 gram) Mimx,Hitxi.,Jd,jmi.!x^..jm of potassium iodide are mixed in a mortar, gradually' adding, enough distilled water to make 5 fluid ouTiccSi t^\te ^.^^^ >A vi- lutioo. It should be kept in a welVc\osc4 \>oVA« asvi VlcV t-f-v^^* to the light. IOl6 THE BRBWEh'S mCSOSCOPICAL UiBOBAttMV. PotainmmHyiraU Sdaiion for ^Motnng tSbamat and kt rom putidcs. Out put poUtainin hydrmte i> diBaahrad nine part* distilled vmter. AppiniDi [or Teslim! Fermentlaii Pcngi ol Ve»t. Iron Chloride Solution for detecting tannic acid. Otie p: iron chloride is dissolved in nine parts of distilled water. STAIMS. Stains are used for the purpose of: t. Distinguishing dead yeast cells from live Aw?j ■w& ■m*. w.w« in beer or wort, as these medii Yi«ve an afc\i xt^oSn^. '^"i'* ''^ IOl8 THS brewer's UICBOSCOPICAt. LABORATORY. dvatifls these bacteria (be nteUaces tued are wuat-vtttr iboml- loti) and nttat-watCT gflalin. Wort. — Usually hopped wort is used; must be perfectly clear; if this cannot be obtained by filtration, if is necessary to darifj the wort with egK-albumen. To one quart (i.ooo c.c.) of wort add 50 grains (3 grams) of dried egB-albumen. shake the mixtnre till the albumen has dissolved, then boil until a perfect break baa been produced, cool and filler. The clear wort is ponred into Freudenreich flasks (10 c. c in each), which are then steriliied in steam for half aa hour. Beer. — Of clear finished beer 10 c.c. is measured into a Freuden- reich flask and sterilized at 150' F. for ao minutes on thtce mc- Wort Gelalin. Three oaocu (too Bmns) of gelatin is allowed to soak with one quart (i.ooo c.c.) of hopped wort for one hour, and then heated in steam till perfect solution takes place. As soon as ihe mixture has cooled somewhat. 50 grains (3 grams) of egg-albumen, previously dissolved in water, is added, the mix- ture boiled again till a perfect break has been obtained, and then filtered warm. The clear filtrate is filled into lest tubes, in amounts of 5 to 10 c.c. in each, and sterilized like beer. Meat-lf'aliT {Bouillon)' — One pound chopped lean beef is boiled with one quart of water for one hour, water being added to make up for evaporation, and then pressed until one quart of liquid has been obtained. This liquid, to which 160 grains (10 grams) of peptone and 80 grains (5 grams) of sail are added, is boiled in steam for three-quarters of an hour, then made slightly alkaline with sodium hydrate solution, heated up to boiling and filtered. The fihrale should be perfectly clear, of light yellow color, and have a slightly alkaline reaction. Sterilize it like Meat-W'alcr Gelatin.— \jkt the preceding, with the addition of 10 per cent gelalin. Agar-Agar.— .\s gelalin melts easily at higher tcmne rant res be- sides being liquefied by many organisms, it is often practical to re- place it with agar-agar (i to 1.5 per cent). This substance, which is not liquefied by any organism, dissolves only after boiling for a prolonged time, such solution being very difficult of filtration. THB BBEWERS MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. IOI9 THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. This instrument is composed of the following principal parts : Objective, so called because it is nearest to the object under examination, is composed of two or more plano-convex lenses. Ofw/ar or eyepiece is composed of two plano-convex lenses. This receives the magnified image from the objective and magni- fies it further. irror is used for throwing light on the object under e Composed of two mirrors, one of which is plane, the other The former is used for lower magnifying power and ihe latter for higher. Diaphragm regulates the amount of light. The larger Ihe open- ing, the more light is thrown on the object. The "Iris-diaphragm" consists of a series of thin Wades over- lapping each other and placed so that a cctvttaV o^totiiX"! Viirwv*A,, which can be made larger or smaiiei b^ tntia* ci^ a.Vi'it, I030 THE BREWER S MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. Abbe lUitmmatmg Afpanius consists of mirror, tri»-£s- phragni an4 a sjstem of lenses, or so-cailed "condenser." Bate or Foot serves for keying the microscope firmly in po^ tkuL Tube or Tmbet hold the ocular and objective at Ihe proper di>- Unce from each other. Large Screw la nsed for focusing Ihe object roughly. Mieromettr Seretv- — After the object has been focnaed hj means of the large screw, the micrometer screw is employed in order to bring out the 6ner details. Stage is that part on which the object rests. COCDS. The foctu is the point where all rays concentrated by a lens or mirror meet. An object is "in focus" when il is seen the dearest nsLb Field (of view) is the amount of surface visible through the microscope. LIGHT FOR THE MICROSCOPE. The light which is received from a white cloud is preferable to that from the blue sky. Direct sunlight should be avoided un- less it is subdued by means of a white curtain. For artificial light, a gas lamp, provided with a Wclsbach bur- ner, is to be recommended. A blue glass disc is then placed on the diaphragm. STERILIZATION. Sterilization is Ihe process by which germs conlained in liquids or solids are destroyed or removed. The method employed depends on the nature and condition of the object to be sterilised, or made sterile, i. e., free from germs. Simple utensils, as glass rods or platinum needles, arc steriliied by heating them in a gas flame for a short time. Petri dishes, glass flasks, test tubes, etc. are sterilised in ■ dry-heat sleriliier for one hour and a half al 300° F., the openings of bottles and tubes being closed with cotton before ^/eriV/'z/nj-, Larger closed vessels are wlhcr sIfcerKitti Vj >kSCvo,m -m.-ux "-m THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. I02I them or by direct steam, the openings being closed with sterilized cotton or cotton filters. Water is sterilized by direct boiling for half an hour. Air is sterilized by passing through a filter containing sterilized cotton, the germs being retained in the cotton. Culture media (wort) are sterilized by heating in the steam sterilizer for half an hour. Gelatin is best sterilized by keeping for 20 minutes at 150" F, on three successive days. The object in this interrupted method is to destroy the spores of those or- ganisms that survive the first heating and develop subsequently, being then less resistant. Liquids can also be made germ-free by filtration through porcelain or clay filters. STAINING BACTERIA. A small quantity of the substance under examination is dis- tributed imiformly in a drop of water on a cover glass, and dried by gently heating over a gas flame. The cover glass is then drawn slowly, three times, through the flame, then enough stain- ing solution added, so that the cover glass is covered with the same. After one-half to one minute the staining solution is washed off with water, the preparation is then dried with filter paper and placed in a drop of water on a slide with the stained side downward. If it is desired to keep the preparation perma- nently, the water is removed entirely from the cover glass, which is then cemented to a slide by a drop of a mixture consisting of equal p^rts of Canada balsam and xylol. PURE CULTURES OF MICRO-ORGANISMS. A pure culture is a culture containing one species only, and consequently consists of the progeny of one single cell. For making pure cultures of micro-organisms, the following methods may be followed: PLATE CULTURE. The gelatin contained in two test tubes is liquefied at 95° F. By means of the platinum needle a small quantity of the material is introduced in one of the test tubes, and thorou^bLW mixed with the gelatin. The platinum tvtft^^ v& ^c^'^it^ >2cw ^C«x^ mixture several times, and each time mset\.eA. m ^Ocft. ^^k.^^^'^2^ I032 THE brewer's MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. wkli gdatin, which is also tfaoioqghly mixed bgr gently shaknig The contents ar^ then poured into a sterilized Petri dish. STREiOL CULTUBE. A test tube of gelatin is liquefied and poured into a Petri dish. The platinam needle is dipped into the liquid containing the micfo-Organisnis and drawn carefully over the surface of the hardened gelatin three or four times. The colonies from the last streaks are more widely separated from each other and often are pure cultures. DILUTION METHOD, ACCORDING TO HANSEN. A small quantity of yeast is diluted so far with sterilized water, that each drop contains about lo yeast cells. A drop of this mixture is transferred to a flask containing 20 cc sterilized water, and thoroughly shaken. This mixture will then contain about 10 yeast cells. Twenty flasks containing sterilize<] wort are prepared, and i cc. of the diluted yeast introduced in each flask. The inoculated flasks are shaken thoroughly, and then left standing at yy"* F. Those flasks, which after two 01 three days show only one colony at the bottom, contain pure cultures. GELATIN OR MOIST CHAMBER METHOD, ACCORDING TO HANSEN. Liquefied wort gelatin is mixed with a small quantity of yeast which has first been strengthened in sterilized wort. The mixture should be so far diluted that a drop placed on a slide and ex- amined under the microscope with a magnifying power of about 100 diameters will show only few and well-isolated cells. A drop of the gelatin mixture is then spread on a cover glass that has been sterilized by heating in a flame, and placed on a moist chamber with the gelatin downward. On the bottom of the chamber a small drop of sterilized water is placed in order tc j furnish enough moisture, and an air-tight connection between ^ ; cover glass and ring made by vaseline. ! The positions of those cells in the gelatin, which are sufficiently free and isolated, are marked while under the microscope, and their growth noted from day to day, in order to ascertain if any other yeast cells or bacteria develop in the neighborhood of the marked cells. If this is not tVi^ cas^, \Vv^ colonies developed from these cells can later be used a& ^v«t otoix^^. THE BREWEK'S MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. IO23 The yeast is diluted with sterilized wort c and wort-gelatin. By means of a sterilized drawing pen, dipped into the liquid, 30 to 40 little points or dashes are put 00 a cover glass in four or five rows. The glass is now placed on a moist chamber and kept at ?7° F. The yeast should, if necessary, be diluted so that the droplets contain only a very few cells. Those which only contain one ceil are noted by numbers, con- trolled under the microscope, and, if pure, the colonies can be transferred, by means of the platinum needle, to sterilized wort. EXAMINATIONS OF MATERIALS. For adulteration with corn. The sample is ground as fine as possible, a small quantity distributed in a drop of water on a slide, covered with cover glass, and examined with a magnifying power of 350 to 300 diameters. The starch granules of rice are much smaller than those of corn, and arc sharp-e^gcd. while the granules of the latter are round -edged, and often have an open- ing in the center. (See "Brewing Materials," 471. 472.) For starch. A small piece of the sample is placed in a drop of iodine solution. If starch was added to the isinglass, the grains appear blue, while the rest is colored yellow. Should be examined with a magnifying power of about 60 diameters. Clarifying Test. — 50 eg. (8 grains) is cut into small pieces and soaked for one hour in 5 c.c. of water (in case of fish isinglass 10 eg. (2 grains) of tartaric acid should be added). After soak- ing i« finished 5 c.c. of boiling water, and then 10 c.c. of beer is added. Of this mixture 2 r.c. is added to one pint of beer. The bottle is allowed to stand for 48 hours in a cold place, after which the clarifying power of the isinglass is noted. If the isinglass is of good quality the beer should appear clear and the isinglass have settled on the bottom. LUPUUN. For tannic acid. A small quantity is mixed with a little water and a tew drops of iron chloride solution added. It tannic »t.v!. has been mixed with the lupuUn, \ht 'omn.>3Wt Va. m>'>m.™ ■* Mwsb-Uack color 00 being broufht m c»o»*a ■^'Scv -Cwt "^■''= chloride. I024 THK BREWERS MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. For sand. The sample is shaken with water in a test tube and allowed to stand for a few minutes. The sand being heavier will settle to the bottom while most of the lupulin remains on the top of the liquid. If the sediment is examined microscopically, the grains of sand appear colorless and sharp-edged, while the Inpitlin is yellow and round. Should be examined with a magnifying power of 80 to 100 diameters. A good sample of lupulin shoitld contain but little sand. (See "Brewing Materials."} BARLEY, MALT AND HOPS. For mold. The examination is carried on with low magnifying power (about 60 diameters). If mold is present it will appear as fine cobweb-like threads. These can be removed by means of a needle, and are best subjected to microscopical examination in a drop of glycerin at a magnifying power of about 150 to 300 diameters. To stain molds, Loeffler*s alkaline solution of methylene bine, which stains the mycelium, but not the spores, is to be preferred. WATER EXAMINATION. A turbid, foul-smelling water cannot be used for brewing pur- poses. The turbidity and bad odor are usually caused by the action of micro-organisms. But often a water appears clear and free from any odor, and yet contains large numbers of germs, many of which can do extensive damage in the brewery. In order to ascertain if a water is suitable for brewing pur- poses, it should be subjected to a microscopical and bacteri- ological examination. If the water shows turbidity or particles in suspension, it is advisable to gather the flakes or particles by allowing them to settle in a sedimentation glass. The clear water can be poured off and the sediment subjected to microscopical examination. Among the substances most commonly fotmd in such sediments, besides bacteria and yeast cells, are infusoria, diatoms, vari- ous colorless algx, among them the so-called water pest (crcno> thrix) and molds. In addition to living organisms, inorganic mat- ter, as sand and iron, often occurs in the sediment. Simple microscopical examination is not suflBcient for the pur- pose of determining the number oi mVcxfi-OTiBanisms that may be '^isuned in a sample of water, flait wmdots 'm % «»*fc ^x^Xmt THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. I025 ing frequently too small to allow any accurate results being reached. It is therefore necessary to employ the bacteriological examination, which can be made in different ways. For Hygienic Purposes. — Meat-water gelatin is used. A cer- tain quantity of the water is mixed with the liquefied gelatin and poured into a sterilized Petri dish, allowed to become solid, and kept at ordinary temperature for a few days, after which the colonics developed from the micro-organisms contained in the water are counted and their species determined. This examination is of no interest to the brewer, as this cul- ture medium is not employed in the production of beer. What the brewer wants to know is, how many and what kind of or- ganisms are present in the water that are capable of developing in wort and beer, and as a large number of those organisms which will grow in meat-water gelatin cannot develop in beer or wort, the results obtained by the meat-water gelatin exann'na- tion would be either worthless or misleading to the brewer. The simplest way of examining a water fur brewing purposes is Lindner's drop culture method. Lindner's drop cui-ture method. Ten c.c. sterilized wort is measured off in a test tube by means of a sterilized pipette. One c.c. of the water is then added to the wort by means of a pipette of i c.c. capacity, subdivided into I -10 c.c. The mixture is thoroughly stirred by drawing up in the pipette and allowing it to run out, repeating this process till the germs are well distributed. The water is thus diluted ii times. By means of the same pipette the two plates of a Petri dish are covered with small drops of the mixture, and the amount rscd, whether i c.c. or a fraction of i c.c, is noted. The dishes can be kept at ordinary temperature under a glass globe under which a small vessel of water has been placed, in order to prevent drying up. After two or three days the germs will have developed enough to make a number of the drops turbid. The turbid ones are counted, and give the numl)er of germs contained in the amount of diluted water used. Suppose that lOO drops made i c.c, and 50 colonies developed, then. there were 11 times as many germs contained in i c.c. of the or\^\\va.V >wa^Rx. Vs^ all the drops became turbid, a new examvaaAXoxi ^ca:^^ '^^ ^xssA'^ I096 THE BREWEK'S MICROSCOPICAL LABORATOKY. dilnting ibe water a gEmcer number of times with wort bcfot nuldng the cnl lures. The turbid drops should be subjected to microscopical cxamiiui tkm. so ihat a general idea of the character of the infection ma be obtained. Hansen's msthod or watd exauinaiioh Hansen's investigations showed that not all the germs, iriuc will develop in wort gelatin, are capable of growing in wort o beer. Besides, the water can contain organisms which will tbftT very wdl in wort or beer, but not in wort gelatin. If wort gcU tin is used for the cxanunatioa of brewing waters, the reaidt might, therefore, be misleading, as they would not corre^otk with the conditions fonnd in the brewery. To overcome this difficulty the following method was devised Fifteen Freudenreich flatks, ea<:h containing 20 c.c. of wort another fifteen, each containing 20 cc. of beer, and one conlaii ing 5 cc. of ivori. are sterilized by steam. To the 5 c.c. of steril wort are now added 5 c.c. of ihe water to be examined and mixe thoroughly. Measure jo c.c. of wort into each of 15 Preudenreich flask: and 20 c.c. of brer inlo each of 15 other similar tiasks. 3nd steri' ize in steam. To 5 c.c, wort sicrilized the same way. and cor tained in another flask, add 5 c.c. of the water and mis thoroughly Of this mixiuTc. one drop {0.04 c.c.l is addod to each of th 30 wort and beer dasks by means of a sterilized pipette. Th Ha^ks arc kept at a temperature of 77° F. for 14 day: after which they are examined. If only some of the flasks hav become turbid, there is reason to believe that each of these con tained only one germ, but if all Ihe bottles have turned, it i necessary to repeat the examination with a correspondingl smaller quantity of water and larger quantity of sterilized wori .As each of the tiasks received D.04 c.c. of the mixture o wort and water, we are enabled by the number of turbid flasks l< approximately determine the number of germs capable of develop ment in woit or beer. Sup|>oi4 = i6 Dcstriittive power of the water tor wort = 54 When using beer, which does not become turbid so readily as wort. VVichniann multiplies the figure found as above with 1.67, nnd calls the product the destructive power of the water on beer. AIR EXAMINATION. Micro-organisms are not only carried into the brewery with the raw materials, but also, to a great extent, by the air. The number of germs contained in the air differs considerably ac- cording to time, temperature and altitude. The air is purest when all dust has been carried to the ground by rain; most im- pure when the wind raises dust. Regular air examinations are very inslruciive to the brewer. They enable him to learn to what extent thi' air in the brewery is contaminated, and whether Ib-va contamination has its origin in the bicmw^ WstU, w totE«.'i \^'awv outside. IQ28 THE brewer's MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. \ The simplest way of examtntng the air is to expose m a F^ri dish containing wort gelatin, for a certain leiigtfi < time. After three to five days the colonies, which have devdopi from the germs falling down on the gelatin, are counted. A cording to Petri, the germs contained in lo liters of air sett down cm lOO sq. c of gelatin in from three to five minute If wort gelatin is used molds and yeast will develop to a great extent Hence, it is better to employ sterilized wort or bei This is done as follows: In one of the plates of a Petri dish lo c.c. sterilized wo is measured off. This plate is exposed to the air for ten to fi teen minutes, care being taken that no dust falls on the oovc The number of germs which have dropped into the wort can I determined by making a drop culture of the infected wort I means of a sterilized pipette the wort is mixed thoroughly ai afterward distributed in small drops in another Petri dish, so as 1 make about lOO drops in all. The amount of wort used noted and the culture kept at ordinary temperature. After thr< to four days the number of turbid drops is counted, some i which may have more than one colony. Supposing forty drops became turbid, of which five had tv colonies each, the forty one each, then 40 + (2X5) = : germs developed in 100 drops. If three c.c. wort hs been required to make the too drops there would altogeth 45 X 10 be = 150 germs that fell from the air into the 10 cc. < ll! •3 wort of the first Petri dish. If air contains more than 10 germs per liter it is to be coi sidered too impure for use in the brewery. MICROSCOPICAL AND BOTANICAL EXAMINATIO OF YEAST. In the examination of yeast the following points should 1 kept in view: Purity, that is. absence of organisms, and admixtures of uno ganized matter, as albuminoids, particles of hop-resin, start grains, oxalate of lime. Condition, whether strong ot ^«Sk- Fermenting Power. THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. TO29 INDICATIONS OF SOUND, WEAK OR DEAD CELLS. With the aid of a sterilized platinum needle a sufficient quan- tity of yeast is distributed in a drop of distilled water on a slide and subjected to microscopical examination. The yeast cells ap- pear as larger or smaller oval or round bodies, some of which show one or more buds, which appear as protuberances of the cell wall. The contents of the cells consist of a clear, homogeneous substance (protoplasm), surrounded by a membrane which is the cell wall. Strong and vigorous cells appear well filled with protoplasm. If there are specks filled with cell sap (vacuoles) it indicates that the yeast is getting weak. If the cell content is strongly granu- lated, the cell shriveled and pointed at the ends, and appear- ing like having a double cell wall, it is dead. As aniline dyes are taken up only by dead cells these stains can be used to de- termine the number of dead cells in a yeast. A drop of yeast is mixed with two to three drops of cosine solution and allowed to stand for a few minutes. Then the mixture is diluted with sufficient water, so that after a microscopical preparation has been made, from 100 to 150 cells are seen in each field. By count- ing the number of stained and unstained cells, the dead ones ap- pearing stained, while the live cells remain unstained, until about 1,000 cells, altogether, have been counted, the approximate num- ber of dead cells contained in the yeast is obtained. This count- ing should be repeated in two or three different preparations in order to get a correct average of dead cells. A good yeast should not contain more than 50 dead cells per 1,000 yeast cells. DETECTING IMPURITIES. The presence of bacteria, albuminoids, hop-resin, starch and oxalate of lime can also be detected by microscopical examina- tion. Aibuminoids and hop-rcsin particles appear as larger or smaller bodies of irregular shape, which are dissolved by adding a small drop of potassium hydrate solution to the preparation. If an alcoholic tincture of alkanet root is added, the hop-resin particles will assume a red color. Starch granules can be recognized by ;vt\ ^<\A\\\aw cA \o^v^^ '^^- \ution by which they are colored b\ue. tOJO THE BREWER^S MICB0SODPICAL LABORATORY. '1' Cfystals of oxalate of lime appear as small, qaadnagQlar, o orless bodies. Bacteria, — ^As small particles of albuminoids or glottn can easily mistaken lor bacteria, it is necessary to remove tliem 1 fore the yeast is examined for these organisms. For this pi pose a drop of the yeast is mixed with two drops of potaani hsrdrate solution, and diluted with sufficient distilled water. F the microscopical preparation the numbers of bacteria and yet cells in each field are noted until about i.ooo yeast cells hare be counted, and the counting is repeated in two or three prepai lions as when counting dead cells. If a yeast contains mora tiuui fifteen bacteria per 1,000 ci it is to be considered too much contaminated. If the number of bacteria in a yeast is less than one per i^ yeast cells they are sometimes overlooked. In such cases 1 plate culture in Petri dishes can be employed, or still better i following method: Sterilized wort is inoculated with t sample, and the culture kept in the thermostat at 77* F., and a for some time after fermentation is over. If the yeast ^ free from bacteria the fermented wort will remain clear, ev after being kept several days in the incubator, no film formi on the surface, and no bacteria will be found in the yeast se< ments. On the other hand, if living bacteria are contained in 1 yeast their presence is proven by the formation either of a film, turbidity, or of both, and the sediments will contain bacteria. Wild Yeast. — In order to determine >\hcther a yeast contai wild yeast or not, the simple microscopical examination is r sufficient, as many varieties, according to the conditions un^^ ^aofiL THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. 1031 then kept at Tf* F. for twenty-four hours. The yeast sediment is poured on a sterilized gypsum block, which is placed in a glass dish, half filled with sterilized water and covered with a loose glass cover. The yeast layer should be neither too thick nor too thin, as in the first case the formation of spores is hampered, and in the second case the detection of the spores is made more difficult. The culture is placed in the thermostat, where it remains for forty hours at yy"^ F. After this time the spores of wild yeast will have been formed, while the majority of the cultivated bottom- fermenting yeasts form their spores much later. The cultivated top-fermenting yeasts will also form their spores after forty hours at yy"" F., but the spores of these, as well as those of cultivated bottom-fermenting yeast, can easily be dis- tinguished from those of wild yeast. The young spores of wild yeast have an indistinct cell wall, while the contents are strongly refractive and of an homogeneous nature. The spores of cul- tivated yeast are larger, have a distinct wall, and the contents are granulated and show vacuoles. Mycodcrma. — If a yeast is to be examined for mycoderma, a small quantity is inoculated in sterilized wort, and the flask placed at yy° F. for two to three days. If mycoderma is present a thick, greyish-white film will form on the surface of the wort, and the microscopical examination of the same will show the characteristic shapes of mycoderma cells. FERMENTING POWER. Besides the microscopical examination of the yeast it is also of great importance to determine the fermenting power of the same. This is done as follows: A quantity of the yeast is poured out on several layers of filter paper and allowed to dry fairly well. A solution is made of 40 grams of cane sugar (saccharose) with enough distilled water to make 400 c.c, five grams of the dried yeast weighed off and mixed with the sugar solution in a bottle. The bottle is now closed with a sulphuric acid bulb and weighed. It is then placed in a water- bath with a constant temperature of 86° F. for twenty-four hours, after which the bottle is weighed again. TVv^ \o^^ \^ >^€vsg5>x. caused hy the escape of carbonic ac*\d %as, ^\n^^ ^^c«. ^^^^ccnr.vN-v^^'S 1032 THE BREWERS MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. pCMTcr of the yeast A good breweri' yeast should dcrelap leaM five grams of carbonic acid in twenty-four hours. DETECTING CAUSES OF BEER TURBIDITIES. Turbidities of beer can be caused bf: 1. Yeasls (cultivated and wild yeasts and mycodenna} 2. Bacteria. 3. Albnminoids. 4- Starch. 5. Hop-resin. If the turbidity is due to yeast the intensity of the turbidity delemnned by counting the yeasl cells by means of a hatmalini ter. The cells in the sixteen fields, each composed of twenty-li' small squares, are counted, and the number o( cells thus obtaini is multiplied by ten, giving the number of yea^l cells contain) in one cubic millimeler. The counting is repeated Iwo or thr times, that is. two or three different preparations are made and 1I cells counted. By means of the gypsum block culture wc are enabled to d ■ermine whether the beer is infected hy wild yeast or not. Tl presence of mycoderma is proven if, after infecting a small quai tity of sterilized wort with llie beer, a film is formed on the sn face after ihc mixture has been standing two or three days . ordinary lemperaturc. This film must then be subjected 1 microscopical examination, as other micro-organisms can ah form films on beer or wort. In order to distinguish between bacteria and small particles 1 nllnimcn present in the beer, the lalltr is mixed with a fe drops of potassium hydrate solution and then slightly hcate when Ihc allitmiinoids will be dissolved. The bacteria are th. counted by means of the hxni at i meter, as when counting yea cells. One himdrcd to two hundred bacteria per cubic raillitneti make the IiciT liazj, whi\e jCO ot more make it more or lei turbid. THE brewer's microscopical LAl^ORATORY. IO33 ALBUMEN TURBIDITY. This turbidity is best determined by the following method : After the beer has been well shaken, it is poured into two glass beakers of 100 c.c. capacity so that it stands about one to two inches high. One of the beakers is then warmed to about 88° F. and the heated beer compared with that in the other beaker. If it has become clear, the turbidity was caused by albumen. Beer that has been steamed at too high a temperature, very often becomes turbid by albuminoids. This turbidity does not disappear on simply warming the beer. The addition of a few drops of potassium hydrate solution, followed by heating, will in most cases partly or entirely clarify the beer. STARCH TURBIDITY. The cause of this turbidity is readily found by the addition of a solution of iodine. A quantity of the beer is poured into a test tube and a few drops of iodine solution added. If starch is pres- ent, the beer will appear either blue or black, according to the quantity of starch it contains. If the beer contains erythro-dex- trin. the liquid will become red or brown when iodine solution is added, according to the quantity. HOP-RESIN TURUIDITV. This turbidity is of rare occurrence. It can easily be detected in the following way : A quantity of the beer is poured into a small glass beaker, and a few drops of alcohol or ether added. The beer is then well stirred with a glass rod. If it becomes clear, the turbidity was due to hop-resin. LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. The qnestion of proper lubrication of the different i used in the brewery and ttuh-bouse, in fad, anywhere else, is matter of no small importance. The amount of power necessary to drive a machine, and th mcani the coal pile, aa well as the life and proper mnninK < the machines, is greatly inAaenc«d by proper lubtication of tl Btiding surfaces or bearings. Although it is, of course, good business policy lo purchase lubricating oil, elc, as cheaply as possible, neierthelcss, Ih striving for economy is apt to be carried liw far, so that It hi in many instances become a "penny wise, pound foolish" polic A high quality lubricant can be purch.iM;H only at a corresponi ingly high price. A second mistake often made is lo use one kind of lubricai for loo many purposes, ibereby enabling the purchase of larger quantity al one lime. It i« evident thai a lubricant be adapted for use on shafting or heavy slow running machine^ not snilable for high sperd light machinery. Another error is the application of too much of the lubricai to bearings that do not need it, or would not, if kept properl adjusted. One often tinds machinery literally "swimming in oil. whicb ii a wasteful proceeding, and .should this excessive applic: tion be necessary in order to keep tbe bearings from heating, it a reflection eiibcr upon the maker of the machine for accurac and material used, or upon the skill or care of the mechanic i charge. An exception to this are tapping machines and ceriai l>'pcs of high speed machinery tbe bearii:gs of which ttte Inbr cited upon tbe oil-bath principle, but here special construction i provided lo prevent the oil from .splashing about. The proper con^ilTuction of Iht bi:aring< has also a great dei to do with economical lobiicalion «ncc & ^To^t\^ 3.«:\msmA\xw LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. t035 ing requires less oil and will retain it longer than a loosely con- structed one, the latter allowing the oil to run out as fast as it is supplied. A considerable aid to proper lubrication is given by the oil cups with adjustable feed now in use. by means of which the oil supply can be regulated, and several hours' supply filled at one time. THEORY OF LUBRICATION. If two substances are rubbed against one another their motion is retarded by what is called friction. The smoother the sur- faces of these substances can be made, the less friction will there be. This friction is caused by the high points in the surface of the one sinking into the depressions in that of the other and thereby retarding their motion. A surface that may appear smooth to the eye is in reality quite rough, as can be seen if a piece of highly polished steel is examined under a magnifying glass or microscope. This friction, be it ever so small in the beginning, soon becomes greater in an ever increasing ratio. This is due to small particles of the substances l>eing broken off, and the surfaces thereby roughened, the particles assisting in further abrasion or grinding. This can be illustrated by rubbing two pieces of glass together, when it will be found that at first they hardly make any impression upon one .inother, but if the rubbing is continued they will become "ground" or **frosted," and a layer of powdered glass will be formed between them. ACTION OF LIIRRICANTS. If these surfaces moving past each other can be kept apart so that their high points or ridges cannot strike against each other, it is evident that there can be no abrasion or "wear and tear." This separation is accomplished by means of lubricants, that is, substances that are viscous or "sticky" enough not to be readily squeezed out from l)etween the surfaces, and at the same time fluid enough not to retard the motion of the surfaces. These lubricants form a thin film between the surfaces and keep them apart while moving. The lubricant must, furthermore, be of such a nature as to have no action upon the material of which the moving parts consist, for if it contains acids the latter will at- tack metallic parts and be likely to cause the opposite result from the one desired. 1036 LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. Aim-nacnoii metals. If the surfaces of two substance!! of i^ual' hardness mb to gether it is likely that they will wear equally. If on the othe hand the substances are of different hardness, the softer will b the one that wears more. On this aecounl one of the movin) parts is generally made of a softer material, or, where the aami material is used for both, one is fitted or lined with a softer ma terial that can be readily removed and replaced. In modern machinery this softer material is a metal called anti friction metal, and is principally of two kinds: bearing metal consisting of an alloy of copper, tin and zinc, and babbitt irclal made from tin, antimony and copper. KINDS OF LUBRICANTS. The Itibricants, or their substitutes, now in most ^enerql iisi cnn he classed as follows: 1. Mineral oils. 2. Fised oils and fatf, 3. Blown or thickened nfls. 4. Blended oils. 5. Besin (rosin) oil. 6. Lnhricants. cnnlnininj; siwp. ?. Greases. R. Solid liihricnnis. Cnidc petroleum is the source of the mineral Inhricating oil! now in gtcncral ii*:c. Some kinds of crude nil arc used in prac- tically their natural stale fnr luhricnlinR heavy he.irinfri. hut lh< bulk of the crude oil is subjected to distillation. This furnishes an almost endless numbrr of different products. These products are. however, not simple suhsiancc. hut mix- lures of different hydrocarbons, the hoiliiif; poinls of which ar* limiled wilhin narrow confinrs. Out of the diffrrcnl prodticl? oblained the followinst may be mentioned; CytiiKg.-ii. — A pa* at ordinary lemper.iHire. nsed in the monn- facinre of ice. tihi/iol.-ni: — .\lsii .1 t(ns. wscd for mcdicinil purposes, PcfruUitm £■//) IT.— Liquid, W\s M ifio" 10 i.^i" F ; used as solvvnt tor fatty oils, etc ' LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. IO37 Gasoline, — Liquid, boils at 160** to 190® F.; used for oil ex- traction from seeds, etc. Naphtha. — Liquid, boils at 176" to 250° F. ; used for burning. and as a solvent for resins. Ligroine. — Liquid, boils at 176° to 250° F. ; used as a solvent. Benzine. — Liquid, boils at 250** to 300° F. ; used for cleansing and as a substitute for turpentine. Kerosene or Burning Oil. — (Standard white, prime white and water white.) Used for burning in lamps; must stand "fire tost," that is, it must not develop ignitable gases below a certain temperature (no** to 150° F.). Lubricating Oils. — What remains of the natural oil after the removal of the above named substances by distillation is called residuum, and is used for the manufacture of lubricating oils, paraflTme and vaseline. Distilled Oils. — The rcsiiluum, after the removal of the lighter oils, is allowed to stand for some time, and then transferred tn so-called **tar stills." in which the lubricating oils are distilled off by superheated steam or in vacuo. Oils produced in such manner are called distilled or paraffine oils. The first distillate furnishing light lubricating oil for light m.ichinery is called "neutral oil." and is used for mixing with fixed oils. Upon further distillation the heavier oils called "spindle oil" and "en- gine oil" are obtained, and finally an (m1 distills over at about 600" F., which is used as "cylinder oil." What is now left be- hind is further treated and furnishes paraffine wax and vaseline. The flistilled oiN are then chemically treated for further puri- fication and bleaching with dilute sulphuric acid, which is then removed by water and a S(>lution of caustic .'stal- lizable paraffine, and purified. Vaseline is a pale, yellow, trans- lucent substance. It finds some use as a lubricant, but its prin- cipal application is for medicinal purposes. FIXED OILS. These are so called on account of being fixed, that is. not volatile, or capable of being cvapi>rated or distilled. Fats. — Fixed oils and fats derived from animal and vegetaUc tissue are practically identical except in consistency, the fats be- ing solid. Fats, however, become oils when heated, and fixeij oils become fats when cooled. Fixed oils and fats differ from mineral oils in their behavioi toward oxygen. The former combine with it. thereby becoming thicker, even solid, while the mineral oils are inert toward oxygen. Sp09ttaneous Combustion. — This absorption of oxygen by fats and oils is accompanied by a rise in temperature, the more so, the larger the surface of the oil. Rags or machinist's waste sat- urated with oil present a large oxidizing surface and will, on this account, especially if inclosed in a box, etc., absorb oxygen ^o fast as to become ignited by vi*W\ \^ generally tenned spon- neous combustion. LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. IO39 Mineral oils, as they have no affinity for oxygen, are not sub- ject to spontaneous combustion, and when mixed with fixed oils reduce the Habihty to combustion in proportion to the amount present. This oxidizing or *'drying" property renders some of the fixed oils unfit for lubrication, prominent among which is lin- seed oil, being on that account most useful as a paint oil. Those possessing this oxidizing property the least, and that are used, therefore, mostly as lubricants, are cottonseed, olive, castor and rape oil of the vegetable oils, and spern^, ncatsfoot and lard oil, also tallow, among animal oils. The mineral lubricating oils are not acted upon by caustic alkali, that is, do not saponify. Fixed oils can on that account be easily distinguished from them. BLOWN OR THICKENED OILS. These oils arc manufactured by blowing a jet of air through heated fixed oils, principally cottonseed and rape oil. The oils thereby become thicker and more viscous. These oils arc not used alone as lubricants, but mixed with mineral oils to in- crease the body or viscosity of the latter. BLENDED OILS. Mixed or blended oils consist of varying proportions of min- eral and fixed oils mixed so as to be best adapted for the purpose for which they are to be used. As mineral oils are cheaper than fixed oils, and as the latter are not suitable for every purpose, this mixing has the advan- tage of furnishing an oil that is better suited for many purposes than would either alone. As mineral oils are best adapted for high speed and light pressure moving parts, and fixed oils for slow speed and heavy pressure parts, the best results for inter- mediate speeds and pressures can, therefore, he obtained with properly mixed or blended oils. This mixing cannot, however, be always resorted to, as the solid hydrocarlwns, paraffines, etc., contained in some mineral oils are precipitated by this mixing. RESIN (rosin) OIL. Resin oil is the product of destructive distillation of common resin. It is a viscid liquid of dark brown color, with a strong fluorescence. It contains a considerable proportion of unchanged resin, carried over by the oil. Its specific gravvl^ \^ Vi\\^, x^'Wfe- ing from o.p6 to 0.99, and 8on\etimes ti\\xO\ >ci\^finfc\. \v. >s» '^^=^ I ; [ 1040 LUBRICAffTS AND LUBRICATION. used by itself as a lubricant, but to some extent as an adulterant for other lubricants. LUBRICANTS CONTAINING SOAP. These arc often used as a thickening medium for mineral oils. j If enough soap is added a gelatinous grease is formed. The I soap generally used is aluminum soap, made by saponifying va- Irious fixed oils with caustic soda and stirring this into a solution of alum. A precipitate of oleatc of aluminum is thereby obtained ;■ ' which, after drj-ing. etc.. is added to the lubricant. Ahiminum soap has practically no lubricating quality and is ■" therefore considered as an adulterant; in fact, it is claimed by some to decrease the efficiency of the lubricant. Regular soaps, made with oils anin grease prepared by ; treating resin oil with slaked lime, and stirring this into more resin oil. or with petroleum or coal tar oil. SOLID LVCRICANTS. These consist mostly of talcum or soapstonc. and plumbago and gra[>hile. the latter Ix-ing the one almost exclusively used. Solid lubricant"! are used for very sImw speeds and great pre>- sures. and will remain in s«»nie bearings where proase or oil would run i.>ui. .Solid luhricimis are also used for lubricating link belt- ing running over sprocket wheels, which, if lubricated with oil, would throw oi'i or splash the oil by centrifugal f(.)rce. or if rim- ning in dusty piacts yaiher grit. etc.. which wuuld cause undue wear. OILS KoK HOT Ok O'LIt L"sE. Residts selecting oils best adapted fur speeds or pressures, the temperature t>f the niminii parts nnist als«> be considered. Cold Test ihls. — These oils are used for lubrication of re- frigerating machines, and must have the property of remaining liquid at temperature> of from 15° to o"* F. without congealing or >oJidifying. //of Test Oi7j.— Cylinder o\\s. wsed for lubricating piston and valves in the steam cylinder, must V».n^ \3a^ o^V^iw.^ V^^si^ftxty of LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. IO4I cold test oils, viz., they must remain viscous and not decompose at the high temperatures of pressure steam in the cylinder. Cylinder oils should have an evaporating or decomposing point much higher than the temperature at which used, this ranging from soo" to 600° F. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LUBRI- CANTS. The properties to be considered in judging the fitness of a lubricant are (see also "Brewers* Chemical Laboratory") : I. Viscosity or "body" of the lubricant at the temperature at which it is used; i». Temperature of solidifying or thickening point; 3. Flash point, the temperature at which the lubricant begins to give oflF inflammable vapors, which, however, are extinguished if flame is removed; 4. Fire test point, at which these vapors burn continuously; 5. Amount of volatile substances contained; 6. Drying, gumming or oxidizing property of the lubricant ; 7. The proportion of admixtures of other fats or oils; 8. Acidity, effect on metal surfaces; 9. Mineral admixtures or adulterants. LUBRICANTS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES (THURS- TON). Low temperatures, as rock drills, etc. — Light mineral lubricating oils. Very great pressures, slow speed. — Graphite, soapstone (tal- cum) and other solid lubricants. Heavy pressures, slow speed. — The above, and lard, tallow and other grreases. Heavy pressures, high speed. — Sperm oil, castor oil, heavy min- eral oils. Light pressures, high speed. — Sperm, refined petroleum, olive, rape, cottonseed oils. Ordinary machinery. — Lard oil. tallow oil, heavy mineral oils. and the heavy vegetable oils. Steam cylinders. — Heavy mineral oils, lard, tallow. Watches and other delicate machinery. — Clarified sperm, neats- foot, porpoise, olive and light lubricating oils. For mixture with mineral oils, sporm oil is best, Va.x^ ci'\ 'cwi.Ocv used, and olive and cottonseed oUs are ^00^, LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER I The legal relations- of the brewer are more complicated tha those of most other manufacturers and merchants. He is subje not only to all the ordinary duties which are incumbent upc every inhabitant, but also to many special ones that are impose upon the manufacture of. and traffic in, intoxicating beverages I the Federal, State and Municipal governments, for purposes part of regulation, partly of taxation, and often for both purpose Inasmuch as the brewer quite frequently not only manufactun and sells to the consumer and retailer but is obliged to look aft< the retail business and assume responsibility for the dispenser < his products, he is brought into constant and immediate conta< with the operation of all the laws that affect the liquor traffic. It is not intended here to give information as to the ordinal rights and obligations of the brewer as a manufacturer ai merchant, which he has in common with all other classes < business men. but only the extraordinary or special relatioi that connect him with the various governmental agencies as manufacturer of, and dealer in. intoxicating beverages. As f; as possible, the intricacies of legal phraseolog>' will be avoide and the sense of the respective laws and regulations gfiven in transcribed form so as to be readily intelligible to the non-leg mind. TAXES PAYABLE TO THE UNITED STATES COVER! MENT. Under the Internal Revenue laws of the United States and tl executive regulations of the Internal Revenue office a gallon < beer, ale. porter or other fermented liquor means a measure coi i taining 231 cubic inches. A brewer is every person who manufactures fermented liqiio 0/ any name or dcscripUon, ioi s^\^, iiov^ malt, with or witho adjuncts. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. TO43 THB STAMP TAX. On all such fermented liquors a tax is levied which, beginning July I, 1901, amounts to one dollar and sixty cents ($1.60) per barrel, flat, that is, there is no rebate on this amount. Parts and multiples of barrels pay proportionate amounts. Accordingly, the tax on barrels, and fractions and multiples of barrels, t^ginning July i, igoi, is : One-eighth barrel ^. 20 cents. One-sixth barrel 26% cents. One-fourth barrel 40 cents. One-third barrel S3^ cents. One-half barrel 80 cents. One barrel $1.66 Two barrels (hogshead) $3-20 Until June 30, 1901, the tax amounts to two dollars ($2.00) per barrel. Accordingly, the tax on barrels, and fractions and mul- tiples of barrels, until June 30, 1901, is as follows: One-eighth barrel 25 cents. One-sixth barrel 33% cents. One-fourth barrel 50 cents. One-third barrel 66% cents. One-half barrel i dollar. One barrel 2 dollars. Two barrels (one hogshead) 4 dollars. On this tax there is allowed a discount of 7% per cent which is deducted at the time the tax is paid to the collector. The above are the fractional parts and multiple of one barrel authorized by law. If a package contains any substantial amount in excess of its nominal capacity, it pays tax for the next bigger fraction. Thus, a package containing more than one-eighth and less than one-sixth is accounted one-sixth. The tax is paid by the purchase of stamps, which are issued by the Federal government and sold to brewers by the Collectors of Internal Revenue. In purchasing such stamps, the regulations of the Internal Revenue office must be strictly followed. Such in- structions can be obtained in printed form from the collector of the district in which the brewer does business. NOTICE BY BREWERS. Following the natural order oi ptoceAwie, >Jci^ ^x^*^ ^'^^^ ^^ a brewer starting out in business \s lo fw\t V\\\v >i?cv^ o.c^^^v^'^ LI£GAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. istrict where he intends to carry on his business a notice ig the name of the person, firm or company, and of the bers of any such company or firm, their residences, a deacrip- of the brewery premises, the title of the brewer thereto, and name of the owner of the land. In case of a corporation the les of the shareholders need not be given, but those of the offi- i. The notice is made out in duplicate on blanks which the lector s office will supply on request This notice is repeated on ly 1 of each succeeding year as long as the business is con> lued. Bottling plants are not to be described in this notice, he notice nmst be signed by the brewer himself or an author- ed agent or attorney; in case of a partnership, by a member icreof in the firm name, or other person authorized as before; n case of a corporation, under the seal and by the proper oflBcer. SPECIAL TAXES. At the time when the above notice is filed, the brewer most pay the special brewer's tax, which is $ioo a year, where he mana> factures 500 barrels or more per year, and $50 where he manu- factures less than 500 barrels per year. Besides, if a brewer sells malt liquors not of his own manu- facture, at retail, that is. in quantities less than five gallons at one time, he is subject to a retail dealer's tax of $20. If he sells such liquors at wholesale, that is. in quantities of five gallons or more, he is subject to a wholesale dealer's tax of $50. This does not apply where he purchases malt liquor from another brewer in his owp casks upon giving the proper notice to the collector as elsewhere explained, but in that case the amount so purchased is included in calculating the liability to the special brewer's tax of both the manufacturer and the purchasing brew- ers, i. e., in determining whether they manufactured 500 barrels a year or less. GIVING BOND. When giving the notice of his intern ion to carry on the brewin business the brewer must give a bond in a sum e(iual to thn times the amount of tax. which, in the opinion of the collectc the brewer is liable to pay during any one iiioinh. He must gi a new bond cverv four years or at anv oiher time it the collect requires it. The bond is for the faithful performance of all duties required of him wilb Tekict\cc \v> \W v\^. ^\^\\ks can LKGAL RELATIONS OF THR HRKWER. IO45 obtained from the collectors. The sureties on the bond must have no interest in the business. BOOKS AND RETURNS. Every brewer must keep a separate book in which is entered, from day to day, the kind of malt liquor produced, the estimated quantity produced, in barrels, and the actual quantity sold or removed for consumption or sale in barrels or fractional parts of barrels. A certain form of book is recommended for this pur- pose by the Internal Revenue office, and can be obtained from certain stationers. In another book he must enter, from day to day, an account of all the materials purchased by him for the purpose of pro- ducing such fermented liquors, including grain and malt. Brew- ers must make apparent in this book the disposition made of all materials entered which are not used in the production of fer- mented liquors. The entries in both these books, the beer Ijook and the materials book, must be verified on or before the tenth day of each month. by the oath of the persons who made them, the oath to be written in the book at the end of such entries in the form prescrilx'd in the instructions obtained from the collector. Where the owner, agent or superintendent did not himself make the entries, he must subjoin his oath to the truth of them, for which oath the form is ali the report. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. A brewer who tells at retail, besides affixing the tax stamps to the vessdi, is required to keep w) account of (be qaantitT m ■old, with the number and size of the vessels, and lo make a 'monthly sworn report of such sales. The report must be signed bj the person by whom it is ren- dered, and if not verified by himself, he mnst canse ti (o be verified by some person having personal knowledge of the business and being otherwise fully quahfied by his position to make the oath. Tills includes being fully empowered by the principal to veri^ the statement, which authority, in case of a corporation, shouM be conferred by resolution. The person verifying should af^ecd his title to his signature, as attorney, agent, etc OBTAININC AKD AFFIXING THE STAMPS. The brewer bars stamps as he expects to require them, from the collector of his district, and can secure ttiem in another dis- trict only if Ihc collector of his own district cannot deliver them Stamps car be delivered by the cnlleclor only upon the written order of the brewer made in a certain forrn. of which blanks will be supplied by the collector as required. It is essential to hare on hand stamps for all kinds of packages that are expected to be used, as only one st.imp must be used on any one package, unless it is bi^er than a hogiihead. tl is not allowed to use two or more stamps of smaller denomination lo make up the value of one of larger denomination, as Iwo quarters for one half-barrel, etc. The re-use of stamps, that is. the use of one stamp more than once, is prohibited absolutely, and there is no exception to this rule. If packages returned to the brewery should still have the stamps on ihcm. the brewer must destrcq- such stamps, no matter how they came to remain on the package. The law requires that when a keg or other vessel of beer is removed from the brewety or warehouse (except under permit as elsewhere explained) the brewer shall aifix the stamp denoting the requisite amount of tax upon the spigot-hnle. in the head of the package, which stamp shall he destroyed tiy driving through the same the faucet through which the liquor is to be with- drawn, or an air faucet of equal si^e. at llie lime ibe vessel is tapped, in cise the vessel is lapped through the other spigot-hole (of which ifiere shall be bul V-wo. wse in the head and one LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO47 in the side). Furthermore, the brewer shall at the time of affix- ing such stamp cancel the same by writing or imprinting thereon the name of the person, firm or corporation by whom the Hquor was made, or the initial letters thereof, and the date when can- celed. if a brewer sells at retail at the brewery he must affix and cancel the proper stamps on the vessels, and keep an account of the quantity so sold and the number ami size of vessels in which it was contained and make a monthly sworn report thereof to the collector. These provisions make it necessary that the stamps should be well secured to the vessels, and not easily removed therefrom except by intentional effort for that purpose. The following method of preparing and affixing them is therefore recommended : Dissolve one pound of chloride of sodium (common salt) in two gallons of cold water; spread this over the backs of the sheets of stamps with a broad, thin brush, and then dry them. They are now ready to be affixed. In applying the stamp to the cask, first take liquid silicate of soda of medium density ; rub it well into the irregularities of the surface of the wood with a brush, and apply the stamp quickly while the wood is quite wet. When the stamp is dry, a second coating of the silicate should be spread over the face of the stamp; and if the barrels are to be exposed to the action of the weather, or to be stored in damp places for considerable periods, the stamp should be secured by four tacks to prevent its peeling off. In renewing the stamp upon a barrel used a .second time, the tacks should be withdrawn and the stamp carefully scraped off. REMOVAL TO WAREHOUSE. In order to remove malt liquor from the brewery to a ware- house or depot or other place of storage, permits must be ob- tained from the collector of the district where the brewery is located, and the tax stamps need not be affixed until the liquor leaves such warehouse. Lager beer may be so removed in quan- tities not less than six barrels in one vessel, and ale or porter or other malt liquor, fifty barrels. The permits are required to be affixed to the vessels in which the liquor is removed. Application for such permits is made on certain blanks pre- scribed by the Internal Revenue office, and when the permits are delivered, a receipt in certain form is given by th^ bt^^^\. • IO4S LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. The brewer, upon receiving the permits, will at once secnn affix them to the heads of the barrels near the chime and immei ately- under the bung stave. At the time the permit is affixed will cancel it by writing or stamping across the face thereof 1 name, the location of his brewery, and the date of the cancellati of the permit. As soon as the permits are affixed and within fi days after their delivery to the brewer, he will notify the collect of the fact, in order that the collector may record the date affixing, on the stubs of such permits retained in his offii Dates on these permits should be written or stamped with grc distinctness. If the packages are too long on their way, they m be detained and the brewer required to prove absence of fraud lent intent. If the warehouse is in another district the brewer must prompt notify the collector of the latter district of the receipt of t liquor at such warehouse, such collector having been previous notified of its removal by ihe collector of the district in whi the brewery is located. The permits must remain on the packages until they are i moved from the warchousp and the tax stamps affixed, when t permits must be scraped off and destroyed. Tax stamps are c tained from the collector in who^t district the warehouse is 1 cated. All h'quor so removed to other collccii*»n districts is c tcred in their books and reported in the monthly returns. SOUR OR DAMAGED LIQUOR. If liquor has become sour or damaged so as to be incapal of use as a beverage, it may be sold for manufacturing purpos and removed from the brewery in vessels unlike those ordinari used for fermented liquors, containing not less than one ban each, and having* the nature of their contents marked upon thei without affixing the permit or stamp. BOTTLING BEER. Beer cannot be bottled in the brewery. A separate bottlii I building must be provided which is separated from the brewc ' by a public thoroughfare and has no communication with t brewery. However, this bottling plant may be connected wi the brewery by a pipe for the purpose of running the beer to bottled through it. If there is no such pipe connection, the be must be dUcd into stamped packages and taken across the- roj into^thc bottling departtT\enl. BoVvV\v\^ \t\TcvtTvvt give a supplemental notice to the collector in duplicate on blanks pro- vided by the collector, containing among other things an estimate of how often beer will Ik thus removed to the bottling hou>e. The !x>ttling house must be just as distinct from the brewery as where the l)eer is removed in a stamped package*^. The brewer must construct a mea>uring cask or tank in the brewery for the lx>ttle beer, admitting of ready me.ntern may be authorized by the collector, if necessary, tf) su|)ply the bottling house for twenty- four hours, and none must have a capacity of less than ten barrels. The tank is re(iuired io be securely co\- ered, and if an opening is desired, it mu>t be so arranged that it can be securely looked. A glass gauge must be attached in order to observe the level »>f the liciuor in the tank. Stop-cocks must be provided tt> control the tlow into, and out of, the measuring tank, and must be capable of being locked. Xo such tank can l)e used until after it has been examined by a deputy C(»llector and he has attached his certificate thereto. 1 he vessel and its attach- ments may l>e examined at any time by Internal Revenue officers. The i)ipe, or c<»nduit, must l>e securely connected with the meas- uring tank in the brewery. Xo opening is permitted in the pipe line. ihe measuring tank may, if preferred, be placed in the bottling hou.se. In that case the pipe line which is to carry the Ixfcr to the bottling shop can be placed underground (mly by running it through a tunnel of sufficient size to adniit the convenient pa^sage through its entire length of the revenue officer, who is reouired to examine the pij>e line. The pipe mu.st be so placed as to admit of ready examination at any point. Each measuring tank must have a separate supply i>ipe. Before a pipe connectirui to the IxHtle shop can be use\\\v.C^ wev n^v^^^ 1050 LEGAL RELATIONS OP THE BREWER. paper or tracing linen, 15x20 inches in size, one to be posted in the brewery, one kept by the collector, and one to be sent to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. This plan must show in detail the exact location of all vessels, conduits, casks or imple- ments used in the transfer of the liquor ; also the capacity of the measuring tank, the course of the pipe and the thorcnighfares crossed by it, the boundary line of the brewery premises, and the nature of the business conducted in all buildingrs located within ten feet of the pipe line. Any alterations in any of the parts re- quired to be shown must be displayed by a supplemental plan. To avoid needless trouble and expense it is best alwajrs to submit such plans in advance to the collector of the district, who will examine and certify them, if found correct. The stop-cock controlling the inflow of liquor into the measur- ing tank on the brewery premises, and the opening in the top of the tank, if any, are secured by padlocks, and the stop-cock con- trolling the outlet into the pipe by a seal lock. Locks and seals are supplied by the collector. If the measuring tank stands in the bottling house, the inflow cock is controlled by a seal lock as well as the outlet. These two cocks must never be unlocked at the same time, but either may be opened as suits the convenience of the brewer. When the brewer wants to send beer to the bottling house, he makes application to the collector or his proper deputy, on a form prescribed by the Internal Revenue office, stating the amount to be transferred, which must be enough to supply the bottling house for at least twenty-four hours, and never less than ten l>arrels at one time. Request is also made for the attendance of a deputy collector. The deputy collector, after locking the supply pipe of the measuring tank in the brewery and the opening in the top, if any, noting the quantity in the tank and observing that the proper seal is in the lock at the junction with the pipe line, will remove the seal lock from the latter, enabling the brewer to open the stop- cock. After the liquor desired to be sent to the bottling house has entered the pipe, the deputy collector closes the stop-cock and secures it by the lock, first inserting the proper seal. He then unlocks the supply cock of the tank and the opening in the top, if any. and leaves them open until the next lot of liquor is sent to the bottling house. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO5I The brewer must then present to the deputy collector the num- ber and value of tax stamps corresponding to the amount of liquor withdrawn from the tank, having previously written or printed on the margin of such stamps the name of the hrcwer. firm, or corporation, or the initials, and the date of the transfer of the liquor. The deputy collector cancels the stamps by a die or punch and transmits them to the collector of the district. The brewer must report the amount of liquor transferred to the bottling house and the number and denominations of stamps used, in his monthly report, in a separate item. Where the measuring tank is located upon the bottling premises, the stamps must be canceled upon the entire quantity of liquor in the cistern before any of it is withdrawn therefrom. If it is necessary to connect any of the apparatus in the bottling house with the refrigerating machine or air pump in the brewery, the pipes making such connection must be exposed to view for their entire length and subject to ready examination by revenue officers at all times. All such additional appliances must be ex- hibited in the plans submitted to the collector. MARKING CASKS. Every brewer must brand all his trade packages before removal from the brewery, with his or the firm's or corporation's name and place of manufacture. If he purchases liquor from another brewer, he may. upon previous written notice to the collector in a form prescribed by the Internal Revenue office, furnish his own vessels branded as though for his own beer, and have them filled by the manufac- turer, who must affix and cancel the proper stamps. The manu- facturer enters such beer in his beer lK)ok and makes a special en- try of it in his monthly return to the collector, as "sold at brew- ery at wholesale." The purchaser also enters it in his beer book. together with the stamps affixed by the manufacturer, and when the beer is sold, makes a ftK>tnote in his monthly report in the form prescribed by the department. These special entries are re- quired to be made in red ink. TO CARRY OS BUSINESS AT ANOTHER PLACE. If by reason of accident by fire or flood, or the brewery under- going repairs, or other cause which is sufficient in the opinion of the collector of the district, a brewer desircj 10 carry on his business temporarily at another place in the same or ati ^d- 165^ LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. joining district, he must ai^ply to the collector for a pcnnit, which is issued for a certain time, and the hrewer need not pay another special tax. Consent to snch temporary change must be indorsed on the brewer's bond by his sureties. SELUNG WORT. If a brewer sells unfermented wort to another brewer for the purpose of being used in productqg fermentation or enlivening fermented liquors, he must obtain a permit for the removal of such wort from the collector of his district and remove such wort within the time specified and the regulations prescribed. The stamp tax is paid by the purchasing brewer on the finished liquor produced by the admixture of such wort. Brewers should, if posr- sible, use for such purposes, vessels unlike those ordinarily used for fermented liquors, containing not less than one barrel each and having the nature of their contents marked upon them. PENALTIES. Failure to make correct entr>* and report of fermented liquors as required by law. or attempt to evade the payment of the tax on them, failure to do any of the things required by law to be done in this connection, or making false entries or reports is punishable by forfeiture of all the liquors made and all the vessels, utensils, and apparatus used, also b>- a fine of $500 to $1,000 and imprisonment for not to exceed one year. Neglect to keep hooks as required by law, refusal to furnish the required amounts and duplicates, or refusal to allow the proper officer to examine the books, is punishable by a fine of $300. Refusal or neglect to affix and cancel the tax stamps required by law, or the affixing of a false or fraudulent stamp, is punish- able by a fine of $100 for each package and imprisonment up to one year. Fermented liquor found after removal from the brewery or warehouse, except upon permit, without payment of the tax re- quired, is liable to seizure and forfeiture. The absence of proper stamps in snch cases is notice to all persons that the tax has not been paid, and is prima facie evidence of the non-payment thereof. Where liquor is removed under permit and without stamps, the permits must be affixed, canceled and destroyed as prescribed by the Internal Revenue off\ce. vmdei V\\c %timed in making them. Defacing or removing the marks branded on trade packages, ex- cept by the owner or authorized agent, is punishable by a tine of $50 for each package. Refusal or neglect to afiix and cancel the stamps required by law, and affixing a false or fraudulent wner or his agent, is punishable by fine of $50 for each package ai\cL <:x»x^Km I LEGAL RELATIONS OK TllK IJKKWKK. I055 faucet through which the liquor is drawn, or an air faucet, tliroiigh the brewer's export stamp, and detach the undestroyed part t)f the export stamp from the package and forward it to the colk'ctr)r. Each lot of liquor must he kept separate, as it nuist be accounted for separately. The liquor nuist be cased for export within twenty-four hours and securely fastened, and each case have the export label affixed with the requisite number of coupons showing the quantity, in gallons, contained in each case. Where the quan- tity is not in even gallons, and the fractional part is less than one- half, it is excluded from the quantity represented in the export labels, the discrepancies thus arising being adjusted in the bottler's monthly statement to the collector. On the first day of each month the brewer who has removed fermented li(iuor, and the lH)ttler who has received such liquor. makes a monthly declaration, under oath, in duplicate to the collector as to such liquor so removed and received, the form of such decalaration being obtained from the collector. Each day's transactions are reported separately in the proper colunm. Fermented li(iuor to be exported may be entered for export in any outward port or at any frontier port, or at an interior port for transshipment to an outward or frontier port, or when it is to go through a fr(.>ntier port in sealed cars over bonded routes, 1l may be entered at any port from which such cars clear for export. In any case, the exporter must, six hours before ship- ment, file with the Collector of Customs (not the Collector of Internal Revenue) an export entry in the form to be obtained at the collector's office. This entry may be made by an agent having a power of attorney from the exporter, if the latter does not live at the place of entry. The exporter nuist also file with the Collector of Customs a bill of lading. If the articles arc entered at any port for exportation through another port, the exporter must state in his entry the routes over which they are to be shipped. In case of shipment through frontier ports in sealed cars, the exiwrter may apply to the collector of the port of entry to have the goods locked and sealed. In the latter case, a transportation manifest and through bill of lading must be filed. If from any cause the required proofs cannot be furnished or regulations complied with application iot m\\Q\ vwasX Xtfs. vec^^^ to the Collector of Internal Revcuu^i >n\vo V^s ^Qss>^vL'ax^s:'^ ^^ ^ factSf 1056 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. TONICS, ETC. The war revenue law of 1898 provides for a tax on medicinal proprietary articles and preparations, among which are tonics, and all medicinal preparations or compounds which are held out or recommended to the public by the makers, vendors or pro- prietors as proprietary medicines or medicinal proprietary articles or preparations, or as remedies or specifics for any disease, diseases or affection whatever affecting the human or animal body. This tax is as follows : Where the retail price or value of the package is five cents or less, one-eighth of a cent ; where the retail price or value is 5 to 10 cents, two-eighths of a cent; where the retail price or value is 10 to 15 cents, three-eighths of a cent ; where the retail price or value is 15 to 25 cents, five-eighths of a cent, and for each additional twenty-five cents or fractional part thereof, five-eighths of a cent. The law further provides in regard to such articles that this stamp tax shall apply to all medicinal articles .... which are . . . advertised on the package or otherwise as remedies or specifics for any ailment or as having any special claim to merit, or to any peculiar advantage in mode of preparation, quality, use or cfTect. The Internal Revenue office holds malt extracts and similar preparations, which are advertised as tonics, or held out as having a tonic or other medicinal effect, to be subject to this tax. and iniiK>ses it upon the tonics and similar beverages sold by brewers in i>ucli a way as to create the impression that they arc desirable for their medicinal properties. Where they are not so advertised or nanud. they are not subject to this tax. A decision given in Fcbruarj-. 1901. by the United States District Court at Kansas City. Mo., holds that an article taxed as beer cannot be taxed once more as a tonic, and the claim of a brewing company for rebate of the tax paid on a tonic manufac- tured by them was allowed. The question has not yet been finally deternu'ned. however, and for the present the ruling of the Inter- nal Revenue office stjinds. If tonics or preparations of this character are represented to the public as medicinal preparations, and are in fact medicinal preparations, and are so sold by druggists or other retailers in ^ood faith, such druggists or retailers do not require a retail liquor dealer's license irow v\\<: VtvWt^ "t^v^v^^ ^QN^i^crofttit But LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO57 if such compounds are sold as beverages, the druggists are sub- ject to the regulations of retail liquor dealers, notwithstanding the fact that the compound may be used as a medicine and was so intended by the manufacturer. It follows that the mere addition of a medicinal drug does not of itself take the sale of the com- pound out of the regulations for retail liquor dealers. WHAT IS INTOXICATING LIQUOR? There is a prevalent misapprehension as to the term "intoxicat- ing" liquor or beverage, and the attitude of the United States government with reference thereto. As far as the Internal Revenue taxes are concerned, it makes absolutely no difference whether a fermented beverage is intoxi- cating or not. It may contain i, or 2, or 6 per cent of alcohol or any other amount. The question is only whether it is a malt liquor or fermented beverage. If so, it is liable to the stamp tax. and the dealers are liable to the wholesale or retail dealers' li- cense fees, as the case may be, and tonics are subject to the addi- tional stamp tax for medicinal preparations. The question assumes an entirely different aspect with reference to local regulations, that is, state laws and municipal ordinances regulating, restricting, or prohibiting the liquor traffic. Here the question whether a beverage is intoxicating or not, is generally paramount. The matter depends on the wording of local laws. As a rule, the question whether liquor is intoxicating or not, is a question of fact to be determined in court by the jury, or judge in the absence of a jury. In some cases beer is presumed to be intoxicating and need not be shown to be so, as in Indiana. Kan- sas, Minnesota, Massachusetts (?). In some instances, the per- centage of alcohol that a beverage may contain without being in- toxicating is fixed by law or ordinance at 2 per cent. In most cases, the intoxicating quality of the beverage is a matter of evi- dence in each case. If a brewer wants to pui on the market a ^'temperance beer" for sale in prohibition districts, the local laws of the particular state or district should be looked up. 1 f ,1. 1058 LBGUkL RELATIONS OF THB BREWER. UQUOR LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRTTORI / There is no general local opdoo law, but by special ad sale of liqwM' is prc^bited in many localities, and decdons on question providol in others. License fees under the general law are zi follows : Retail sdl on boats and railroad cars, $250; in places under 1,000 inhabita] $150; between 1,000 and 3.000, $aoo; between 3,000 and mjL $375; more than loyooo, $3^; dealers in lager beer oobr. o fourth of the above rates; wholesale dealers, componoden a rectifiers, |20o; distillers (not of fruit), $35; iM-ewers, $iao; bo ing alleys, billiard tables, dice boxes, etc., all require licenae. Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for selling to an appicol without written consent of the master; to minors without o sent of parent, guardian or physician; to intemperate or insa persons; for selling without license; selling within one mile c church or a place of religious worship; permitting the use premises for illegal sale ; selling on Sunday or election day ; m ing or selling adulterated liquors; employing minors to : liquors. ABIZONA. Boards of trustees of cities, towns and villages have authoi to license, regulate or prohibit the sale of liquor. Quart< license fees are payable as follows: Selling in quantities of t gallons and upwards, where quarterly sales amount to $20,< and upward, $125 ; sales of $12,000 to $20,000, fee $100 ; sales 1 der $12,000, fee $75 ; in quantities of one pint to two quarts, $30: quantities less than one gallon in cities, towns or villages of I and more population, $50; 200 to 800 population, $40; less tl 200 population, $20; at wayside houses, $12; distilleries and bn eries doing a business of $10,000 and upwards. $40; $5,000 to $1 000, fee $20; less thaii.$5.ooo, fee $10. Local authorities may i pose additional license fees. Fines up to $300 are imposed for the following offenses : S ing to a common drunkard or minor ; keeping open on Sunday selling liquor without a license or refusing to exhibit license proper officer on demand ; selling to an Indian ; permitting mint to remain in a place where Uc\uors are sold ; selling liquor wit out a license. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO59 ARKANSAS. High license and local option prevail in this state. The ques- tion of license or no license is submitted at a general election and covers a period of two years. If a majority of the adult inhabi- tants, including females, within three miles of any schoolhouse, academy or institution of learning, shall petition the county court, such court may make an order prohibiting the sale of liquor for two years. Prohibition is also in force in some districts by special act of the legislature. If license is voted, the license is issued by the county court in rural districts and by the municipal authorities in incorporated municipalities. License fees arc: Retail, $500 county tax and $300 stale tax; wholesale malt liquors, $50 state tax, and $100 county tax. Municipal licenses are in addition to state taxes. The licensee also pays two per cent of the taxes as collector's fees, and $2 for clerk's fees. He must give a bond of $2,000 to pay all damages caused by reason of liquor sold in his house, and all money lost by gaming on his premises. Debts for liquor can- not be recovered. Wines from grapes and other fruits sold by the maker are exempt. Fines are imposed up to $500 for furnishing liquor to students in any incorporated institution of learning; selling liquor within one mile of a camp meeting, except by regularly licensed tavern keeper or grocer at their regular place of business; selling liquor on election day or Sunday; allowing minors to play games in any dramshop or saloon ; selling to minors without the written consent of parent or guardian ; minor purchasing liquor without informing the dealer of his or her minority; allowing gaming, quarreling, fighting or disorderly conduct; selling to a soldier of the United States army without consent of an officer; selling without license, except in original packages of not less than five gallons; selling liquor in prohibition districts; selling without a license; shipping C. O. D. without the label: "This package contains intoxicating liquors"; keeping a "blind tiger" or similar device; a member of a club purchasing liquor for the use of members. Any person making wine from fruit grown by himself may sell it in quantities not less than one quart without a license, and licensed liquor dealers may sell wine, ckc^v^ *\w V>^:aK\3lV^Vj "^ XsotA. ^^ I06t LBGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. a ntretgu who is not a Uqtior dealer, in the snm of $300. No surely can go 00 more than one bond. If the licensee ptores an tmsititabk person or violates the law, the commissioners may revoke the license. A licensee convicted of a violation of tiie law forfeits his license and cannot take another for a year. .The license fee to sell liqnor is $100 to $5oa Druggists may use Uqaor in prescriptions and sell them on the prescription of a practidag physician^ hut no druggist may sell liquor to be dnndc on the premises. The law prohibits sales of liquor on Stmday, on elec- tion day, after midnight, to minors, to intoxicated persons, to habitnal drunkards, to a man after notice from his wife not to sdl to him, or to a woman after similar notice from her husband. Search and seizure of liquors unlawfully kept is provided for, also dvil liability in case of injury by intoxicated persons. DELAWARE. Licenses are issued by the clerk of the peace, on approval of the application by the court of genera! sessions, the application hav- ing been previously filed with a certificate of twelve (in Wil- mington, twenty-four) citizens, and published three times in two newspapers. Any retailer or druggist of good character, whose stock is of the value of $500, may be licensed. Druggist must sell in quantities not greater than a quart; other traders, half a gallon. No liquor must be sold on Sunday or election day, or to minors, insane persons or drunkards. Penalties are $50 to $100 for the first offense; forfeiture and disqualification for two years on second offense. Licenses are not personal, but re- stricted to certain premises of which the applicant is the owner. Judgments for violation of the law form liens on the premises. Druggist limited to sales of $75 a year. All manufactured liquors pay a tax of 10 cents a gallon. Relatives of known drunkards may recover actual and exemplary damages from persons selling them liquor, in case of accident. License fees are: In towns over 10,000 inhabitants, $300; elsewhere, $200; druggists, ^20; retailers of merchandise, $100. No blinds, screens or frosted glass are allowed under penalties of $50 to $100. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Licenses are issued by an excise board of three commissioners. Applicants must be 21 years of age and never have been con- ricted of a violation of the Viquot Uvjs 01 o^ ^;ku\bling. In the Titles of Washington and Geoig^lovjiv v\ve ;i^v'ivt^<^^Tv TKaaxNsw^ LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO63 the written permission of a majority of the residents and owners of real estate on the side of the square on which the proposed bar room is to be placed, and if on a comer,- a majority on both streets must approve. Outside of these cities consent must be had of a majority of residents and owners within 250 feet on each side. Hotels having 20 chambers for guests need not niake annual application for renewal of license, but during good behavior pay only the fee. Minors under 16 years must not be served or employed on licensed premises. Sale of liquor is prohibited on Sunday and from 12 to 4 a. m. Fee for wholesale license is $250, for a bar room, $500. Druggists may sell only upon pre- scription. Penalties for selling without a license are : First offense, $250 to $800, with or without imprisonment for two to six months; second offense, the same fines, with imprisonment from three to twelve months. For violation of conditions of license the penalties are: First offense, fine of $50 to $200, and for every subsequent offense, 25 per cent of the previous fine added, or imprisonment for six months, or until the fine is paid. No license can be granted after a second conviction. Penalty for aiding or abetting any viola- tion of a license is a fine of $50 to $100, or imprisonment for one month. No place can be licensed within 400 feet of a school- house or church. FLORIDA. License, with local option, is the law. Local option elections are held in election districts. Where the sale of liquor is per- mitted, licenses are issued by city and town councils. Before obtaining a license a permit must be obtained from the board of county commissioners. There are fines of $50 to $500 for selling from 6 p. m. preceding an election day until 6 a. m. the day after, selling without a license or permit, selling in a pro- hibition district, to a minor or an intoxicated person, within five miles of any religious camp-ground except in incorporated cities or towns by regular dealers, selling on Sunday, and selling any unwholesome drink. GEORGIA. High license and local option prevails. Where, by vote, tK^e^ sale of liquor is not prohibited, the genet^A ^\^\.^ \vk t^sb^"^'^vc\'sl the traffic applies. Licenses arc ^ranl^d ot x^\>\%^^ ^"^ ^^^ 1064 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWBK. HfdJBify of the ootmty. Ths Uocmw ttkei m cntfi wtB/t to mD to a minor without consent of parent or. gomrdian, and ghci a bond of $500 to keep an orderly house. The oounty idail lioense fee is $25. Liquors are inspected l^ an officer Tf*^*-* *^ by the ordinary. Selling without license, on Sunday, and the usual run of offenses, are prohibited. Where, in prohibitioii dis- tricts, the sale of certain kinds of wine is pennitted, deafen in such wine, who are not manufacturers, pay a lioense lee of $1,000^ and such wines are sold in quantities not len tlaa one quart, and not to be drunk on the premises. The sale of Uqoor within three miles of any church or schoolhouse is proliibit!ed» ex- cept in incorporated towns and cities, and except for donie Hfc wines, for physicians and for manufacturers, selling to anthorised dealers in packages of not less than 40 gallons. A local option election is held on the written request of 10 per cent of the voters of a county, not oftener than every two years, and must be a separate election, not to be held within one month of any general election. Cider and domestic wines, and wine for sacramental use, and pure alcohol, sold by druggists for useful purposes, are generally excepted. License fees vary greatly. The city of Atlanta has three licenses: One \»holesale, for the sale of liquors of all kinds in quantities of one gallon or more, $25; retail, for consumption on the premises, $1,000; retail, for malt liquors only, $25^ The fee may be as high as $2,000 for a retail license. The licensee gives a bond of $2,000. Licensed premises must be closed from 10 p. m. till 5 a. m. No obstructions to view from the street are allowed. Conviction of offense against the license law works a forfeiture of the license. Penalty for drunkenness is a fine up to $100 or imprisonment for 30 days, or both. There is a dispensary law in existence, which, however, has been adopted only in the city of Athens. IDAHO. High license is the law of this state. The county authorities have power to issue licenses after a bond for $1,000 has been furnished to keep an orderly house, obey the law and pay all hnes and damages. Incorporated cities and towns may impoae ad- ditional license fees and cotvd\l\ow. ^wHY town or city which cast ISO votes for governor at tVit \asV. v^es*^i^a%^«!^^wl LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I065 $500 license; other places, $300. Bona fide hotels, three miles out- side cities, towns or villages, pay only $100. Licenses for liquor, not to be drunk on the premises, are $200. The mayor and com- mon council of Boise City have power to license and tax the retail trade. Damages may be recovered from liquor dealers for selling to habitual drunkards or minors, after notice not to do so. Drug- gists may sell liquor on the written prescription of a physician, and may sell wine for sacramental purposes, and alcohol for me- chanical and scientific purposes, without a license. Fines up to $500 are imposed for keeping open on the day of any general election; selling liquor to a minor; druggist sell- ing liquor to be drunk on the premises; keeping a disorderly house; selling to an intoxicated person; selling without a license; selling to an habitual drunkard, after notice from justice of the peace or judge of probate not to furnish liquor to such person; selling to an Indian ; fraudulently adulterating or diluting liquor ; . selling liquors within one mile of any religious meeting. ILUNOIS. License and local option prevails. A vote on the question of license or no license must be taken upon the request of a majority •of the voters in any district or municipality. If license is favored by the vote, city councils and boards of trustees in towns and villages have power to regulate and prohibit the liquor traffic. The license fee is not less than $500; for selling malt liquors only it is $150. Outside of cities and villages licenses are issued by the county board, who cannot, however, issue any for places within two miles of any incorporated city, town or village, the authorities of which have the power to regulate the liquor traffic. Druggists may receive permits to sell for medicinal, mechanical, sacramental and chemical purposes only. A dramshop is defined as a place where liquors are retailed in quantities of less than one gallon. In the city of Chicago, by special provision, licenses are granted by the mayor to persons of good character who give bond in $500, with two sureties, to comply with all city ordinances. Places must be closed from 12 to 5 a. m. The license may be revoked by the mayor for violation of ordinances or conditions of bond. Licenses are payable in quarterly instalments. Fines of $5 to $100 are provided; Foi s^Wvtv^ \v^o\^ n*\^\s^ two miles of any agricultural, horticu\tMi^\ ox ta^Oaa.xv\caX \».v I066 LBGAL DELATIONS OP THE BREWBS. witnui one fluie ot nii|[iOQi cunpHiiccciiiiif tor wfpim on SimcUqr; lor tdlinff- without a lioente; for idling to mtiMifs w i th ou t written order of parent, goftrdian or family ph yikia «» or to habitttal drunkards. All acts forbidden by law, when no other penalty is imposed, w made misdemeanors, punishable Iqr fine ftp to $100. Li(|Uor sellers are liable in damages for any injuiy anyone may sustain in person, prop erly or means of support by reaaoft of the sale or giTing away of intoxicating liquor. INUAMA. High license and a modified form of local optiop prevails. Petitions for licenses must be signed by a majority of the voters in the township or ward, and a bond of $3,000 given, with the penalty of forfeiture of the license for violation of the act, and disqualification for five jrears. A remonstrant against a license has the right of appeal from the grant of a license. In cities of more than 35,000 inhalMtants licenses are granted by the com> men councils; elsewhere by the county boards. The state fees are: For selling liquors, $100; for selling vinous and malt liquors, $50. Cities may charge up to $250 additional; incor- porated towns up to $50 additional. The licensing power extends four miles from the corporate limits. Places where intoxicating liquors are sold in violation of law may be abated as public nuisances. The licensee must give bond in $2,000 to secure the payment of fines and civil damages. Fines of $10 to $500 are provided for adulterating wine, grape juice or intoxicating liquor, or selling such adulterated articles; for using any active poison in the manufacture of liquors, or selling liquors so prepared ; for selling to an intoxicated person, or one in the habit of getting intoxicated, after \vritten notice of such fact from any citizen of the place where such person resides ; for selling to minors; for keeping a disorderly house; for selling on Sunday, legal holidays, election day, or between 11 p. m. and 5 a. m. ; for a druggist selling liquor otherwise than on a physi- cian's prescription; for selling liquor in booths, etc., within one mile of religious gathering or ag^ricultural fair, not to apply to regular dealers at their usual place of business. Common coun- cils may impose fines up to $500 for any violation of an ordinance, and may tax breweries and disliWeiks and their depots or LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I067 The so-called Nicholson law provides fines of $10 to $100 for violating any of the following provisions: Liquor selling in quantities of less than one quart must be carried on in a room separate from any other business; no amusements, music, etc., are permitted, no screens are allowed. The room must be locked during hours when liquor selling is prohibited, and all persons excluded therefrom. It must be situated on the ground floor or basement fronting the street, and so arranged that the whole of the room is in view from the street. Minors are not allowed to loiter in saloon, and no liquor must be sold to them. If a remonstrance in writing is filed, signed by a majority of the legal voters of any township or ward, against the retail sale of liquor by any applicant for a license, the board of county commissioners are prohibited from granting a license to such persons for two years from the filing of such remonstrance. INDIAN TERRITORY. The introduction of spirituous liquors or wine, except siich supplies as may be necessary for the United States troops, under the direction of the War Department, is prohibited; also the selling to an Indian. Officers of the Indian service and com- manders of military posts may seize any liquors introduced. The penalty for violation is imprisonment up to two years and a fine up to $300. lOWA. The manufacture and sale of any intoxicating liquor, or keeping the same for sale as a beverage is prohibited by the constitution. This prohibition is enforced by a number of acts of the legislature. The so-called Mulct Law provides for a tax of $600 a year upon persons other than pharmacists holding permit^, who engage in selling liquor. In any city of 5,000 inhabitants or over, after a written statement of consent signed by a majority of the voters in the city shall have been filed with the county auditor, the tax may be paid quarterly in advance, and such payment shall be a bar to proceedings under the statute prohibiting the liquor traffic upon the following conditions: The taxpayer must file with the county auditor a copy of a resolution passed by the city council, consenting to the sale of liquor, and a written statement of consent from all freeholders owning property within 50 feet of the premises v^Vvw^ Nj^^XsNv^v^'tt.'?. is to be carried on, no such business lo be condMc.!^^ h«\"', in addition to all the above ms ters, to file with the county auditor a written statement of co sent sigfncd by 65 per cent of the voters in the county and outsi the limits of the cities having a population of 5,000 and over. Cities and towns have power to collect additional taxes of t same character and to regulate the liquor traffic The law is not to be construed as legalizing the liquor traflf nor the tax to be construed as a license, nor to protect the viol tors of prohibitory laws from any penalties except that certa penalties are suspended upon the conditions above enumerated. The so-called Manufacturers' Law permits the manufacture intoxicating liquors in communities which have adopted t Mulct Law, provided that a written statement of consent is taincd from one-half the voters in cities and towns having a po ulation of over 5,000, and from 65 per cent of the voters in otb <:omniunities. There are fines up to $iACX> lot «fi\\vc\% VvvVva \^ tods of m LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO69 agrictiltural fair; manufacturing or selling liquor of any kind except as above outlined; selling to a minor, intoxicated person or one in the habit of becoming intoxicated ; carriers transporting liquor without certificate of the county auditor that the consignee is authorized to sell liquor ; selling on election days or within two miles of the limits of any municipal corporation; druggist selling liquor as a beverage; selling within three miles of the state agri- ' cultural college; or within one mile of a religious field meeting; adulterating liquors or selling adulterated liquors; selling to an Indian or an intoxicated person ; keeping a club room with liquor for members or others. Druggists may obtain permits to sell for pharmaceutical or medicinal, sacramental or chemical purposes. Buildings where liquor is unlawfully sold are declared nuisances and may be abated; all movable property in them is to be seized and sold. KANS.VS. Constitutional prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxi- cating liquors, except for mcflicinal, scientific and mechanical pur- poses, is the fundamental law. The laws that have been enacted in regard to the matter contain but a long list of penalties for violations or evasions of the organic law. Druggists can obtain permits to sell liquor from the probate judge of the county for a fee of $5. They can sell only on pre- scription or upon the purchaser's affidavit setting forth the pur- pose for which the liquor is required. The affidavits are kept on file and delivered to the probate court. Druggists are fined $100 to $5CK) for violating any one of numerous regulations with which the sale of liquor by ihein is surrounded. The manufacture of liquors for medicinal, scientific or me- chanical purposes is allowed upon permit issued by the probate judge, to be sold only in the original package. A person may make wine or cider from fruit grown by himself and for his own use, and wine may be sold for communion purposes. All places where liquor is unlawfully sold are declared common nuisances and may be summarily suppressed. Fines are provided for selling or giving away liquor under a great many diffarent circumstances. Physicians are fined for prescribing or administering liquor, except in case of actual ticcd^ or for the purpose of enabling any petsotv \o tN^^t 'axv-'j '^"^'c*- vision of law. I07O LBGAL RELATIONS OP THE BRBWEB. • • I Hi^ Ikense and local optioa prevails. Elccdona ace bdd in any county, city» tourn, district or precinct* upon the petitioa of 25 per cent of the voters, to decide whether or not any intoxicating liquor shall be 8ol4» not oiPtener than once in three . years. Where no license is voted, this does not prohibit mamilM- turcrs or wholesale dealers selling in good faith and in the ttsnal course of trade, in quantities not less than five gallons, not to be drunk on the premises. Licenses may be imposed 1^ the municipal authorities on distillers, brewers and wholesale dealers^ besides retailers. License fees, outside of incorporated cities and towns, are: To keep a tavern, with privilege of selling malt liquors, $50; the same, with retailing spirituous and vinous liquors, $100; the same, with retailing spirituous, vinous and malt liquors, $150; to retail malt liquors, $50; to retail spirituous .and vinous liquors^ $100; to retail spirituous, vinous and malt liquors, $150; to distillers, at their place of business, not less than one quart, not to be drunk on the premises, $75; manufacturers of vinous liquors and peach and apple brandy, $25; merchants, to retail in quantities not less than one gallon, not to be drunk on the prem- ises, $75; druggists, in quantities not less than one quart, not to be drunk on the premises, and on prescription for medicinal pur- poses in less quantities, $50. Retail licenses in cities of the first class, $150 to $1,060; in cities of the second class, $50 to $150; in cities of the third, fourth and fifth classes, $250 to $1,000; in cities of the sixth class, $150 to $500. Outside of cities and incorporated towns the county board issues licenses. Fines up to $500 are imposed for adulterating anjrthing intended for drink ; keeping open on Sunday or election day ; selling with- out a license; selling within one mile of a place of divine wor- ship ; selling to a minor without written directions from parent or guardian ; selling to an inebriated person ; selling in a room where pool-tables, etc.. are kept; knowingly selling liquors adulterated with any injurious drug or chemical preparation; druggists fail- ing to keep register as required, or selling otherwise than on prescription ; selling from a temporary place within tvvo miles of any militia encampment; violations of city ordinances; allowing gaming; keeping a disorderly house. Municipal authoritict have power to regulate the traffic and im^se ovVitt lM:^ie&. Specisil provisions are made lot re^vAaXAtv^ ^\%>L'C\Knr^ LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I07I LOUISIANA. The liquor traffic is taxed in accordance with the extent and character of the business. Besides a retail license, which must be not less than $100 per annum, taxes are levied on the busi- ness of distilling and rectifying alcoholic or malt liquors, brew- ing ale, beer, porter, or other malt liquors, according to the gross annual receipts. There are twenty classes, the tax being graded accordingly. Where the gross annual receipts are $2,250,000 or more, the tax is $3,000; for $2,000,000 or more, $2,500, and so on by different stages to the twentieth class, which comprises houses with gross annual receipts less than $15,000, on which the tax is $15. For every business of bar room, cabaret, coffee-house, cafe, beer saloon, liquor exchange, drinking saloon, grogshop, beer- house, beer garden, or other place where anything to be drunk on the premises is sold, the license is based on the gross annual re- ceipts, as follows: Receipts, $50,000 or more, fee $1,500; thence down to $100 for receipts of $3,000 to $5,000. Municipal and parochial authorities may impose fees and equitable graded licenses. The following offenses arc punishable by fines up to $1,000: Selling liquor on election day ; keeping a disorderly house ; selling to persons under 21 years, unless emancipated, or upon order of parent or tutor; selling to habitual drunkard, after proper notice that he is an inebriate ; employing any female ; physician prescrib- ing with intent to evade the la^\'; for selling liquor on Sunday; selling without a license; not posting the license in a conspicuous place. Concert saloons require the consent of a majority of the prop- erty holders and residents within a radius of 300 feet from the front door, and must not keep open from 5 a. m. to 6 p. m. Hotels and boarding houses may furnish wine for table use on Sunday. Police juries of the parishes, the municipal authorities of the several towns and cities, and the city council of New Orleans have exclusive power to regulate or prohibit intoxicating liquors and to grant or >\ithhold licenses according as a majority of the voters may determine by ballot, elections to be held on this question whenever deemed necessary by the municipal author- ities, not oftener than once a year. 1072 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. MAINE. A prohibition state. A constitutional amendment authorizes th< governor and council to appoint a commissioner to furnish mu- nicipal officers of towns with pure liquors, to be kept and sold for medicinal, mechanical and manufacturing purposes. Prices are to be at a profit of 6 per cent above cost. The municipal officers are allowed to buy liquor from no one but the commis- sioner or persons to whom he has sold. The commissioner is required to keep a record of the towns to which liquors are sold, the persons buying, the kind, quantity and prices. The monici- palities appoint agents for the sale of liquor in their respective towns, who also keep full records. The manufacture of liquors, except cider, is prohibited under penalty of $i,ooo. No liquor is allowed to be sold, except through the agencies, and fines are provided for otlicials violating the law. Places where unlawful sales take place are declared public nuisances, liquor unlawfully kept may be confiscated and the person keeping it imprisoned and fined $ioo. Fine of $5 to $20 for selling or giving liquor to an Indian; for unlawfully keeping or selling liquor and keeping resorts for tip- pling, $100 to $1,000; for soliciting or taking an order for the sale or Jclivcry of liquors. $20 to $500: l\'r bringing into, or transporting wiihin the stale liquor to be sold unlawfully. $50 to Jfioo; carriers transporting liquor, up to $J00; for selling liquor in violalion i-f law. $50 for first ottcnsc and $J00 for cver>' sub- sequent otTense; for being a comr.:on seller of liquors, $100 for first, an-l ?JCO for subsequent, offenses; lor selling unwholesome drink or adi:iierat:ng, up to ?i.ooo; for offenses "for which no punisli:]ien: i> pri-viiled by statuie." up. to $5*.X); for advertising sale, or keeping for sale, of liquor. $20. MAKVI.AND. Xo pcneral law pr«. vaiU. differv.-nt loca-ities IxMng legislated for •separately. In a general way the i^revailinp >ystcni is one of license. An ne: f-'-r the city r.f Ba:ti:norc proviiie? for a licen.^ing l^^ar-.! of :l'.ree coir.missioners. appointed by the povernor. License n.ay be |?'a::*.C'I to any cirizen of temperate habits and good moral character. Tl-e application nu:st Iv supported by ten voters in the w'.in], piiMlsh' d and publicly hoard, if opposed, after which the yotc of f/je commissioners on \W cv\ic>x\ox\ \w\i?.t be recorded. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO73 The board is bound to refuse a license if the place is not neces- sary for the accommodation o£ the public or the applicant is not a fit person. Violation of a state law relating to the sale of liquor is required to be followed by revocation of the license. The fee is $250 for hotels, restaurants, grocers, distillers, brew- ers or wholesale dealers, one-quarter going to the state, (he balance to the city. Sale of liquor is prohibited on election day and Sunday, except to guests in hotels, also between the hours of midnight and 5 a. m. Druggists may sell upon written prescrip- tion and must keep a record of sales. Penalties for selling liquor without a license, $500 to $5,000, or imprisonment for three to twelve months; for violation of law or conditions of a license, fine of $100 to $500; for a second offense the license is revoked and a fine of $500 to $1,000 im- posed, and the offender may also be punished by imprisonment for three to twelve months. MASSACHUSETTS. A general license law, coupled with local option, prevails. The question of license or no license is submitted to a vote in each city or town annually. If the vote is in the negative, no license can be granted, except to druggists for medicinal purposes. There are six classes of licenses, each valid for a year: (i) To sell liquor of any kind to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, $1,000; (2) malt liquors, ciders and light wines containing not to exceed 15 per cent of alcohol, to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, $250; (3) malt liquors and ciders, to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, $250; (4) liquors of any kind, not to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, $300; (5) malt liquors, ciders or light wines, not to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, $150; (6) druggists, for any kmd of liquor for medicinal, me- chanical and chemical purposes only, upon certificate of the pur- chaser, fee, $1. No sales are allowed from midnight to 6 a. m. or. on Sunday, except by innkeepers; liquors must be good and un- adulterated; no liquor must be sold to drunkards, intoxicated persons or minors; no disturbance of the peace, indecency or illegal gaming is allowed on the premises. Where liquors are sold, not to be drunk on the premises, no public bar shall be kept, and a license as innkeeper or common victualer must be obtained. A bond of $1,000 is required. Penalties fot nns^^sCnss^ of the conditions of licenses are $50 lo ^S^^* ^^ Kw^xYs^crKcsx^^xV \ot 1074 LEGAL RELATIONS OP THE BBBWBR. one to six mootht, or both* besides forfeitare of ficenae mad 910- hibitioa from secoring snoCfaer for one yev. Fines are pfovidsi for selling to minors, etc. Licensing officers may enter licensed Kemises at any time to observe the conduct of boainesSy or obtaia samples for analysis. A state inspector and assayer of Jiqnocs is to analyze all san^les sent to htm by the proper aathoritica. Search for liquors unlawfully k^t* and their seizure, when found, is provided for, also the arrest and detention of intoxicated per- sons until they disclose the places where they oblaiaed the liquor. Screens or other obstructigns of view of the interior oi m place where liquor is sold are prohibited. Fines for violating any provision of a license, $50 to ^900. Special dub licenses for a fee of $50 to $9X> nay he nsned in towns where liquor licenses are granted. 'Elsewhere such clubs are to be deemed common nuisances, and fines of ||9D to $100, for keeping them, are assessed. Intoxicating liquor means all beverages containing more than I per cent of aicohcl. No licenses of the first three classes shall be issued for a plaoe on the same street within 400 feet of a public schooL Additional fines: Fifty to $100 for common victualer keeping open between 12 and 5 a. m. ; $50 for dispensing liquors on dec- tion day, except innkeepers may sell to duly registered guests; $50 to $100 for selling liquor under the first three licenses on kgal holidays, or election day ; for selling liquor to be drunk on prem- ises, employing anyone under 18 years of age. The number of places licensed under the first five classes shall not exceed one for each 1,000 of population, except in Boston, where the ratio may be one to 500. Towns having an increased population in summer may grant special licenses, in force from June I to October i, at the ratio of one to 500, based on an . enumeration in June. MICHIGAN. License and local option is the law. The board of supervisors of a county nuist order an election on the question of prohibiting the liquor traffic, not oftcner than every two years, tq>on the petition of one-fourth of the electors of the county, and if the rote is in favor of prohibition, the board must issue an order accordingly. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO75 Where the sale of liquor is permitted, license fees are imposed as folloifrs: For retailing all kinds of liquor, $500; for malt liquor only, wholesale and retail, $300; for spirituous liquors, wholesale, $500; for the same, wholesale and retail, $800; for brewers, $65; for manufacturing spirituous liquors, $800. Retail- ing means selling by the drink, in quantities of three gallons or less, or one dozen quart bottles or less. Druggists may sell without license for chemical, scientific, medicinal, mechanical or sacramental purposes. The sale of liquor in places of amusement is prohibited. Fines up to $500 are assessed for selling liquor to inmates of the soldiers* home; for selling to drunkards, tipplers or disorderly persons ; for selling to minors, except for medicinal or mechanical purposes, without the written order of parent or guardian, to a drunken person, to a person in the habit of getting intoxicated, to an Indian, or a person of Indian descent, to anyone, when for- bidden to do so in writing by the husband, parent, wife, child, guardian, employer, supervisor, mayor, director of the poor, supervisor or alderman, etc.; to any person to be used as a beverage, or to be drunk on the premises ; for any violation of the liquor law not otherwise provided for; to sell to students at any public or private institution of learning, or allow them to play billiards or games of chance in a place where liquor is sold; for allowing a minor to visit or remain in a room where liquors are sold, unaccompanied by his father or guardian; for keeping open on Sunday, on election days, on legal holidays, and until 7 a. m. the day after, between the hours of 9 p. m. and 7 a. m., except in cities and incorporated villages the time of keeping open may be extended to 11 p. m. ; for obstructing the view of the interior of premises where liquor is sold during the time when such places are required to be closed; for selling liquor at summer homes, camp-meetings, etc. The adulteration of liquors with any articles poisonous or in- jurious to health or knowingly selling such liquor, as well as sell- ing liquor from any barrel, etc., not branded with the name of the manufacturer and with the words, "Pure and without drugs or poison" is prohibited. Violations are punishable by fine of $50 to $500, as is also the "manufacturing, brewing, distilling, selling or having or offering for sale, any liquors contaium^ ^w§ ^viasXxc^.^ not normal or healthful, or deleterious or <\^U\tv\wvV8\ X.o V^a^"^^- 10/6 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. The usual dvil liability is imposed by statute on liquor dealers for any injuries resulting from the intoxication of a person, and the dealer's bond of $3,000 to |6»ooo is available to secure such damages, as well as fines for violations of the law. MINNESOTA. High license and local option prevails. Local optica is provided for villages and for counties, but not for cities. A vote is taken on the petition of ten or more voters at the next ensuing annual election. If license is favored, the general li- cense law becomes applicable, otherwise the sale of liquor is prohibited. Applications for license are published and objections to them heard by the village, county or city authorities, and if the applicant has violated any liquor law within a year, the license must be refused. The licensee gives a bond of $2,00Q City councils have power to tax, license and regulate breweries and distilleries. The license fees are $1,000 or upwards, as the city council may prescribe, in cities of 10,000 and upwards; elsewhere $500 or upwards. Druggists may sell on medical prescription without license. Physicians who prescribe to evade the law are subject to fine. All places where liquor is sold must be closed from II p. m. to 5 a. m.. except hotels. Violation of this rule is followed by forfeiture of the license, and fine. The licensing authorities may revoke the license for violation of any of the liquor laws or conditions of the license. If a license is revoked for selling to a minor or drunkard after notice not to sell, the offender is disqualified for five years from holding a license. In other cases, revocation disqualifies for one year. Conviction of selling to a minor, to an habitual drunkard or intemperate per- son after notice forfeits the license. All convictions of viola- tions of the license law arc certified by the court to the licensing authorities. Xo license shall be issued \\ithin 1,500 feet of any public school in localities outside of incorporated cities, villages and boroughs. Penalties are up to $300 for keeping open on election day; for selling at retail without license or off the premises described in the license; selling to a minor; to a student at any institution of Icnrning: to an habitual drunkard or intemperate drinker, or an //jrox/cntcd person; keeping o^etv otv S»>axvdaY; selling to In- LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO77 dians; selling in the state capitol grounds during sessions of the legislature; selling within one mile of the state fair grounds, or within half a mile of Hamline University, or one mile of the University of Minnesota, or two miles of a religious meeting, ex- cept regular licensees; selling between 11 p. m. and 5 a. m. ; for allowing any game except billiards and pool or allowing minors to play at dice, cards, billiards or pool; selling without a license; operating a *'blind pig" or "hole in the wall;" for druggist allowing liquor to be drunk on the premises; for selling liquor in a prohibition district. In the city of Minneapolis the so-called "patrol limit act" prevails. It limits licensed places to a certain territory, which is practically the business portion of the city, and applies equally to hotels as to dramshops. MISSISSIPPI. License and local option prevails. Elections on the ques- tions of prohibiting the liquor traffic may be held not oftener than every two years. No retail license shall be granted in any supervisor's district, city, town, or village if the majority of the voters have petitioned the authorities not to grant such license, within twelve months after such petition is presented. Where license is permitted, the corporate authorities of cities, towns and villages may grant licenses for the sum of $600 to $2,500. Outside of such municipalities the boards of county supervisors issue licenses for a fee of not less than $600. Besides, the fol- lowing taxes are imposed by the state: Bottling establishments $20, breweries $150, dealers in hop tea, hoppenweis and similar drinks $25 ; dealers in vinous or spiritous liquors ir* quantities of I to 5 gallons, $300; the same in quantities of 5 gallons or more, $100; wholesale liquor dealers in cities of S,ooo or more inhab- itants, $100; the same in cities of 2,000 to S,ooo, $50; the same elsewhere, $25; distilleries, $50. Retailers may sell at whole- sale. In the Yazoo-Mississippi delta district retail dealers pay $100; bottlers $10. Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for selling liquor within two miles of any place of religious worship except regular licensed dealers at their regular places of business ; keeping open on Sunday or election day; selling without license; keeping disorderly house; allowing gaming; selling to intoxlcal^d ^^^x- sons ; to persons in the habit of getting \tvtoxicaXfc^\ ^si \.tv^v^'^^ I078 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. i I and to minors; landlords allowing tenants to sell nnlawfu selling in prohibition districts; selling at places of amuscm or public assemblages; putting up screens or other devices to c ceal the interior of the place; selling within five miles of state university. Any person may sell wine made of grapes grown by h self in any quantity not less than one gallon, at the reside or vineyard of the seller, to a sober person ^ho is not in habit of becoming intoxicated, without license, but this does i apply where an election has resulted against the sale of liqu / MISSOURI. High license and local option is the prevailing system, election to decide whether or not liquor shall be sold m be held upon the application of one-tenth of the voters in s incorporated city or town with a population of more than 2.5 or a like proportion in a county exclusive of such cities or tow The election must not be held within three months of any otli If the vote is against liquor, the sale of it is prohibited uin penalties of $300 to $1,000 fines or imprisonment for 6 to months, or both. An exception is made in favor of wine the sacrament and alcohol for medicinal, mechanical, artistic, a scientific purposes. A local option election cannot be held oftei than once in four years. Where liquor is allowed to be sold the retail limit is th gaIlon>. and liquor dealers nuist have licenses. Application ; a licen-e is made to the county court and must be supported a city or town of 2.500 or c»ver by a majority of the taxpayi in the same blfxk. elsewhere by a majority of the taxpayers the city, town or township and also on the block. The petiti nmsi U' renewed every year. The court may grant or refi the license, and if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the tr payers and the applicant is of go«:^d character, it must be grant Kvcry six months the licensee gives a sworn statement of 1 quantity and value of all liquors received by him and pays there an ad valorem tax equal to that paid by merchants on merchandi He pive-i a bond of $j.ooo for obedience to the law. The licei fees are semi-annual and at the following rate: For state pi pnsc> $^^0 to ?-200. for county purposes $250 to $400. Local i thontics mny impose an add\v\oT\^\ v^^. In cities the maj LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO79 and assembly have power to regulate the liquor traffic; retail license fees must be not less than $750. Fines up to $1,000 are provided for keeping booths, tents, etc., within one mile of any religious field meeting; for keeping open on Sunday or general election day; selling to Indians, in- toxicated persons, habitual drunkards; selling without a license; druggists selling in quantities less than four gallons, except on written prescription of a physician or for art, mechanical and scientific purposes, failing to keep a record of sales in the proper way, or suffering liquor to be drunk at or about his place of business; selling by peddlers, or on carts, carriages or boats; knowingly selling to a student of the state university or any school, college or academy; selling to minors or having a minor play at any game without written permission of parent, master or guardian; selling intoxicating liquors to be drunk on the premises where made ; selling to an inebriate after notice from a relative not to do so; having any music, billiard or other game or allowing such to be carried on in th? premises. Forfeiture of license with disqualification for two years may follow for selling on Sunday. Forfeiture must be ordered for keeping a disorderly house. The selling of any unwholesome drink without making its nature known to the purchaser is fined up to $1,000. To manu- facture or sell any ale or beer containing any substitute for **hops, pure extract of hops, pure barley malt, or wholesome yeast" is punishable by fine from $500 to $5,000. All beer is required to be inspected by state inspectors, and a tax of one cent a gallon for inspection and two cents for labeling each package, except on beer exported from the state, is levied. In the city of St. Louis a list of all licensees is furnished the controller twice a month and the police report on all dram- shops. Obscene and immoral pictujes are prohibited. No woman reputed to be immoral is allowed to be employed as bartender or waiter or to sing or dance in an improper manner. Saloons are prohibited within 500 feet of the five principal parks. Three citizens may make a sworn complaint to the mayor of a disorderly saloon, the mayor must cite the keeper before him, and if convinced of the truth of the complaint must revoke the li- cense. Licenses cannot be transferred. io8o LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. Il ■< { r n \ '■\ MONTANA. License and local option prevails. Upon the petition of o third of the voters of any county an election is held to < termine whether liquors shall be sold, such election to be h not oftener than once in two years. If the vote is in favor the sale of liquor. licenses must be procured from the coui treasurer, and in cities and towns another one from the muni pality. The licenses for retailing, that is, selling liquor quantities less than one quart, are for six months; in citi towns, villages and camps with a population of lo.ooo and o^ and within one mile therefrom, $300; the same of 3.500 to i 000, $250; the same i.boo to 3.500, $240; the same ,^00 to 1,0 $200; the same under 300, or elsewhere. $150. Licenses are i transferable. Wholesale licenses are determined by the avcra monthly sales as follows: For sales of $100,000 or more. ^ per month; $75,000 to $100,000. $60; $50,000 to $75,000. $40; $L| 000 to $50,000. $25: $30,000 to $40,000. $20: $20,000 to $30.0 $15; $10,000 to $20,000. $12; $5,000 to $10,000, $8; $2,500 $5,000, $5: $1,250 to $2,500. $4: $400 to $1,250, $3: less than $4< $1. Brewers or sellers of malt liquors in quantities of more thai pallons. pay license? according to their monthly sales as follov Sales of $3,000 or more. $50; $1,000 to $3,000, $25: $500 $1,000. $12.50: less than $500. $7.50. Distillers, manufacture and rectifiers of spirituous liquors pay a license of $600 per ye Manufacturers of malt who do not make malt liquors pay $i.c per quarter. City and town councils have power to issue censes in adilition. not to exceed the amounts of the state licens Fines are provided up to $500 for selling \\herc the liqu traffic is prohibited: selling without a license; selling on clecti flay while the polls arc open : selling liquor in any theater other place of amusement, or employing a female to sell liqu in such a place: selling within one mile of any camp meetir except at regular licen*!ed places: adulterating or diluting li«iu with fraudulent intent : selling within two miles of any railro; in the course of construction, except in cities or towns. NEBRASKA. High license with local option by counties prevails. T Iicen>inf; niithoritics are the county commissioners, except Omaha, where the board oi fvte ^tvA vo\\ct c.ovv\missioncrs p< LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO81 form this function; in Lincoln, where an excise board exist§; in other cities, the city council; in incorporated villages, the board of trustees. Application is made with the approval of a majority of the freeholders of the town or precinct, and if ob- jection is made, a hearing must be appointed. The authorities may refuse all applications, and must do so if the applicant has had a former license revoked or violated the liquor law within a year. The license fees are not less than $1,000 in cities with a population of 10,000 or over, and not less than $500 elsewhere. The licensee gives a bond of $5,000. No one may be surety on more than one bond. Druggists may get permits without fee to sell liquor for medicinal, mechanical or chemical purposes. Licensees must keep doors and windows unobstructed. The civil liability of the licensee extends to all damage sus- tained by the community or individuals from his traffic. He must support paupers, widows and orphans who become so by intemperance from liquor supplied by him, and pay all expenses of civil or criminal prosecutions gn"owing out of, or justly attributed to, his traffic. Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for the following offenses: Selling within forty rods of an agricultural fair; selling without license; violating any excise rule prescribed by the proper au- thorities; selling to minors, apprentices, insane persons or hab- itual drunkards; selling to Indians who are not citizens; selling liquor on election days or Sundays; druggists failing to keep the required records of all sales; for "treating or giving any liquors" in any saloon or public place where they are kept for sale; within three miles of open air religious meetings, except regular licensed places. Persons may, without a license, sell wine made from grapes grown by them in the state. A fine of up to $100 is provided for putting adulterated liquor into a vessel having a mark of a maker of wine from grapes in the state, for the purpose of de- ceiving a person; also selling liquors adulterated with poisonous ingn"edients or any other substance. NEVADA. Licenses are issued by the county commissioners who have authority to license, tax, regulate or prohibit draroaVvof^^^ ^\k..% "sccA. in unincorporated cities and towns to W^i'j 2k. Vml ^a^^^ycv ^XvO^s.-^^ IC63 LEGAL KELATIONS OF THE BREWER. ti^aor inerdianti, tocwers, tnanufactiiTcrs of liqvon and bee •iilooaa, bar^ buTCXHni, oeUan, etc Lkense fees for sik in qmi tities not les* than one quart are as follmks per month: For sah of $100,000 or more in a month. $50 per month; sates |75,ooo t $100,000. fee $37-5o; $50,000 (o $75,000, fee $35; and so o down to $1,000 a month or less, fee $3.50. Retail licenses (In than one (^■■'1) *i^ >1 the rate of $to a month, unless in hotel located one mile from any city or town, «hen $15 is paU Peddlers, etc, pay $25 a month. To conduct a hurdy-gnrd; house, dance house, concert saloon, etc., $500 every three month in addition to the retail license. Traveling agents pay $200 1 year. Wine or liquors produced from the agriculttir^ product of the state may be sold by the manufaclurcr, and liquors nse< by druggists and physicians in the preparation of medicines. Fines nut up to $1,000 and are for the following offenses Doing business without a license; selling on election day; via lating municipal ordinances; keeping a booth for selling liquo within one mile of any leligious meeting: knowingly scltini poisonous or adulterated liquors; selling lo a minor or mcota imbecile without an order from parent or 'guardian, or lo ai Indian ; failure to keep the license posted in a conspicuous place keeping or renting a saloon with an entrance on a principa street where liquors are served by females; keeping open be tween midnight and 6 a. m., except hotels. Prohibition prevails. The sale of liquor, including beer, i prohibited by law. not by tlie constitution. The manufacture a liquor, however, is not prohibited, and breweries and distillorie exist. The governor appoints an agent for the exclusive sale o liquors for use in the arts and for medicinal, mechanical, chem ical and religious purposes only. Sales are made to town agent appointed by the municipalities. Domestic wine or cider is no prohibited, nor the sale of spiriltious liquors imported into Ih »lale and sold in the original packages. Municipal ofiiccrs ar liable to fine for failure to prosecute for violations of the l.tw Other persons prosecuting violators receive one-half of the fin collected. Persons arrested for drunkenness will not be pun ished if they disclose the persons from whom rhey procured th liqaor and testify against them. Cit««nn, «nn&, ceataniaat LEGAL RELATIONS OF TUE BREWER. IO83 « and places of amusement may be searched for liquors, and all liquor found and instruments used in their manufacture and sale in violation of law, seized and forfeited. Selling spirituous liquor by persons other than authorized agents entails a fine of $50 for first offense and $100 for subsequent offenses ; $100 fine for a common seller of spirituous liquor ; like- wise $10 and $50 for selling malt liquor or cider ; for soliciting or taking orders for liquors, $50 and $100; for bringing liquor into the state for unlawful use, * $50; for wilfully letting any person use one's premises for the illegal sale of liquors, $200; for furnishing liquor to a minor, pauper, spendthrift or idle person under guardianship, except by permission of guardian, up to $20; for adulterating liquors with any substance poison- ous or injurious to health, or selling them, up to $1,000. Liquors kept in violation of law inay be seized and forfeited. NEW JERSEY. License and local option prevails, the question whether li- censes shall be issued being decided not by vote of the electors but by the authorities of each municipality. The law authorizes each municipality to regulate the liquor traffic in its jurisdiction and to appropriate to its own use all the fees received from licenses. There is, therefore, no uniformity in the regulation or taxation of the traffic. NEW MEXICO. City councils and boards of trustees in towns have authority to license, regulate or prohibit the sale of liquors. Minimum fees are: Wholesale license, $100; brewers', $60; distillers', $200; retailers' in places up to 500 inhabitants, $100; 500 to 1,000, $200; above 1,000, $400. Fines up to $500 are imposed for selling to a minor with- out the consent of parents or guardian ; doing business without a, license in places where license is required; adulterating liquors with any deleterious substance; allowing minors to play games on the premises; furnishing liquor to an Indian, except the Pueblos; drinking, using, selling or disposing of liquor on elec- tion day; selling to an habitual drunkard, knowing him to be such, or to a person in the habit of getting intoxicated, after notice, or to an intoxicated person. . Druggists way sell on physician's pitsetv^xSoTv •a.-cA Xvajas^^' I084 LEGAL RELATIONS OK THE BREWER. be mamifactured from fmiu growD in the temtoir and aold i qnanlitics of not leu than one quart. NEW VOBK. The following abstract of the Liquor Tax Law. as it is off dally known, or the Raines La«, as it is popularly called, i taken from Mida's Oimpenditun of Information for the Liqna Interests: The word liquor shall mean all distilled or rectified ^iriti wines, nult and fermented liqOofS. All liquor tax certificate! will be issued by the state conunii sioner practically without discrimination to anyone who pay tbe required fee, whether it be for a dive or a palace. Ever liquor tax certificate in New York City will cost 98oo a year in Brooklyn, $650; in Bu6Fa]o and other leading cities, fsoo; ii cities under 50,000 inhabitants, $350; in towns under lo^cnc $300; in villages under 5.000, $200; in any other place, fioo. Tb tax certificates for the sale of bottled goods and liquors not t be drunk on the premises grade from $500 in New York Cit to $50 in the smallest boroughs. Every dining car, buffet ca and steamboat will be charged $30O for a liquor license. Towns can vote on local option every two years. The consen of two-thirds of the owners of dwelling houses within 200 fee of a place must be secured before a certificate will be granted. > bond double the amount of the lax must be furnished, which i' liable for every violation of the liquor lax law. The tax cerlificati must be posted in a window facing the slrect on the ground Hoot if the entrance is on that floor. No dry goods, grocery, provisioi or drug store keeper can sell liquors to be drunk on the preniisei unless in sonic place entirely distinct from the regular place o: business. Only citizens of the United Slates and of New York can secun tax certificates. No liquor can be sold in any building belongin{ to the public. No bar can be within 200 feet of a school housi or church, except in hotels. No liquor can be sold anywhere ot Sunday or between i and 5 a. m. on week days, except in hotel! with meals or in rooms. No screens or shades can be drawr to conceal the interior of [he place during prohibited hours Any person selling liquor without a ta.»: certificate shall be fine^ not less than twice the amount of the annual tax. This woul^ make the fine $1,600 in New York Ciiy. Anyone violating lh< orovisions of this act s\vaU be &ne4 i«\. wwtt ftaa %tf« m im- LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE HREVVER. IO85 prisoned for one year and forfeit the year's certificate. Two convictions will bar for five years the securing of a new certificate. All clubs in which liquor is distributed must pay the same tax as hotels and saloons. They are not subject to visitation by ex- cise inspectors, except on the direction of the excise commissioner. They may distribute liquors to their members at any time, pro- vided they were incorporated prior to March 23, 1896, the date when the original tax law was signed. Clubs organized since that time will not be permitted to distribute liquor on Sundays, election days, or between the hours of i and 5 o'clock in the morning. ^ Hotels, within the meaning of the law, are such as have at least ten bedrooms for guests above the basement floor. These must be separated by partitions not less tlian three inches thick, which must extend from floor to ceiling. Independent access to every room must be provided from a hallway. Every room must have at least 80 square feet of floor space and 600 cubic feet of air space. A window must be provided for every room. The hotel dining room must contain at least 300 square feet of floor surface, and have accommodations for at least twenty diners. The bar may not be in the dining room. Guests of hotels arc defined to be persons who hire rooms at regular rates not merely to be served with drinks, or such as resort to the liotel for meals at the regular hours when meals arc served. Beer bottlers have to pay a tax of $100 for every delivery wagon they employ. The pharmacists* tax has been reduced to $25 in the city and $5 in the country town. A dealer in liquors who know- ingly employs in his business a man who has been convicted of a felony is guilty of misdemeanor. Liquors may not be sold to a minor to be used by another. Permits to sell liquor all night at balls and entertainments may br obtained of the mayors of cities of the first class for $5 a night. Any citizen may secure an in- junction to restrain the illegal sale of liquor. Violators of the law in New York City are to be tried exclusively in the Court of Special Sessions. (No jury.) NORTH CAROLINA. A license tax of two per cent on the total amount of pur- chases is paid by a person who buys liquors for the purpose of selling them. Druggists pay $50 per annum for dcaliu^j, vcv liquors, but can sell only on the prcsefvvVXmx o\ t^ -sj^wx-OCxOvnxsj^ flhyncian; a violation of this provision \s ^\\\\\^?^>\^ "^^ "^ '^'^'^ I086 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. demeanor. A license tax is payable semi-annnally in advance fay any person selling liquors, or any social dab or associatioo handling liquors for the use of its members or guests, for selling in quantities of five gallons or less, $50 for each six months; for selling in quantities of five gallons or more, $100 every six months; for selling malt liquors only, $10 for six months. Wines of one's own manufacture or spirits may be sold in quantities not less than one quart at the place of manufacture or within 100 yards of it. Counties may levy an additional tax not greater than that imposed by the state. Incorporated cities and towns may lay an annual tax, not to exceed $25, for retailing liquors, or selling in quantities of one quart or less, except drug- gists. It is a misdemeanor punishable by fine to adulterate liqoors or knowingly sell adulterated liquors, or liquors containing properties or ingredients poisonous to the human system; to retail liquors otherwise than prescribed by law; to sell to an unmarried person under the age of 21, knowing him to be such; to sell liquor on Sunday; for a druggist to sell otherwise than en the prescription of a practicing physician. Fines are imposed as follows: $10 to $50 for selling liquor within four miles of the state university, or to any student at such university without permission in writing from some mem- ber of its faculty; $100 to $1,000 for selling liquors within five miles of a polling place within t^\clve hours of a public election- Wines made from fruit raised in the state and unfortified may be sold in bottles corked and sealed up. not to be drunk on the preiniscs. in any quantity. This does not authorize sale of wine to minor.-. Wlicro prohibition is asked for a gjreater dis- t:.nco than two miles the question is decided by an election in any city, county, town or township not oflcner than once in two years. NORTH D.\K0TA. The constitution prohibits the manufacture and importation of intoxicating liquors for sale or gift, and the keeping, selling or ■ 'tiering for sale. etc. Cit>' councils have power to forbid and pun- isr. the selling oi liquor to a minor, servant, insane person, habit- ual drunkard or intoxicated person. J[ is a. /72i5deineanor to sell liquor within one mile of a religions incL'ting, e-vcept in duly licon^d v\aces\ Vo \i\VR% Uo^uor for ule LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I087 into a courthouse, jail or prison; to adulterate or dilute liquor with fraudulent intent or sell such liquor ; to sell to an Indian ; to sell on a steamboat at a wharf on Sunday. Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for selling liquor on election days; violation of city ordinances concerning the liquor traffic; manufacturing, importing, selling or keeping for sale liquor for a beverage; selling liquor for medicinal, scientific, or mechanical purposes without druggist's license; physicians prescribing liquor except in case of actual need; obtaining liquor from druggist on affidavit and using or selling it as a beverage; druggist failing to observe the regulations imposed by law; keeping a clubhouse with liquor for members; druggist selling liquor to a person after notice from relatives or guardians not to do so ; carrier knowingly delivering liquor to be used unlawfully. Druggists must secure a license, the fee for which is $5. They can sell only upon physician's prescription or upon affidavit of purchaser, and must allow no drinking of liquor on the premises. The affidavits are required to be kept in a certain prescribed way and deposited in the county court each month. Premises may be searched for liquor, and all liquor and vessels containing it seized. Places where liquor is sold unlawfully are common nuisances and may be closed up and perpetually enjoined from operation, and the liquor found in them seized and de- stroyed. OHIO. The Dow law imposes an annual tax of $350 on persons who traffic in intoxicating liquors for every place where such traffic is carried on, payable in semi-annual instalments. This does not apply to the sale at the factory in quantities of not less than a gallon. Brewers have been held liable to pay tax on every agency. Of the tax $50 goes to the state, the balance to the county and certain other funds. Sunday selling is prohibited except by druggists on prescription. Municipal corporations may regulate, restrain and prohibit the retail trade. Selling to a minor except on written order from parent, guardian or phy- sician, is prohibited, also to an intoxicated person, or one in the habit of getting intoxicated, selling within certain distances of school houses, seminaries, colleges, at fairs, on election days and festivals, near soldiers' and sailors' homes and t^Vvsgi^Nis* gatherings, or between 12 and 6 a. m. I088 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. Public schools are reqaired to teach the nature of alcohoiic beverages and narcotics and their effects on the human s y stem , teachers being examined as to these subjects. Special provisions apply to the big cities of Cincinnati, Columbus, etc. A local option provision enables districts to prohibit the liquor traffic entirely by election every two years, the payment of the tax not being equivalent to a license, as the state constitution forbids the passage of any license law. GvU h'ability for the injuries caused by intoxication is fixed after notice not to ser\'e liquor. A person who takes charge of an intoxicated person is entitled to recover his expenses from the one who supplied the liquor. The employment on railroads of persons addicted to habits of intoxication is prohibited. Minors under i8 years of age are prohibited from entering any place where liquors are sold except in the discharge of lawful tyusi- ness or when accompanied by parent or guardian. All domestic spirits are to be inspected under penalty of fine of $100 to $500. Each package must be branded with the name of the manufacturer and the i^ords **containing no poisonous drug or other added poison." Adulteration of liquor is pun- ished by fine of $100 to $500. Wine is defined as adulterated if it contains any alcohol in addition to that generated by the natural fermentation of the grape juice, or any sugar, water or other foreign substance. All wines containing less than 75 per cent of pure, undried grape juice arc marked as "com- pounded" wine. Violations of these provisions are punishable by fine from $100 to $1,000. OKLAHOMA. The excise laws of this state do not extend to those tracts of land within the state to which the Indian title has not yet been extinguished, including allotments, all of which still remain -ubject to the United States laws applying to the Indian Terri- tory (which see). Municipal authorities have power to license, regulate, prohibit •■•r suppress the liquor traffic, city, town or village authorities li.iving jurisdiction within the corporate limits and two miles Ivyond. the county authorities in all other places. License fees arc: $200 for retailing all liquors in rural districts; $100 to $500 in cities, towns and villages ; wholesaling. $100. and for malt liquors c.vol II >ivoly. $25, l\\c \\\\o\csa.W \\tv\vt being four and onc- ' ilf gallons. LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I089 Fines run up to $500 for the following offenses: Violat- ing municipal ordinances relating to the liquor traffic; selling liquor within one mile of any religious gathering except at regular licensed places; selling on days of general election; sell- ing within a courthouse except at a place designated by the county commissioners; adulterating liquors for sale, or selling such liquor ; selling to any Indian ; selling on Sunday ; selling to minors without written order of parent, guardian or family physician, to apprentices or servants under age, to intoxicated persons or persons in the habit of getting intoxicated; for sell- ing without a license or in violation of the terms of the license; keeping open between midnight and 5 a. m. ; selling to any per- son after notice from a justice of a peace not to do so; permitting gambling; obstructing the view from the street by screens, etc. Persons may sell wine in quantities not less than one gallon made from grapes grown by them on their land, without a license. OREGON. Licenses with fees of $400 for all liquors and $2000 for malt liquors only, are granted in the 'discretion of the county court, municipal authorities of incorporated cities and towns being authorized to impose special terms, and to license, tax, regulate and restrain the liquor traffic. Applicant must give a bond of $1,000. He must secure the consent of a majority of the legal voters in the precinct and a greater number than is signed to any remonstrance against the license. The petition, with the names of the signers, is published for four weeks. Wine growers may sell their product without a license in quantities not less than one quart. Fines up to $500 are imposed for the following offenses: Violating ordinances regulating the liquor traffic; selling adulterated drinks; keeping a disorderly house; permitting un- lawful gaming or riotous conduct; keeping open on Sunday; selling to minors, habitual drunkards, or intoxicated persons; selling without a license; selling within half a mile of the grounds of the Oregon State Agricultural Society, or any other agricultural society, without the written consent of the officers of such society; allowing minors to loiter around place where liquor i= sold; selling within four miles of any place where the genr-al government is constructing canals, lo ^\k..\ vS^cccw^ logo LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. to Indians and half-breeds living with Indians; selling within two miles of any religious assembly. PENNSYLVANIA. Authority to grant licenses is vested in the court of quarter sessions. Applications are filed three weeks before the beginning of a term and published three times in two newspapers. The application must state that the place is necessary for the accom- modation of the public, that none of the applicants are pecuniarily interested in the sale of liquors at any other place in the county, that the applicant is the only person pecuniarily interested in the business, and if the applicant held a license during any part of the year and if it was revoked. Two reputable freeholders of the ward must be sureties for $2,000. The bondsmen must not be engaged in the manufacture of liquors and if on more than one bond must qualify in $4,000 over all incumbrances and other bonds signed. Twelve qualified electors of the ward must certify that they know the applicant, believe his statements to be true, and ask that the license be issued. The court may hear re- monstrances against the appliciuion and must refuse to issue it if the place is not deemed necessary for the accommodation of the public and entertainment of the traveler or if the applicant is unfit. The court may revoke a license for any violation of the laws. The applicant must execute a bond for $2,000 with confession of judgment attached. License fees are : Brewers who produced less than 1,000 bar- rels the preceding year. $250; i.ooo to 2,000 barrels, $500; 2,000 to 3,000 barrels. $400: 3,000 to 5,000 barrels, $500; 5,000 to 10.000. $750; 10.000 to 20.000 barrels. $1,000; every 10.000 barrels more. $250 additional up to 100.000, which takes a license fee of $3,000; 100.000 to 150,000 barrels. $4,000; 150,000 to 200,000 barrels. $4,500; 200.000 to 300.000 barrels, $5,000; more than 300,000 bar- rels, $6,000. Distillers' licenses are similarly graduated. New breweries and distilleries pay $1,000 for the first year regardless of pro- • luction. Brewers paying $1,000 Mccnse may sell to licensed liquor dealers malt beverages of their own manufacture in packages of not less than twelve pint Ixntles or casks of not less than one- eighth barrel, and deliver their product in the county in which they arc iicenscd. Retail dealers pay the io\\ovi\i\^ \k^i^^^ tecs: In cities of LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO9I the first and second class, $500 to $1,000; cities of the third class, $500; in other cities, $300; in boroughs, $150; in town- ships, $75. In cities of the first class, four-fifths go to the city and county, one-fifth to the state; in cities of the second and third classes, two-fifths to the city, two-fifths to the county, one- fifth to the state ; in other cities and boroughs, three-fifths to the city or borough, one-fifth to the county, and one-fifth to the state; in townships, one-half to the township, one-quarter to the county, and one-fourth to the state. In addition, licensed dealers pay for the state in cities of the first and second class, $100; in other cities and boroughs, $50; in townships, $25. Penalties for selling without a license are $500 to $5,000 and imprisonment for one year ; for violation of the laws gov- erning licensed places, $100 to $5,000 and imprisonment for 3 to 12 months; for keeping a disorderly house, r'. 180S: The stale board of control, conMsting of the governor. 1 ci'mplmlliT .iiid the attorney -general, appoint in each coiir a U^ard of three persons not "'adciiclnl tn the use of infoxicali liquor.-,'' anJ llice county boards api>oinl "dispensers of liquni Ther,- may he one dispenser for each county, ten for the city ClL-irli'ion. aini three for the city of Columbia. Others may -i/'poinlei! ivli.-rcver the board thinks Ibey are necessary. The (/I'spcnscr must present feU application for a "pennil LEGAL RELATIOKS OF THE BREWER. IO93 statii^ his name, place of residence, business, and in what busi- ness he has been engaged for the last two years ; ihat he is a ciiizen of the United States and of the state of South Carolina; that he has never been adjudged guilty of violating the law relating to intoxicating hquors, and is not a licensed dru^st, a keeper of a hotel, eating house, saloon, restaurant, or place of public amusement, and that he is not addicted to the use of in- toxicating liquor as a beverage. This petition must be signed and sworn to by the applicant, and must also be signed by a majority of the freehidd voters of the incorporated town or city in which the permit is to be used, each of whom must state Ihat, before signing, he has read the petition and understands its contents and is well and personally acquainted with the ap- plicant. The dispenser must execute a bond in $300, with sure- ties, and give an undertaking to comply with all the require- ments of the act. Before delivering intoxicating liquor to any person, a request must be presented to the dispenser, printed or written in ink, cor- rectly dated, staling the age and residence of the signer, for whose use the liquor is required, the quantity and kind requested and his or her true name or residence, and, where numbered, by street and number, if in a city; and the request must be signed l»y the applicant in his own Irue name and signature, and at- tested by the county dispenser or his clerk, who receives and files the request in his own true name and signature, and in his own handwriting. It must be refused if the dispenser knows that the person applying is a minor; that he is intoxicated, or in Ihc habit of using liquor to excess; or if the applicant is not so known lo the dispenser, he shall require identification and the statemeni of a reliable person of good habits who is known to the dispenser, that the applicant is not a minor and is not in the habit of using intoxicating liquors to excess. Blank forms of request for the purchase of liquors are fur- nished by the stale board of control, and each dispenser must make full returns, monthly, to the county auditor, with his sworn stalemeni that he has made full disclosure of all business done by him. A state commissioner, who is an abstainer, is appointed by the governor, whose business it is lo purchase pure liquor CeLiitwL the preference lo manufacturers and b(e*eT^ &om% \»iww«i ^^ I094 LEGAL RELATIOKS OP THE BREWIUI. the slate), and selt it to the county dispensers at ft price not i cceding 50 per L-cnt above the net cost. This provision does 1 apply to beer shipped in bottles, cases or barrels. No liquor, except beer, is to be brought into the state, transported within tt, otherwise than in a package bearii^ certificate with the signature and seal of the slate comission under a penalty of $500. Manufacturers doing business in the state are allowed to < to no one in the state except the commissioner, and he is sell only to county dispensers, in packages of not less than half pint, nor more than five gallons. The county dispensers 1 not permitted to break the packages, nor to purchase of aayo but the state commissioner. Purchasers must not <^ta 1 package on the premises. The dispenser must not charge more than 50 per cent abt cost, and in sales to druggists for compounding prescriptions 1 more than 10 per cent. The proceeds of sales by the state commissioner go to 1 state; those of sales by the dispensers, after payment of 1 penses, are divided equally between the county and the municip i'y- Anyone concerned in keeping a club room or other place whi intoxicating liquors are received or kept for barter or s: division or distribution antong the members, is punishable bj fine of $iix) to 5500, and imprisonment three to twelve mom A place where liquor is illctjally sold may Iw declared a nuisai and by judicial proceedings abated, closed and perpetually 1 joined. Heavy penalties are provided against al! who violate disobey the law. SOUTH DAKOTA. A general license law. coupled with local option, prevails, the annual municipal election in lownships, towns and cities u|' petition signed by twenty-five legal voit-r*. thirty days hefi election, llie qnestion: "Shall inlp?(icaling liquors be sold at tail ?" is submitted to the voters. Only if the election is in favor such traffic can licenses be issued. Licenses are issued by the county treasurer upon payment $400 for selling intoxicating liquors at retail ; $600 for selling n\ liquors at ivliolesalc; $1,000 for selling spirituous liquors wholesale ; $400 for nianutacVui'ws «^a\^ \\«\\««*-, ^i.ooo for m; LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 1095 ufacluring spirituous liquors. Each place of sale must be licensed. The wholesale limit is five gallons. No license is imposed on the sale of wine or cider from fruits grown in the state, unless sold by the drink. The license is required to be posted in a conspicuous place. No license can be granted to any person who has ever served a term in any penitentiary or shall be convicted of keeping a disorderly house. In addition, cities and towns may impose licenses from $200 to $6oa Penalties are fines of $50 to $500, or imprisonment for not more than 30 days, or both, for doing business without a license; selling to a minor or intoxicated person, a person in the liabil of getting intoxicated, or to any other person where forbidden in writing by husband, wife, parent, child, guardian or employer, supervisor of the township, or president or a trustee of the town, mayor of a city, or board of county commissioners; obstructing doors or windows ; allowing games to be played ; allow ing minors to enter; keeping open on Sunday or election day, or between II p. m. and 5 a, m. ; adulterating liquors with any deleterious substance. Violation of any of the provisions of the liquor law also works a forfeiture of the license. A bond of $2,000 is given to obey tEie law' and pay all damages that may be adjudged against the dealer. The bondsman must not be engaged in the liquor business and must be a freeholder and resident of the county, township or city. The municipal authorities may refuse a license if the applicant is of immoral character or is deemed unfit for the business. The application is accompanied by a petition signed by twenty volcrs and published for two weeks. No place for the sale of liquor can be located in the same block with, or adjacent block to. any school or within 200 feet of any church. Druggists may sell without licence for medicinal, scientific, mechanical or sacramental pur- poses. TENKESSF.E. The right to sell liquor is declared by the code a taxable privi- lege and cannot be granted to persons who are incompetent to be witnesses in the courts of justice, or to any person who has been convicted of violating a former license by keeping a dis- orderly house or permitting gambling, or who has been twice con- victed of an unlawful sale to minors. The applicant gives to tt« county clerk a sworn statement of the va\ue cA \\vt \-«vati^ \ve- 'v»- 1096 LEGAt RELATIONS OP TBB BREWER. tends to offer for sale, and a bond of $500 to Veep an ordn hoiue and comply with the law, and takes an oath not to pem gambling or any violation of law in the place licensed, nor mix or adalterate liquors. The rates of taxation are as follows: Brctvers $200. inchfdii agents of foreign breweries; bottlers, except bottlers of minei waters and brewers who botlle their own beer, (75 ; distilleries whisky and brandy of the capacity of twenty barrels and over day, $350; 10 to 30 barrels, $150; 5 to 10 barrels. $70; and 5 barrels, $5; wholesale liquor dealers. $300: retail liquor dealet in places of 5,000 inhabitants or over, $200; in smaller plact $150. Retailers are persons selling in quantities of one gallon less. These taxes apply to druggisrs. except for the sale wine for sacramental purposes and alcohol for domestic purpoH Persons or corporalions selling on boat;, rail mad rars, etc.. $31 Fines arc tip to i;oo. and in some aits inip[i<^onment. for frau ulcntly 3dulleraling liquors for sale; selling without license; se ing any liqunr in any factory, mine, quarry, clc OMned by a fc eign corporalion; selling n'ribiii one mile of any place of puW worship; selling in places of anmsemcrt or wiihin half a mile oi fair : keeping open on Sunday or election d:iy5 : celling to studer of any educational institution: selling to minors without consent parent or gunrdinn: selling 10 an habitual drunkard after wrili< notice from the wife not to do so: selling wiihin four miles any incorporated institution of Warning, or school-house, exec in cities or ai wholesale b>' regular licensee!^. TEVAS. . License and local option is the law of the ?talc. The connn' .=ioners' court for each county may. and upon petition of 2 I voters must, orijer an election on the question whether liqu I shall be sold or not. Such elections cannot he held oflcner lli, ' every two years. If prohibition fails 10 c.nrry in 3 county il does not prevent n vote being taken in a precinct or dislr witlitn the couiuy. hut if prohibition is ndi^pted for the eoimtv canni'l l)e nullilied hy vnte in a district or precinct within t Where liquor scllinR is allowed the stale collects a license t of $1,100 for reiailinR in quantities less than one quart. $3cn flUaiiridVs of 1 to p gallotii. Sjoo in quantities of c, gall"ns a' ward. $50 for mall 1wi«pt otAj. "Vo-Kn* ^lA Vv\V*»es may ie LEGAL KELAtlONS OF TSE BREWER. I097 tin additional tax of one-half (he state (ax. City councils h.ive full power to license, (ax, and regulate the traffic, inckiding breweries and distilleries. The licensee must give a bond of $5,000 and pay a penalty of $500 for any violation of a condition of the bond. Fines are provided up to $500 for violating any city ordinance relating to the liquor traffic ; selling liquor without a license, keep- ing a disorderly house; selling to minors without written con- sent of parent or guardian, to students, habitual drunkard;, or any other person after written notice from proper parties not to sell to him'; allowing games prohibited by state law to be played on the premises ; failing to keep license posted in a conspicuous place ; keeping open within three miles of an election precinct on an election day ; selling to an Indian of the wild and unfriendly tribes, or of the Choctaw or Chickasaw ter- ritory; selling liquor in prohibition districts; running a "blind tiger;" adulterating liquor with any substance injurious to herilth, or selling liquor so adulterated. A license law prevails in this state. The licensing authorities are (he city councils in cities, and county boards outside of the cities, Ci(y councils have e.tclusivc power to license, tax. regulate and prohibit ihc liquor traffic, the state law being operative in that respect only outside of the cities. License fees in counties must be $600 to $1,200, The granting of licenses is discretionary with the authorities. Licensees give bond to obey the law and pay damages. Vine growers may make wine from their own fruits and sell in quantilies not le«R than five gallons withoui a license. Municipal authorities may, by proclamation, forbid the sale of liquor on a legal holiday. Fines up to $1,000 and in cer(ain cases imprisonment up to six months are provided tor the following offenses; Selling liquor to an Indian or half-breed, or any person living with an Indian woman; selling without a license; adulterating or diluting liquors with fraudulent intent; selling liquors to minors under 16 years of age; having females playing ins(riimen(s. dancing, etc.. in .saloons; selling liquor within one mile of any religions meet- ing, except regular dealers ; selling liquor in theaters, museums, circuses, etc.; keeping open on Sunday or on election daYS■,»«'•^- ing liquors not inspected by atat.« \i\s5eeing a law- ful agent, is fined $100 for the first offense, and $200 for sut>- sequcnt offenses, and on the third or subsequent conviction shall be imprisoned four to twelve months. Informers get half the fine collected. Liquors intended for unlawful use may he eon- fiscalcil. Soliciting orders for liquor is prohibited. Imported liquor must t>e marked with the name of the consignee. Parlies who furnished liquor contributing to the intoxication of a person are liable in damages if Ihc intoxicated person injures any one, and if the intoxicated person is imprisoned, nnist pay $2 a day to Ihe wife or children under age. Owners of buildings having reason lo know that liquor is sold there are liable for injuries caused by such intoxication. Places where liquor is unlawfully sold or kept are public nuisances. Adulteration of liquor or sale of adulterated liquors is subject lo fine of $300. LEGAL RELATIOKS OF THE BREWER. The system is license with local oplton, administered by a state board of commissioners of excise ivho appoint three com- missioners for each city. This board examines for itself the necessity, convenience and fitness of any proposed licensed place and the character of the applicant. Remonstrances against appli- cations may be heard. If tlie application is granted the licensee must file a bond of $250 to $500. An appeal lies to the circuit court from the decision of the board. License fees are as follows : Wholesale, (general), $350; wholesale (malt liquor only), $150; retail in town& of not more than 1.000 population. $75: retail for malt liquor only, $30: retail elsewhere, $125: bar-rooms in towns of less than i.aoo. $75, and 15 per cent of the rental value of the room; bar-rooms elsewhere, $izs. and the same 15 per cent; . matt liquor saloons in towns under 1,000, $40; same elsewhere, J60; license for "ordinary" in towns under 2.000, $75; same else- ■ where, $125, and 8 per cent of the rental value of the house and furniture up to $1,000; 5 per cent up to $2,ooo, and 3 per cent upward of $2,000; "sample liquor merchants" pay a license ta^ of $350. License for "ordinary" includes sale for consumption on the premise.w>\^ aw sAA cm ck *i''y. ?jo 10 Siuo. tfeUAt HEIATIONS OF THE BREWER. IIOI Brcwet/ Licenses: 25.ix)0 barrels a year or more. $550; i5.<»o to 25,000 barrels, $350; 5000 to 15,000 barrels, $200; i.ooo to 5.000 barrels, $125; 1,000 barrels or less, $50. Temporary places for sale of liquor are prohibited within tuo miles of a camp meeting, or half a mile of any other place for religious worship, property of offenders to be seized and the liquor destroyed. A fine of $500 is imposed for adulterating any article of drink. Druggists are fined $25 to $100 for selling without license, except for medicinal, mechanical or scientific purposes and upon the written prescription of a practicing physician in good standing and of temperate habits. Fines for violating license pcovisions, $10 to $ioo; for selling to minors, insane persons, drunken persons or drunkards, allow- ing people to drink to intoxication on the premises, or on Sunday. Places where liquor is unlawfully sold to be considered public nuisances. WISCONSIN. License and local option prevail. A vote is taken on the ques- tion of license or no license in any city, town or village on the application of 10 per cent of the voters at the last election for governor. If prohibition is the result, the sale of liquor Is punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both. If the vote is for licenses, they arc issued by the board of supervisors in a town, trustees in a village and the mayor in a city. Special elections may be held in towns, villages and cities not oftener than once in three years to determine the amounts that shall be paid for li- censes. The license is for the sale of intoxicating liquors to be drunk on the premises. The fees are in towns having in their boundaries no city or village with a population of 500 or more, not less than $100; elsewhere, not less than $200. These fees may be raised by vote to $250 or $400 in the first case and $350 or $500 in the second case. Pharmacists for a fee of $10 may sell for medicinal, mechanical and scientific purposes. If a permit is refused to a pharmacist he may sell only on prescription. Li- censees must give lx>nd in $500. City councils have power to li- cense and regulate breweries, distilleries, etc. Fines range up to $200 for the violation of ordinances or of the conditions of the license; for selling to minors, except upon the written order of parents or guardian ; for keeping a disord^^ house or permitting gambling; for sellxtv^ Xo "^ ^^\^oxi\»xcx>v^^iN-^^ tt02 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. or borderii^ upon intoxication." or lo an habitual drunkard ; t selling without license; for pharmacist not keeping a record sales of liquor or otherwise violating the conditions of his licens for selling to any person given to the excessive drinking liquors after having received notice from the wife or prop county, city, village or town authorities not to sell liquor him; for selling within one mile of insane asylums; for sellii on Sunday, day of the annual town meeting or the annual fi elections: for selling to an Indian, except "civilized persons i Indian descent not members of any tribe" ; for selling within tv miles of any religious meeting, except at regularly estaMishi places. Fraudulently adulterating liquors with any substance poisonou deleterious or injurious to health, and knowingly manufacturii or selling such liquor is punishable by fine up to $100. A county license is imposed on the liiguor trnDic. Retail dca ers are those selling in quantities less than live gallons, at tlit^ir license fee is ?500 a year if they nre pi.Tmitted to s( nilhiii live miles of any railroad or town, city or village, locan on any railroad: in olhiT cases the (to i» Jioo. Persons scllir liquor by the liarri,'!. case or original package arc wholesale dca ers, and pay a county license of $175. To deal lioth ci wholes and retail, both licenses must be obtained. In addition, cities ar iiicorjio rated town? have the fight to license liquor dealers and 1 regulate, resir;iin or prohibit tippling houses, etc. Fines up to Si.ooo are imposed for the following olTenses : Vii laii«n of ordinances L'onccrning the liquor trathc: selling ar pcrniiriiiiis or nlullcrated drink: adulterating liquors with fraudi lent iniciit : -I'llmR liquor within one ""ili' of any place 1 rtJigiriu.i ttot^Uip, e.\cepl regular lii-insed dealers: sealing bctwet 1I1C hlU1^^ iif 10 a. m. and .; p. 111. on Sunday, excepting hotels ar ri-siaur.iiits. and nn election day: selling without a license: sel tug to Indi.iiis: selling to minora or allowing them around ll place fif business; selling to habitual drunkards; selling to ai I'tTiOi) HDdtr 16 years of age. BEER IN DIETETICS AND ECONOMICS PURITY OF AMERICAN BEER. The purity of American beer has been of late much under dis- cussion, and charges of adulteration have been bandied about with great freedom. Adulteration is dehticd in the Century Dictionary as "tht act of adulterating, or corrupting by the admixture of foreign and baser elements, especially for fraudulent purposes; debasement." To adulterate, according to Ihc same authority, is "to make impure by the admixture of other or baser ingredients; corrupt; render counterfeit." With regard to an article of food or drink, adulteration con- sists in either or both of two things. One is to manufacture and sell an article that is not what it purports to be. but may still be harmless. The other is to sell an article, so misrepresented, that is injurious to ibe public health. From these two points of view adukcration is treated by the legislative authorities. Applying these points of view to beer, one is met at the threshold of the inquiry by the difficulty, that there exists no Standard definition of beer. From ancient times down to the present the popular beverage that passed by the name of "beer" has been undergoing so many changes that it is impossible to fix any determinate meaning for that term, from usage alone, with sufficient accuracy to draw the line between genuine l>ccr and an adulterated article. In olden times it seems the beer of the Teutonic tribes was a sweet fermented beverage in which honey was a prominent constituent, while the Slavs seem lo have em- ployed hops from the earliest lime, for the purpose of impart- ing a bitter aromatic taste and. as they imagined, giving the stimulating effect. During the latter part of the middle ages, hops began to be used in Germany. Later they found their way into England, hut as late as the time of Henry VIII their ii^ft ^t» forbidden. 1 104 BEER IN DIETETICS. As to the cereal base of the beverage, barley and wheat seen lo have been the earliest grains used. Barley having bc«ii ibi grain almost universally used by Europeans in antiquity as thi staple article af food, was alsg lai^ely used in producing beci When the art of baking bread began to become popular, to whici barley does not lend itself readily, (hat cereal was crowded ou by wheat and rye as a food, but continued lo be largely employee in brewing beer, for which purpose, however, wheat and prob- ably other starchy cereals were also employed. In modem time: tile variel}- of cereals used in the preparation of beer has beer much increased, and in the United Stales Indian cum and ric< have been quite generally inlroduced. As the true function ol starch in bcer-niaking came to be better understood, the procesi of conversion into ^ugar was anticipated and performed befurt till.' malcrial ri-achi.'il the mash tub. The ilka that the only pure beer is an all -malt beer is thu! ii^ai lo be false, both actually and historically. Bi\-r is a I'Ci't-ragc proJuctd by aUoholic fi-ntti-HlalitiH from a hi'ppcJ iHfiiswii, <:ithi-r of malit-d cereali. /•^I'fcrMy tiMllCti barU'v. t-si-liisn\'ly. or ut//i on addiliun ii( aninalti-d or prefani .-^rcali. ■ . A The actual prt'pcrtici and mode of preparation of .\mericai hi'cr were made the subjei^ of an inquir}' by a coniniilice ap I'niiiled by the Unili.'d Slates Senate. iSgij-igoo, called the Com millcc on Manufactures, The report made by this coniniiltee. o' »liicli Seiiaiiir Mason of Illinois was chairman, summed up it: i''>ni.')iisii:>ns a.s lo American beer, as follows: "One Ol the most imponam subjects under consideration ha: iivcn that "f ihc great American Brewing Industry, The com iiiillie has, ihmugh iU agents, visited ninuly-two breweries ii iiiiii'ti'i'n cities and purchased nearly 400 samples of iheir product: ill open markei, aivil. under tlic evidence of the government an .ilwie:,! cheiiii^i- .* -.■■■'■ -'. .-^li.l samples, we find but Hv( -iiMii'U's I'f Am. 1 iiorier conlaining preservaiiveP "While ill.' I . . - ' , [1,11 rank as high a.s Ameritar /vcr.*, a iiiucii brger pet cent of the imported beer saniplet aimlyzvd ivcre (outid to conlavn ^ttwiN^vscs. BEER IN DIETETICS. tI05 "Two very important questions preseni iheiiiselves to the com- mittee in consideration of beers. "First, as to whether there be a national standard fixed for beers, fixing the minimum amount of malt extract to be contained in the beer product. "Second, whether we should adopt in this country the law which prevails in some parts of the German Empire, which pro- vides that beer should be made of barley, malt and hops exclu- sively, or whether the American brewer should be permitted to use in conjunction with malt and hops other cereals, such as corn "The present methods pursued by the American brewer are the same as contained in the English law governing their brewing industries. As a rule, the American brewers make many different kinds of beer in the same brewery. The American laste for beer varies from that of other countries and the tastes in localities also vary. Some require a light beer, as more pleasant to the eye as well as taste, while others desire a much darker grade of beer. "When the American brewer uses other cereals besides barley, it is used in an unmalted state— that is, corn or rice— which gives a lighter color to the beer. It has been charged in a general, un- substantiated way. by either a witness or through a communica- tion, that these cereals did not produce as healthy a beer as an all- malt beer. But the overwhelming and almost uncontradicted evi- dence is that the use of corn or rice, for the purposes as stated, is not in the least deleterious to public health, and while the prac- tical brewers, maltsters, chemists and analytical experts, as well as medical experts, approve the use of the unmalted cereals for the purposes as staled, whenever interrogated on that point, no witness has stated before this committee why the use of corn or rice unmalted, or other unmalted cereals, ought not to be used as. it is all over the world. "Mr. Gladstone, speaking in the English Parliament upon this question, said: " 'The brswcr will brew from what he pleases, and will have a perfect choice of his material and of his methods. I am of the opinion that it is of enormous advantage to the community to liberate an industry so large as this with regard to the choice of those materials.' "The British parliamentary commUstQn \TiNes\.\^\*4 *vv% viSt^ iio6 BEER IN DIETETICS. jcct for four years, and the following is taken from their repi sustnining the bill which was passed upon the motion of ' Gladstone years before, which gave the free- ma king privilr to brewers : " 'It cannot be adinilled that the liquor made fron) malt, he yeast and water, only, has an exclusive right to the name of bt «r that the purchaser who demands beer demands an all-ii liguur. Sugar was intern) it lent ly permitted to be used in b ;i cetitury ago : for over fifty years its use has been cominuou permitted by. acts of Parliament, and eighteen years ago compi frvedoiii in ilie use of all wholesome materials was deliberat grained to brewers by Parliament.' "Wc also call attention to the following, taktn from the Engl •■Tbi. . • the relaliv -f difl 1 brev villi the d.ila at prt's I lIiL li.il:iiR-i; I't experience and anlbiirity inclines II hIuIc nil all-mail brewing fri>m a blenU of i> Ihe U-^! Knglipli ami funis" Parley is Mill the 1 ^criplifii. oi beer (pale bilttr ale. icr example!. ; -i-ripiiiiiis. wbich ci^nstitute by far the larger prtip lu'er cnMinit'd. tbe medium ur lower qualities y-ii'all (am! iHir barKv-ma!l is ni't any belter, i gi' b;irley-in::!tl. are impn'vid as brewing m.iteri n .■{ a :ii.i.leraie prop-Tii.-n •>! k-hhI brewing sn^ i.-[i.e:a:ly tbe ca?e when ibe barley from which ; li,-i- been impi'rtecily riiieiucl or barvcsicd under i -Tli.. .-.■■-;; !::i.i'. xI-.k . i- ni Ihe i-'iiiiiii'ii ihril ibe present sy.-;' ji .Snurii,, :■: i^.irvst an 1 iii.-re iie.lrlv in-l ;o The manufacturer 3 .■ .|iju:::,r !■■ i..rv;ii '.b brewer to U- liic Millie himself of wl «lv-k-:o'i;e aii^i lidltl; ■ priHlitcts he desires to Iw put into bur; and ibt bill, whi U we will finally presiiit to Congress. * ITivtn: ihe Ujt .if ir.y unwli'ilesome preservaiivcs or delcterii iLib>ia[-.ci's. ■■.\lt:cli i-v;!.:ic conce n has been excited liec.iuse it has b< .■huTiti-.I tl:.'.: :l-.v Amm can brewer uses a large amount of salicj IT ■^t'.IiT .ic:'i> ;■> prose ve the IW..TS. ■T.'..j,'.vj>tri ev:.lir« beiore ihii commillcc is clear that a sni nwuiii OS preti.T\ativ is twl d»t\£CTO\).&, ■«>x\\e v'w t?4\,ooo, a double war tax. The value of money invested is $650/100,000, and the industry gives employment to goo,ooo men. "In the language of Mr. Gladstone, this committee feel that we should 'Jiberate as to choice of material and as to process of manu- facturing an industry of SO vast a scope as is this particular in- "As lo the other question, of fixing a standard of beer, ale and porter — that is, by fixing the minimum amount of alcohol. malt extract, etc. — every witness before this committee testified in favor of fixing said standard. "Mr. Callus Thomann, secretary of the United Stales Brewers' Association, favors such a law, as did every brewer and maltster who testified before this committee. And the committee is of the opinion that this may be done under the authority of the bureau that may be established in the Agricultural Department by Senate bill 34^. "Whatever legislation may be passed should be national in its character. The brewing industry of this country has grown so extensively that the American brewers are selling their products not only in every state of the Union, but all over the world, and uniformity of standard, which is most desirable, can only be obtained by national legislation." Analyses have also been made by state officials, all of winch go to corroborate the conclusions of Senator Mason's committee, that American beer leaves nothing to be desired in point of purity, and will compare favorably with that produced in any other coun- try. A bill has been introduced in the United States Senate to cre- ate a chemical bureau in connection with the Department of Agriculture, which shall establish standards for anicl«A d WA and drink. IN DIETETICS. The most exhaustive inquiry into brewing materials was w by a British parliamentary committee, known as the Beer 1 lerials Committee, which submitted its report in March, t As this contains much that also applies to conditions in United States, some of the important passages arc here insert In the introductory part this passage occurs : "Broadly speaking, the main object of the transformati which the barley-grain — and the extract derived therefrom— dcrgo in the malt-house, the mash-tun. and the fermenting re is first to convert the starch of the grain into fermentable suj and next to convert the sugar in pan into alcohol. At the s: time certain by-products of the barley-grain, which do not dcrgo the ?ame transformations, are carried along into the b Apart from such by-products the character of (lie finished an is not altered by the use of some other starchy grain alongsidi malted barley, or by the addition to the wort of sugar more or similar to the saccharine matter yielded by malt.'' Tilt malt adjunct:; in use in breweries arc classified as folio "Details as to the various ingredient:^ at prt'sent used in manufacture of beer will be found in the appendices. Those wl are used as substitutes for, or adjuncts to, barley-malt maj roughly classified us ' "1. Corn and kindred materials, e. g.. unmalted barley, rice maiie rolled, cooked, or olbemise adapitd for brewing by rioui mechanical and cbemical proocsses. "2. Sugar and kindred materials." "Of these the most important are : "(a) Invert sugar, i. c. cape sugar treated by a process wl renders it more easily fermentable. "(b) Glucose, i, e.. sugar prepared from starch by boiling i acid. Thi' slarclies cliieiiy used for this purpose are those deri from sago and maire," The general conclusions of the committee are laid dowt these words : "Passing from these preliminary observations to the quest expressly pi't before us. we have to report that, so far as have been able lo ascertain, no materials used in the mauufac ol brer arc ddeleiious. at a\V evenW ra the quantities in w theynr^- .utiially employed. \\t\iA\«t\'h».\ v'^e ^-^^-tfCv^v^^ii BEER IN DIETETICS. 1 109 rule, if any, are so infrequent and 1111 import ant that legislation \s not required 10 deal with them. We refer, of course, lo ma- terials of normal quality — any materials (not least barlcy-maJl) may be unwholesome if they are bad in qualify." The objections that have been urged against malt adjunct; arc slated in this form : "I. That these adjuncts, or some of them, are, or may be, posi- tively injurious to health. "2. That, even if they are not positively injurious, the beer made with any proportion of them is less nutritions and wholesome than all malt beer. "3. That, apart from the question of wholesomeness, the con- sumer is entitled to know what he is getting 1 thai the product of malt and substitutes is not the same in ''nature, substance and quality" as the product of malt only; that beer means or ought to mean a liquor prepared from malt and hops only; and that, therefore, on the principles laid down by the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, the consumer is prejudiced if an adjunct beer is sold lo him as beer without a declaration of the use of the adjuncts." On the firs! point the committee begins by saying: "In respect of injury to health no serious charge has been made again.st raw grain, or prepared grains other than barley, or brew- ing sugar made from cane sugar. As to glucose, however, there has been some conflict of evidence. The question is not, how- ever, of great practical importance with regard lo beer, for it ap- pears that potato glucose is not now used in brewing in this country; and we are informed that, while il is more expensive than maize glucose, it has disadvantages (other than its .-illeged unwholesomcness) from a brewer's point of view. "With regard lo glucose made from sago, maize, etc., it is gen- erally admitted that there has been great improvement in the proces?! of matiuf.iclure in recent years; and we belike that all impurities tb.it might be considered injurious to health are eliminated." The dietetic value of malt and its adjuncts is discussed in this "It is generally admitted that, in the present position of scienliOjC knowledge, chemical analysis, by itself, is an \v(\v«^^He\ \cW. oS the food value of any article of diet. Wc arc v\ws \Vi'>'«^^ ^<*»*^^ mo BEER IN DIETETICS. on the aid of experience and comnton sense, but they do not yield uy result possessing certainty and accuracy. But we inay "(a) The amount of 'extract' (consisting of aitrogenous and non-Dilrogenous organic substance, and ash) found by analysis in beer, and generally assumed to represent approximately I he 'nutritive matter,' depeads as much on the methods of maltii^. mashing, and fermenting as on the materials used, within ttie limits practically prevalent with regard to the proportions of the different materials. ''(b) The amount of organic extract in beer is, as a rule, small, and it is doubtful whether the dtetelic value of beer (any more than the commercial value) varies at all directly with the amount of such extract which it contains. It is quite possible that a beer with a Iqw proportion of organic extract may be more valuable as an article of diet, as well as more acceptable as a beverage, than a lieer containing more extract, but inferior in flavor, brightness, soundness and digestive properties. (c) Here follows the paragraph quoted on page 1106. begin* ning 'The question as to the relative merits. . . .' " As to adul titrations the committee says: "The analogy which it as been attempted to draw between the case of beer and that of articles which arc more nearly naiural products, such as butter and coffee, is not, in our opinion, valid. Beer is in any case the result of a chemical process, whereas, when other fat is added to butter, or chicory to coffee, these in- gredients remain as such in the mixture. "Further, one malt wort is not necessarily identical with another malt wort, and the question as to the nature, substance, and quality of an article is ob\iously in part a question of degree. We are, however, satisfied that, so far as our present knowledge goes, a beer brewed with the usual moderate proportion of sugar does not, as a general rule, differ from an all-malt beer more widely tli.in one all-malt beer differs from another." The definition of beer which excludes mall adjuncts Is laid aside by the committee once and for all in the following; "It cannot be admitted that the liquor made from malt. hops. yeast and water only has an exclusive right to the name 'beer;' or fhat a purchaser who demands beer demands an all-malt liquor. Sugar was interm\Ucntt'j v"™^'>*-^^ ^'i ^ "*«<' '" beer a century ago; for over fitly yciTS Vte »•« V^s Vmv cw*:\TOw™e(i BEER m DIETETICS. ITII pemiiited by Act of Parliament; and eighteen years ago completi^ freedom in the use of all wholesome materials was dclibcraitly granted to brewers by Parliament. Under these circumstances it must be presumed to be public knowledge that beer is not al- ways made from malt and hops exclusively; and Consequently we arc of opinion that a person who demands beer and is sup- plied with a beer brewed with a proportion of malt substitutes is not thereby prejudiced. "The question whether the law should be changed is, of course, a different one. If the liquor produced from malt only were clearly distinguishable from, and definitely superior to, the liquor brewed with a moderate proportion of malt adjuncts, it would be within (he competence of Parliament, and might be in the public interest, to assign separate distinctive names to these liquors. But in our opinion this is not at present the case." With regard to fanatical proposals for legislation, there occurs a passage which ought to be borne in mind by American legisla- "We are satisfied that in the present state of scientific knowl- edge it is not possible to determine by chemical analysis with sufficient certainty to obtain a conviction whether malt adjuncts have or have not been used, except perhaps in cases where ex- cessive proportions of such adjuncts have been employed. "Consequently, a law making declaration of materials compul- sory could not be enforced if we were to rely upon analysis for detection of violation of it; and we think that to create an of- fence, of which proof could not be established, would be uide- INTEMPERANCE AS AFFECTED BY GENERAL NAT- URAL LAWS. This subject is treated interestingly in the third annual report of the Slate Board of Health of Massachusetts by Dr. Henry L Bowdilch, and his letter was republished by ihe United States Brewers' Association under the title "Intemperance in the Light of Cosmic Laws." The board collected facts and opinions from a large number of correspondents and discussed the information thus brought together, summarizing the conclusions as follows: First — Stimulants are used everywhere and, at times, abused by savage and by civilized man. Consc(iuet\tl^ , mMi^\t«C\axv qkr».x* all over the g}obe. 1112 BEER IN DIETETICS. Second — This love of stimulants is one of ihe strongest of I man inslinds. It cannot be annihilated, but maj be regulal by reason, by conscience, by education or by law when it i crouches on the rights of others. Third — CJmatic law governs it, the tendency to indnlgc intoxication being not only greater as we go from the heat of i equator toward the north, tmt the character of that intoxic.ili brcomes more violent. Fourth — Owing to this cosmic law. intemperance is very r: near the equator. It is there a social crime and 3 disgrace of I deepest dye. Liccniiousncss and gambling are small offences co pared with it. To call a man a drunkard is the highest of i suits. On the contrary-, at the north of 50° it is very frequent, less of a disgrace, is by no means a sivial crime. Fifth — Intemperance causes little or no crime toward t equator, It is the almost constant cause of crime either dircc or indirectly at the north above 50°. Sixth— Iniemperaiice is modified by race, as shown in ihe d fiTcni tendencies 10 intoxication of different people*. Scrcnih — H.ices arc modified physically and morally by the ki of liquor iliey use. as proved by examination of the ri-iums fr> -Viiplria and SwiiMrland. Fighih^Bcer. native light grape wines and ardent spirits shr.u not be classed together, tor Ihcy product vi-ry diffiTent effei upon the individual and upi-in the race. Ninth — Light German beer and nic can lie u-cd even frc< without any very apparent injur}- 10 the individual, or wtlbi' caiisinR im-'Nicalion. They cimlaiii very small percentages alcohi'l (4 or 4.; 10 6.5 per centV Light grape wines, unfr litied hy an extra amnimt of alcohoL c.in be dnink less free' hut wiMioui apparent injury 10 the race, ami wiih exhilaraiii ralher ihnn drunkenncs.s. Some writers think they do no ban Ijiii a real good, if used moderately. They never produce l' violem. crar.y drunkenness so noliccnblc fn'm ihf ardent spin nf Ihe north. Ariieni spirits, on the contrary, unless used very moderaiil anil with great temperance, and with the determination to on iheiii a' soiin as the occasion has passed tor their use. are atmc always iniurions, if continued even moderately for any leng i/ time, for ihcy gradually encroach on the vital powers. BEER IM DIETETICS. III3 MMd immoderately, Ihey cause a beastly nareolism which makes the victim regardless of all the amenities and even the decencies of life, or perliaps they render him titriousiy cTsr.y, so thai he may murder his best friend. While those who live in the irojiics merely sip slowly ardcnl spirits from the tiniest of glasse'i. with the slightest appreciable effect, the denizen of the frozen north swallows half tumblerfuls of the same to the speedy produc- Tenth— Races may be educated lo evil by bad laws, or by ilic introduction of bad habits. England's (aslc for strong drinks has been fostered by legislation and by wars of nearly two centuries since. France and parts of Switzerland are beginning (o suffer from ihe introduction of absinthe and of schnapps. Especially is this noticeable since the late Franco- Prussian war. By classi- fying all liquors as equally injurious, and by endeavoring to further (hat idea in Ihe community, are we not doing a real injury to the country by preventing a freer use of a mild lager beer or of native grape wine instead of the ardent spirits to which our peo- ple are now so addicted? Eleventh— A race, when it emigrates, carries its habits with it. and for a time, at least, those habits may override all climatic law. Twelfth — England has thus overshadowed our whole country wiih its love of strong drinks and with its habits of intoxication, as it has more recently covered Ceylon, parts of the East and Australia. Thirteenth — This influence on our own country is greater now than it would have been if our forefathers, ihc early settlers, had cultivated the vine, which would have been practicable, as .-icen by the recent examples of Ohio and California, and from the fact that the whole of the United States lies in the region of the earth's surface suited to the grape culture. Fourteenth — If these early settlers had done this, our nation would probably have been more temperate, and a vast industry like (hat of France, of Spain and of Italy and Germany, in light native wines, would long ago have sprung up. Fifteenth — The example set by California and Ohio should he followed by the whole country where the vine can be grown. As a temperance measure it behooves every good citizen to pro- mole that most desirable object. We should also allow the light. 1 1 14 BEER IN DIETETICS. unfortified wines of Europe lo be introduced tree of duty insti of the large one now imposed. Instead of refusing the Gem lager beer, we should seek (o have it introduced into the prtrs "grogshops." 3nd thus substitute a comparatively innoxious ,i cle for those potent liquors which now bring disaster and de into so many families. Si.'steenth — "Holly Tree" branches for the sale of good fo lea and coffee, cheaply to the people, should by the bcnevol co-operation of the conmiunity be made lo take the places of numerous grogshops now open for the sale of ardent spirits. Sevcnlccnth^The moral sense of the conmiunity should be aroused lo the enormity of the evils (lowing from keeping an o| bar for the sale of ardent sprits, while those for the sale of li| wines and of lager beer should not he oppi'sed. except for i 'all- In habiiual driuikards after due notice from friends. Sell viol.-iiinR such law might be compelled for a time to support i fainiU' 1)1 Iheir victim. riBhtOi-nih-Thc horrid nature of drunkenness should be i prt.isi'd by every means in our power upon the moral scnsi- the pi'i>ple. The hahitual drunkard should lie punished, or if be a (]ip.'om.^niac. he should \tc pl.iced in an incbrialc a^yhira I nu'diial and moral treatment until he ha* gained sufficient se r.-|ieci in enable him lo overcome his We of drink. T!i. n>v?miis fhi'iiKl in: established by ihe state, i-:ffhcts of beer o.v those who drixk it. -A greal deal has been, and conlinues to be. ,inid by lo abstinence aeuators coneeniing the elTect of beer on those w ilrink if. and a-^ a rule their claims that sueh effect is injurinus ; ba^ed on nothing btit arbitrary assumptions and basel< in L>riler to meet these mi ."representations Ihe United Sla' Rrewer...' .\siociaiiim siinic time ago undertook extensive c riiniriiuioiAs nm^niK per<.'iis piven lo ihe n-e of l>i'er. Ihe results rtliich were lahulatcd and analyzed try secretary Thoinann, a jUllilished in pamphlet form. The dala below are taken from ll ,l:imii|ilct. In a ccnain diMrici nf Xciv York and Brooklyn. Dr. Gui Kat;'.nniay,-r. Dr. H. F. Kiidlich and Dr. Hugo Koeihe c iiiiiifj and practically had a monopoly of practice among ; BEER IN DIETETICS. III5 brewery workmen. During five years thirty-six deaths occmrcd aniong these men from the following caus!:s : E)caths caused by accidents 5 Deaths caused by apoplexy and cerebral congestion 6 Deaths caused by tuberculosis of lungs 5 Deaths caused by typhoid fever 4 Deaths caused by pneumonia ; 4 Deaths caused by diseases of the heart 4 Deaths caused by diseases of the liver 4 Deaths caused by diseases of the kidneys I Deaths caused by insolation i Deaths caused by alcoholism i Deaths caused by chronic enteritis I Total 36 The only case of alcoholism on record invited a special in- quiry into the drinking habits of the person in question, a-id it was found that in the last three or four years of his life the de- ceased had been addicted to the excessive use of ardent spirits. This case of alcoholism — a rare one among brewery workmen of any country — stood isolated not only on the list of deaths, but also on the sick lists from the districts investigated. Of diseases of the heart, liver and kidneys, the recapitula- tion shows nine in all ; that is to say, nine deaths oc- curred from diseases of that el^ss, within five years, in a body of nine hundred and sixty brewery workmen. From disease of the kidneys but one man died within five years. If, in conjunction with this showing, it is stated that the average daily consumption of malt liquors by brewery workmen is twenty-five common glasses, or about ten pints, per capita, no more need be said, it is hoped, to disprove the assertion that the constant use of beer disorders, with fatal effect, the functions of the heart, kid- neys and liver. DEATH RATE AMONG OTHER CLASSES. Before comparing the death rate among brewery workmen with the pertinent mortuary statistics contained in the United States census for 1880, it is necessary to state that such a com- parison must inevitably be very favorable to anyone who intends to assail this position, because the benefit of doubt and of the inevitable inaccuracies of so gigantic a work as the census will be on his side. To begin with, he will have an advantage in Hx*i. BEEtt m DIETETICS. the mortality report of the census does not. according to the a-do, to whom, so far as the death rale is concertted. the sm.i pauper element of our country forms no offset ; while the statii tical shon-ing herein contained relates to one single specified cla; of cmflsmen. This is a difference which, the impartial critic mu: admit, is not in favor of the proposition sought to be proved i the case of the proposed comparison. Xow let us compare ligur<; The number of deaths in our body of 960 brewery workmt was 36, within five years: hvncL> ilie average number of dcail within one yi-nr was ;'J. This places the rale of de.ith p( ihouSiiiid .It 7,5, The ages of these brewery workmen range, i varying proportions, from ig lo 59 years. The only rates c death, contained in Vol. XI of the census, that can fairly I brought iuTo 3 comparison with the foregoing showing, will ^ found in Table 6. page 25. which shows for the I'nitcd Stat* and for thirty-one registration cities "the proportion of dtatlis. i the different gruups of ages, per t.ooo living," Of this tab! only that ptirtiitn can properly be reproduced here for coiiipar son, which covers the "groups of ages" represented in our show ing. and. of course, only the tigurcs relating in the urban popui: lion will answer the present purpose. They are given as fiiilow; Proportion of Proportion of .\ges. deaths to i,oc» living. Ages, deaths I 35-40 45-.W 17.6 19.2 [t might be said (hat these figures, so far as ages arc cot I'cmed. do not correspond exactly with the figures of the Brc^^ er't Bi-ncvoii'Ul Btirenn. because they begin at M instead of n and on.i at ^S instead of 59. The disparity, which is imavoUlnM on aci'oimt of ibc iiioile of grouping ages adopted by the eensii 'hh nprralcs against iW objects of this argument; seein BEER IN DIETETICS. III7 that the rate of death per 1,000 between 15 and so is only 5.5; while between 55 and 60 it is 28.3. The aggregate of living pop- ulation in the above six groups of ages was 3-333.898; tiie total number of deaths 41^1 ; hence the rate of death per 1,000, witiiin the slated age limits, was 12.5- UEAIB HATE IN THE ITKITEt) STATES ARUV. The death rate in the regular army of the United States dur- ing the fiscal year 18S5 — a year of peace, in which, as the Sur- geon General's report states, no casualties from actual warfare were returned — was 10.9 per 1,000 of mean strength. Medical examinations at recruiting stations for the regular military serv- ice are conducted with a special view to securing men of good physique, of great strength and perfect health. Besides, as eotu- pared with the life a brewery workman, with its hard and steady work and manifold cares, the soldier's life in peace is an easy one. Excepting sucb accidents as arc inseparable from llie con- stant handling of fire-arms, the soldier, in times of peace, is ex- posed to fewer chances of disease and death than the average workman. Well-fed. comfortably quartered and clothed, he lives without cares or troubles, in a constant routine of healthful ex- ercise. Yet. even as compared with tlie soldier in peace-time, we find that the brewery workmen have a great advantage in point of low rate of mortality. It is true, the deaths from accidents were uncommonly numerous in the army, their proportion to the deaths froui all other causes being given at 31 per cent; thai is more than again as large as the ratio of deaths from accidents among brewery workmen. But even so. the difference in favor of the latter is remarkable. The number of deaths in the army was 261 from all causes; the number of deaths from accidentf was S.l. in a body of soldiers of an average strength of 24.035. De- ducting that number of deaths from accidents, which is in excess of the proportion returned for brewery workmen, we stil! have 46 more dealhs. in a total of 263, than would have occurred at the rate of death among brewery workmen. Compiling the monthly reports and sick lists rendered by Dr. Kalzenmayer during live years, and classifying the causes of sickness in the usual general way, the relative proportion of the various diseases treated by said physician, during the period cov- ered by his reports, is found to be as follows: BEER IN DIETETICS. 42.g per ccnl of surgical cases caused by accidents of all ktnr fractures, dislocalions. contusions, wounds, etc. ^7.5 per cent of disturbances of the alimenWiy citiat, aju catarrh of the stomach, intestinal catarrh, diarrbcea, dyse tery, etc 12.5 per cent of rheumatic diseases. 9.4 per cent of diseases of the air passages ; tonsililis, dip theria, bronchitis, pneumonia^ pleurisy, etc. 3.6 per cent of fevers; typhoid, intermittent, etc. 2.1 per cent of acute conge.stions of liver and kidneys, i.o per cent of diseases of the skin. 0.6 per cent of cerebral and spinal diseases. 0.4 per cent of diseases of the heart. It will readily be admitted by evcrj'body llial among the enli population of the United States not another Ixidy of men 1 equal number could be found, who. from their mode of life ii drinking habit?, would be better suited for such a purpose Ih; brewery workmen. For, as a class, they drink beer and ale tno cDMslanlly and mure copiously than the average becr-drinke For the information of those who arc not acquainted with t> usages prevailing in breweries, it must be staled that brewei workmen have at all times access to what in the jargon of it trade is styled the "■Sternewirth," i. e., a room, set apart wilhi cviry brcH -house, where beer is conslanily "on tap," lo be u^cd I cM'ry one at pleasure and without en.'l. Every one drinks ; much beer as he thirsts for. without asking or being asked ar questions as to his right to do so. CENEIt,\L HEALTH OF BBEWERV WORKMEN. One lliou.'and men were examined as to their general slate ( hi.ilih. condition of liver, kidneys and heart. The men wei Hcipiicd. llieir strength tested, ami the length of lime employ* in brvweries and average daily quantity of beer consumed a: Tliesc csamitiaiioin showed, that there arc. in all, twenty-fiv mtn our of one llioti?and. whose general stale of health, or coi diiiiin !•! liicr. or condition of heart, or condition of kidneys, not ptriCL-l; and thai the remaining nine hundred and sevent; five Mien enjoy esceplionally good lieahh. and are of ^plendi physiqin; The average daily con sum pi ion of mall liquors '5"J g'asses, about 10 pints, pet ta^i^a. BEER IN DIETETICS. III9 Of the twenty-five men recorded as unsound, a very large |)ro- portion would not have been so classified if tlie exam t nations had been confined to the condition of Ihc heart, the liver and the kidneys. But it was thought necessary to point out all tiiose whose health was impaired from any cause whatever ; no matter, whether the latter can be traced to the use of beer or not. Hence, when the "general stale of health" was found, in any case, lo be precarious, the physician had to make a corresponding entry in his list and explain the same under the head of special remarks by stating the cause or nature of the infirmity. This accounts for the fact that such diseases as icterus, bronchitis, rheumatism, tuberculosis of lungs, etc., are specified as causes impairing the "general slate of health." Dividing the twenty- five unsonnd men according to the nature of diseases which im- paired their health, we obtain the following : Diseases of the liver 7 Diseases of the heart i Diseases of the kidneys S Emphysema I Rheumatism 6 Icterus 2 Bronchitis 2 Tuberculosis of lungs I The causes of the three first-named diseases are known to be so manifold, that it would be more than venturesome to assume, in the off-hand way of our opponents, that beer is at the bottom of them all. Yet no attempt will l>c made to weaken the show- ing as it stands, save in ihc case of Ch. W. (2J0), whose ailment, abscfss of liver, was produced, to ihc positive knowledge of the physicians who performed an operation on the patient, by external Khcumatism and diseases of the air passages arc generally re- garded by brewers as their trade diseases, produced cither by constant exposure to the inclemency of the weather, as in Ihc ease of drivers; or by exposure to the sudden and extreme changes of temperature incident 10 the work in cellars, ice-houses and cooling-rooms; or by exposure to the constant moisture in waiih- houses. be^S in dietetics. strengtU of bhewekv workuen. As a nik. Ilie men examined displayed .«trcnglli. Tile avi-rage weight liflcd was 480 pounds; the Ioj weight itnlicatcil cm ihe dynamonit-ter. used by Dr. Katzenma being 390 pinnids. Gruuping the men according to the lenpl llin? ihey are employed in brewerios. we find the largest ni bcr ill the group from five to ten years, there being about .tM it. From ten 10 tificcn years the niiniber is 187, and from tiff to iwetity IJ2, Those who are engaged in brewing from iiiontii to two years are a little more numerous than those t were ihns engaged for over twenty, and less than iwrmy- years. The number of men at work over twcnty-tivc years i^ [ii the first and last groups no unsound tnen were found; in other groups the iiumWrs are as follows; Number Average dailv nuaniit' otn>cn. U-er consumed per car 5 yc;T* -! j.t.w ela^se.. Fr..i .•4.f.. > gla^st* : will be foiuul that. .'•K- i;:* fur this Mb!,- wing. nd I ti t' b.-. hut r.-: .A. if o.nsui!i.'.l by men of sedeii !• r iNanipIe— woiiM produce different k bv iicarlv all «-riivr=: ...n this subleei ari n as ti. the dlrTerence U-twcen a const .if :;ia!T liipi.Ts. Tbi n.iiure of the work lid nr.J ihi- general manner of living dei of :n:.!( \--\ucTf. iiu-ii can c-onsnme with, .-. 1: i; a f.ici well known to every one i\ i:i«r i:. l!ii^ niaiter. ihM ihc dailv consun ivr-:;an-.. the maiori:y of whom are habilt ■-ilriitkir-, varies iri'in live 10 twenty glasn tire oi \\\t tic^wijiiuow of the drinker. ' BEER IN ECONOMICS. II21 CONCLUSIONS. The conclusions to t>e drawo from the investigations arc : I. Brewers drink more beer, and drink it more constantly, than any other class of people. II. The rate of death among brewers is lower, by 40 per cent, than the average death rate among the urban population of the groups of ages corresponding with those to which brewery work- III. The health of hrewers is unusually good; diseases of the kidneys and liver occur rarely among them. The conclusion to be drawn from II and III is: IV. That on an average brewers live longer and preserve iheir physical energies better than the average workman of the United States. THE TEMPERANCE PROBLEM. Alcoholism is a disease almost wholly peculiar to modern limes. White it is true that processes of distilling spirits, more or less crude, were known 10 many different nations and tribes in all stages of savagery, barbarism or civilization, the use of distilled liquors was introduced into Europe among those nations with which we arc cociccrncd because we are descended from them, somewhere in the fourteenth century. It seems to have come from Spain where the Arabs had ruled for so many centuries, and the word "Alcohol" still shows its Arabian origin plainly. France seems to have been the first country to make distilled liquors for drinking. But il was the northern tribes that took to disiilU'd liquors most kindly. They never made much headway in Ihc southern countries against the wines which were indige- nous. Fermented beverages, on the other hand, have always been known and used extensively. It would be difficult to find a tribe or nation that did not have its fermented drink. But until dis- tilled liquors were introduced, alcoholism as a disease, sometimes fatal, was unknown. But the problem of alcoholism and of the drunkard is only a minor offshoot of the temperance question. There is only one drunkard in every 10,000 of population. The greater question is the prevention of the excessive use of alco- holic stimulants, which may occur and does occur without lead- ing to drunkenness, and yet does much barm. BEER IN ECONOMICS. 1123 by a systematic diminution and the ultimale abolition of taxes upon whoieBomc beverages." The commissioners sum up their observations in the assertion that Ilie only practicable method of diminishing; the evils of in- ebriety by govemnienlal measures should aim at : 1. The suppression of technically imperfect distillation; 2. A system of taxation and administration by which the manu- facture of, and traffic in, distilled spirits can be controlled and, if need be, restricted, and by which the collection of high duties on spirits is rendered feasible; 3. The reduction or abolition of taxes on wholesome beverages. SIMILAR RESULTS IN THE UNITED STATES. Observations in Ihe United States fully bear out the conclusions so lucidly staled by the Swiss commission. Notwithstanding alt attempts to break up the habits of excessive drinking prevailing in this country under the free whisky regime prior to the war of the rebellion, it was only when at the breaking out of the war of the rebellion the federal government viaa once tnore compelled to resort to the highest practicable tax upon whisky — Ihe excise on beer and wine being comparatively low, thereby reviving the principles of TIaniilton. Jefferson, Madison, Dr. Rush. Tench Coxe and other leatlers in politics or temperance — that there was inaugurated lliat radical change in drinking habits to which Ihe American pciiple of lo-day owe their position in the front rank of sober nations. Within this short space of time, viz., since July I, 1862, the consumption of whisky, through Ihe operation of the internal revenue tax law, has fallen from eleven to some- what less than four quarts per capita, while in the same period the production of beer has risen from less than a million to more than thirty millions of barrels, and large quanlilles of domestic wines arc consumed besides. The statesmanship of the founders of the American republic appears in a new light when we remember the statement of Thomas Jcflfcrson that "wine is the only antidote for whisky," or the conscious purpose of Hamilton lo foslcr the brewing industry and reduce the production of spirits, to which end the first Con- gress and almost every session of the earlier Congresses was practically a unit as far as the moral ends to be achieved thereby BEER IN ECONOMICS. 1 125 a. That under the operation of high license laws, the consump- tion of ardent spirits increases. 3. That the highest degree of drunkenness is found where ardent spirits are used most generally, while comparative sobriety prevails where fermented liquors are the common drink. The conclusions for the United States must coincide with those for Switzerland, viz., that the restrictive effect of the laws should be conRned to ardent spirits so as to impart to the trafSc in fer- mented beverages greater power of expansion, and to enable the people to gratify a craving for stimulants, ineradicable in its present state of culture, by using the mild and wholesome bever- ages which are so rarely productive of inebriety in its pernicious and dangerous forms. The system of indiscriminate high license produces results diametrically opposed to those which are desired. REVENUE DERIVED FROM THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC. The twelfth annual report of the United States Commissioner of Labor contained a statistical investigation of the liquor traffic from which some of the most interesting data are here repro- The investigation covered the year 1896. It may be added thai although the amounts found to be paid by the liquor traffic lo Ihe various governments in the country are almost incredibly hrge for that year, they have been enormously increased since lliat time. When it is considered that the internal revenue tax on beer was doubled for three years and is now (beginning July i, 1901) about two-thirds higher than in 1896, that special taxes are levied on tonics, that beer is being taxed in some states and license fees are everywhere rising, while brewers and liquor dealers share in the various stamp taxes generally imposed on business transac- tions since the Spanish war, it is safe to say that an addition of 25 per cent to ihe rate of contributions from the liquor traffic lo the national, state and municipal governments on the basis of the figures given by the Commissioner of Labor would nol he excessive. To this should be added the increase coming from . the natural growth of Ihe liquor business. It is likely that for the year 1900 the total would nol be far from $240,000,000. (See tables on pages 1126, 1127. 1128.} it S 3 && e s '^l I I " - " ": S a S 3 g E « BE£S IN p. JiP ECOHOUICS. 1 1 sis=JSS-|S"»§ 1 1 iPlsSfsSSIl 1 jf 1 li«Pg'!!ll« 1 1 SI»S»IS*|I=5«I s 1 i'sinSMi?!!?!! Ii 1 !!s«SM!i!!IS i II i ';=^«=S9:S5^?»«i!. ll i i|js::;::=;v;;;; lltiissSSeSi;!!lii -2 III |tlB8i!!sii?iSi6I|8 i I7 I =="5^"§l'i^*'2==' sjs- ■5=fS :-l5s - BEER IN ECONOUICS. » sIS" amiu^u f 5 sjsjsisisa'sis 5 a SilillSISSiSIs 5 Si3lisg3ii!>;i 5 s . g|;s S58 :!|SSI8 s 1 2*;= "« i'«"-j 1 «i iiiasssisissis 8 e9a=!§SSH3SSi ■i r "s" '' i""---' I e SSSI?5!B5seSSS s s mmmum s " £ t umsuumfM 5 ■s ■iBimmmii « i 1 it ? •iUfMmnns umimmn 2 ^ « s n iimnvimmi f. ■mmmmm l=. i S3SSi«|s;E8Ss5 '~H « 'S = ^ Jll )i IJJi 1 1 128 BEBtt IN ECONOUICS. / TOTAL ANNDAI. lETENUE DOUTED FROM LIQUOR UANTTFACnntI A TVAFFIC (rat THB YKAR KNDINC JUNB JO. 1896). Tai on ml knd nenonil nroperty employed In Itriuor m>Dii- iBclure {(Htlnuled) t I.SBM Tax on n«l and jMnonal proper!; employed In ll<4Uor iratnc InlimAtcd) iO.on.ia nioran tax In Xenlockj-AOd HiiMinrl I'^li: CnllcdSulMiDleniil reTinui tax IH.WXM LiraoK feen omperlal laiM. tiatei ia.M.Dii Llcenia Ia»or«peclal laxa, oaanllen. K.Oll.*± LleenH fee* orxpeelal laiea. Bunleli«llll» tt.\lt.» rinea. itatoi tljs Fines. ronallM 3nt,.W Pliiea. Ddnlelialllles. UUli Flnea. nalee of ronlluated Itqnon, elc. United Slalea leatl- matcd) ISM* Cuitomidullee on Imported llquon ■.TM.OI Toul fite.2ti.is FINANCIAL lUPOSTANCE OF UQUOB TCAFFIC. With respect to Ihe table giving a sunitnary of rapital tnvr»t taxes and rent paid and persons engaged in the liquor traffic. Males (sec pages 1126 and 11:^7). the Commissi>*ner of Labor sa; II is impracticable to give eslimales of the captlal. eniplo)' He.,, representing the liquor traffic in each slate and terrilo Such estimates would have lo be based on average conditions I all the states canvassed and would not correclly represent the dividual flaie:^ and icrrilories where widely varying condilif are known to exist. This may be seen by an examination of 1 table. But the facls given in this table, covering as they dc canvass of parts of 14 slaie.'i and including nearly onc-fitlli the enlire number of cstablis^hmenls in the country, are belie\ In be fairly ri-prescnlalivc of the wliule cuiiniry. And it is 1 lleved lh.it an estimate for the 161.48.1 esiahlishmenli; in I whole country, if lia.wd on an avcr.ige of the lads iihown in t! table, will In- ?ulislnnlinllv acciirale. EMiinntes have thus he made. I'.ir ihe year ending June .w. 1806. the capital invested ( clii^ivrly in ihc Hi|uor traffic hy the 16148.1 establishments i:-lininiipl by ihc niclliod jii*l descrilx'il was $957. 162.907. ilii' ain.iunt S4iJ.1SS.rJQ, or 4.1.06 iht emi, represented the val 111" land and huililiiiRs, fixtures anil other properties nwntd ihe persons or firms carrying nn the liquor traffic, and $544.07 I'S, or .76,04 I"''' "■'!', 'he value nf the pmperly renleil by the Thv cilini.lled aiin\\;\\ taxes pa\4 ow the (ir.vpi.rly was $10,075.1 tad the rettt paid .m Uie teM»A VT..vtT\'! ^vv,i''^-*V For ( BEER IN ECONOMICS. 1129 reason heretofore given the estimated amount of taxes should not be used as a basis to estimate the rale of taxation, or the esti- mated rent as the basis to ascertain the per cent of retnrn on rented property used in the liquor traffic. All of these values per- tain exclusively to the liquor traffic and not to any other business that may be conducted by the different establishments. The esti- mated number of proprietors or firm members engaged in the liquor traffic was 191,519 and the employes 241,755. If 'he em- ployes had devoted their entire time to the liquor traffic, it is esti- mated that it would have required 172,931 to carry on the busi- ness of the 161,483 estate ishments. Hecelptg during Hsca] yfiracndcdJiinero- TB89. 1900. Ale. beer, l««er beer, porter, and other slinlUr (ennented liquors a«,aeB59 3)B.im.iM iei,3a§.'!>! ZM.S8H.BI SJB.TSCI..W 14.TAI.0I !i,«8.™B.» Retail dealon In mali jioiiorn T.<34.» Wholewle aetifTs in mnii Urtag-N Ad^llonsl wSloctlfins on fer- inenled ll.|uor. stored In svare- Iffi.USHS Tolnl ».8M.S«>.4ft 73.BM,IM4n 4.w Va^i wi Ve^meW** lL7.9ffi.|t1l ISW ., j 4.41M.IKT.40 2.WW.HHU .'t;,4(B.siD' .l^aCMW iwB....; sou B7.(l7l.ai.HI ; 87.1173.31)1.31 a),wi.iri .ini.mt.KSi 7-.tT70,WI.5? .TB.iai.ntnl (iJ-tVilul ■i\6,W!JSM.ff V'SA.wa:.'*. / 113^ BEER IK ECOKOUICS. TALUS OP BAtLKV IN THE DNITEll STATES FOt ACBK, |8eK> TQ tSSSL- FVOH VKAR-BOOK OP THE UMTKD STATES DKPAST- UENT OF AiailCULTUSE. »i,». .| m.ai' iieffi,ii.t.iB;tiT.ie*i;.3j'tie.mti3.is*i R. IMX. j II I' ifi.n II H tssa a.Ki iia: is. !i W SI an 17 n: iT.W' i&.ij< iT.on a B.oii lo.a^ la.tft n t.m- a. Ml a.M ii a.oD K.-a/ ic.off II a.ai la.e. ki-ok i , ID I!, la.ae i li.Ki u'm ti.vl It.ttT 9.l» ^ itiiirzr:". ii:s n IT »M tIm g^M t'-U Mu y-n R.M H.I MI-miH K.a< 7 li 7.14 1.* 7.an r.ai t.i ii'M iii:ii n:™ 1 .'1 l.» 7.M 4.1 SpbpMkii!'!!' ti.m IIMH i.M B.ni s.w a.Ti' 7.1 South liBkxia. 11. » m ia 1>.4S 4.4(> 621 a.l 11 »i t> It: l!7l 7S4 fl.l*> a.st 8..1T rat 71 HoniBna IT.W 1B.V1 Sl.Vi .■>,i«i n.dii u.n. S.TH 1B«I 3>.M IT.I in.*; t.u. w.iH in.n. na> 11 » 11 H.i (■.»' .MmRTATlON OF TO REIC.V BAKLE\- FOR THE LAS 10 FISCAL VEA»! Ad valorem rat BusMs. Valuc- Duty. of dtitt iSqo 1-,1.W.545 $5.Gig.Rig S 1.1.13.355 ».ll iSgi 5.or8.r.i.i a.«^-593 1.500.640 45,16 '89-! .1.146..VS r.5*i.040 94.1,898 59.38 isgj i.oro,i29 i«i.6o5 591.039 64.13 I«94 rgi.o6i 35S.744 237.318 66.15 'f i.2;r.rKr 05.163 3000 118.425 30.00 i«^ ,V»4.74't /^ ij^.to^ 4.l.Wi.1 37-441 85-35 '** 110.473 ^-i-***^ .13.143 61*2; BEER IN ECONOMICS. Stales and Terrllor- I89U. mi. ym. SKI. BW t»i«i imil»iir7 'ISUK ma. sJilHamptiiVre'-'''.! WO £2.0 l»-7 \»t IB-ft ai,7 Si'e SI as!* i:i 3t « a IS a a !S 1! W u 9 at S! B 1" a. ». ». 7. 1 1 1 Uu li It M.7 !u! 20. a. 1: et'. SI. H.l! li 11 ii.i S:! 1:1 33.0 IU.4 it: s- 1 i i! M.6 1 "si ss.u Is r,:8 li |:5 i:! Si li W.It S:! s.o BhodelaUnd. .'.'.'!!'.! w.o Pcnnsjlranla aiu as:.,. w.u a"~"!;:::::;;:: : J6(. r li HortiiLukot.:'..::.:: a. II a.o IdBbo WanhtDKioii ».o aeDenlaviiniiEi!.. 21.00 K.80 SS.TO ai-70 10 r ifi.SD 84 Sl ■il «l »B» EXFOKTATION li DOMESTIC BAKLEV FOR T Bushels. ■ ■■ i,4o8,3n 973,062 2,800,07s • ■••■ , 3.035.267 1894 5.219.405 1,563,754 7.680,331 20,030,301 11,237.077 2,267,403 Value. $754,605 669,203 1-751,445 1,468,843 2,379,714 767,228 3.100,311 7.646,384 5.542MO "34 BEER IN ECONOMICS. I Of the domestic barley exported in 1899. 961.894 bashels. the vahie of $594,589, >iverc shipped from San Francisco, Ca 980.474 bushels, of the value of $596,650, from New York. N. \ and the balance. 325.035 bushels, of ihc value of $184,035, frc all other ports. The United Kingdom (Great Britain and Ireland) receiv i,220.5()0 bushels, of the value of $752,590; Germany. 152,8 bushels, of the value of $69,509; Belgium. 152.459 bushels, the value of $105,770; the Hawaiian .Islands. 511.842 bushels, the value, of $300.843 ; and all other countries. 229.681 bushels, the value of $146,562. PRICES OF BARLEY PER Bl'SHEL ON THE FARM DECEMBER I. 189O 1899. — FRUM YEAR-IKX)K OF THE CNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICCI-TrRE. State* aii»l Torritor- _ irx _ IK1|» I*-* »•*« \>m iwir> IsW iw: IMni. II fix. CI •«. * t>. Ct«* (is Cl h^ Now Hami'««lnro SI 74 74 7U f\\ M\ 5:t fV» .w Vornioin To 7-2 lit; I^O (i) 47 41 46 47 MassaohiiNfUx i i ft 7.T rti rt.1 r« 5>i rtH «K Khinle Islami T»i 7s SV! h- r: 75 A> M HI N«'w York . . > tr> 7."» «!i» :i»> M :i rnin-x ]v;in»a . ;n t'>i :^: .M) lb 41 M* ;io 44 ■|'i'\U«." . . 7> lis l^» .v> 54 .Til 4:4 50 T iriios^i*'! ... , tW .\S .%li 5<» 45 ft,i ,5« Ki-ntui'.kv . ;«•» .M 17 :n to 4(1 4«i t)riio ?«> I'KI h7 17 4s 41 > 41 44 Mirhit;aii M t^t iVt »'.» .=H» i;{ 42 4H 41 Iniliaiia ri:> .V.I .VJ 45 45 ii> Xi 44 44 Illinois !«• .Vi 4\i 4'.' 4s 45 M ;is :i» W i»i'on-'ii .Vi 4:< l.t 15 :v. 41 :t4 ■-•7 2A 4a) Miniii^nia .1:4 [own :VJ v: 40 :w 4-: •::< '11 21 :i4 Mi>M">ur; ... :>: 57 I'i 4o 51 4S '^ 40 ;k Kan -us r»7 40 : 'J5 27 Ni'bniNka . . . .T|" ;t7 :w 31 43 •J 4 IV 24 •«> South Pakiv.i .... v» ^ 41 :vi ;«= :r, u* 19 .Nl North li;i:-.o;a . . .. 1 .■ 4J :w :ji r,ii •Jo •-M 27 2» Moil '.ana li *^C^ tw; .=i<' 40 5«.> 55 5'^ .i7 r-Worailo 7ii .v» S4 .T»' 5s »v< ^rt 51 4i*» Now Mt v!io • • • t 7o I'lT* 5s 7"' r-»> rt5 .55 .5ft Viuh *.'» I'm .VJ 15 4«5 :Ri 42 45 47 Iiiah»» 7.'^ IW ;u 5;i 17 4J •*>» 42 »S \Vash:iiL'!o:i i> rm i:i :w :r: 3S 4U t:{ 4.5 l>ri-L'OFJ 70 i>* irt 4c ;:< 4i' 45 45 40 «'a;l:.>rn a 7;^ rtl 47 4C 15 40 4^' 54 SS Li '.'lie: Hi Awrn^K'. . . 01 N! :.4 (l(» 1: ■ -.I' 11 IC44 IV :w ivi :« r r: 70 41 :^o BEER IN ECONOMICS. Mtnltolia Heat orCBnada Total LB HI da Tolal "(Wlh \B Urcat Brllaln Tolal LDlled King Denniark HBlbarlandB. UelKluiD zzz 7s«».oa mm -7 303 00(1 iisitxmo Bl-WWlO 14 an) 000 S1;M9.U0I Hungary ^ ToUl Aualrlu Itn gary Roumaii ■ BulKBrla Ruiwla proper Kortb LaueuuB Toul Butala IfllK>p« Total Furope nr u -n IDBT M tBIfri M ~V«L K' oui Siberia 4K«(nc Boot COD a 14a on *,<»l■ 1898 4.769 4-liz 45 1899 4.984 4-447 45- Tbe iinporlalion. owing to ihe high duly, has decreased si 1891 (o such an irxtcnt that it has almost disappeared as a fat in the brewing interest. tUKUTS or CRAHtlLATEn hICF, IIEAI. AND RICE FLOUI, FtK THE L 10 FISCAL VCAKS. Pounds. Value. D i8go 55-667,174 $927,067 $185 1*^1 8i.-'S9.SiP 1.389.408 189-' fc.991.524 1.097.436 157. 1893 66.451.884 i.tgi-S-* 166, 1894 55.351.2S1 833.843 138, 1S95 7S.j6j,9og 1,091,538 195 l8yO 68.534.273 911.Q05 171. If97 63,876.204 961.300 150, 1898 60.474,685 953.7-'-s 151. i*J9 50.340.267 777.378 125. IMniRTS OF FUKEIGN HOPS FOR TllE LJ^iyT 10 FISCAL YEAKS. .■\d valorem i Poviiids. Value. Dutv. of d\ iSijo 6,;,w;i6 Si.053.616 55J3-16' 49 i»)i 4.019.603 1.797.406 588,196 32 1892 a,;o6.224 883.701 375.934 +i iSq.i 2.691.244 1.0S5.407 403.687 J9. 1894 828,022 484-415 "^■»'3 35. i8q5 3.133.664 599.744 Cannot be determi 1896 2,rrj.045 600,419 221.764 36 i8g? 3.01-.821 629.987 241.425 ifi- iSgS 2.375.923 fe*,\^^ ^^ut 43 iSffg IJ19.3V9 »i-.l^ ^*A* •* BEER IN ECONOMICS. II37 EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC HOPS FOR TUE LAST 10 FISCAL YEARS. Pounds. Value. 1890 7.540,854 $1,110,571 1891 8,736,080 2,327,474 1892 12,604,686 2,420,502 1893 11,367,030 2,695,867 1894 17,472,975 3,844,232 1895 17,523,388 1 ,872,597 1896 16,765,254 1,478,919 1897 11,426,241 1,304,183 1898 17,161,669 2,642,779 1899 21,145,512 3,626,144 Of the domestic hops exported in 1899, 18,964.836 pounds, of the value of $3,291,347, were shipped to the United Kingdom; 464,013 pounds, of the value of $61,389, to the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador; 838,069 pounds, of the value of $124,673, to British Australasia and the British East Indies; and 17,951 pounds, of the value of $2,362 to Mexico; and 705,171 pounds, of the value of $124,136 to Belgium. All other countries received only 155,472 pounds, of the value of $22,237. HOP CROPS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES^ 189S TO 1899, IN BALES OF 180 POUNDS. — FROM YEAR-BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. [In hales of 180 pouDds.] Countries. Galtfornla... Oregon WasDington New York... Total United States. Australia Austria- Hungary Belgium England France Germany Russia Total 1,138.300 1895. S2,000 09,600 28.800 110.000 29Q,300 96,000 343,000 42.000 868,000 1896. 96.000 56.000 12.000 75,000 178.000 136.000 281.000 43.000 353.000 1897. 45,000 Th.OOO 32.000 75,000 227.000 18,383 100.000 85.734 255.7»« 88,181 584,498 64,000 1898. 41,500 71.260 36.200 65 0(K) 216.960 18.383 96,000 30.630 218.000 42,867 440,920 61,240 991.000 1,423,583 1.123.900 1,398.517 1899. 64.000 85.000 33.000 58.000 240.000 07.218 190,633 W0.311 411.554 25.545 407.199 41.057 a New Zealand only. b Belgium and the Netberlands. n 1138 BEER IN ECONOMICS. NUMBER AND VALUE OF STAMPS FOR FERMEN NUMBER OF BREWERS' PERMITS ISSl ■ umber l»ii«tui HMO .... i.i»A.nv a.uiau .... w.itt> a.uw ... I1W.M TKMV wmi mow .iK.sn> tn.w i.tK.iw 'ion.im 11T.1M1 «.ooor 7WI.1W »o.S(«> w.iai I.O g,i3i.aio i).ii)7.iiiw fcrnao i£.ii«i sxaoaj i^«n Klilioruilon ^ NUMBER OF BREWERS AND DEALERS IN LIQUORS. BV ST.\TES. FOR THE YEAR KXDED lUNE 30. 1900. r.ANEOUS INFORMATION. II39 UQUORS (TAX PAID AND EXPORTATION) AND THE DURING THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1900. May. 4eT!30o| m.hoo a.S3(l.M0 S.1Mnm 'i.sasiooo i.ti m.too\ f. .. .217.60) M.oool iflo.sool auftn, BBtiWO AMKO, «(7,i S,»8.0a>| 1.911. OIOl S.m.MO I>.8M,. M.ooo' ao.an' S4.ooa 3.< 8U.U0O[3.:£W.eml l.WS.WUi 3,340,1 w.floo m.aoul iift-NO'l ir: zx.i| 9.910,1 I 0.400, 8.000 46.000 i.aat.aoo' 1l,s3^eao| sb,»4,t«i.«7b,tti.m.34 T.ecol B.ttoo 1*0,000 ao.im i,HOi s».MO, ....„.^ . , BEER PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD ("GAMBRINUS"). MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. In this chapter has been assembled a variety of inforttatioR general character, and such as did not naturally fall under of the other chapter heads of the book. It is believed that the tables of standard dimensions of brei vessels will prove peculiarly valuable to brewers for quick n encc. They were compiled from the Brewery Architects' Engineers' Hand-Book. by E. Schmidt. The informaiiun relating to building matenals. etc., was lar taken from Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSEL n. I ~~■^- ■ — 5*: Q l|m i a^ a- 16 ^ Si; J" ;s i. ^ P ' 'A \| \\ Va.'. ' MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSELS. KRTTLK. 1 _— 1 Slcam. V-lv». 3 3 1 2 1 5 a IS if 11 . II • li 11 g * £ li ■3 S % 1 i £ 3 • * s n a = ItT 111, a liT » »l fl.B* B.O' < 1S4 IM iM » 88 !■! «.o 11 'o ^ * 1 i 1M r m 1 IW fie m !K ^ H m IK B.ll fl.e - ■ M IK SW H H . ■ 4 M tit SH M H eio K *« 5 14.0 . 10 t) i» ho 13 60 300 iA) 14 6.0 7.0 2S •^-'0 11.0 11.0 6 22«» 14.0 60 ; 250 ?73 15 6.t> 7.6 2S 27.S 16.0 11.0 7.0 273 15 66 [ doo 3ao 16.0 7.0 8 S 315 16 12 7 3-V 16 69 XiO JR7 17.0 7 8.0 3 mo 18.0 12 7.0 »4) 17.0 7 ; 400 423 18.0 7.0 K 3 425 30 12.0 7.6 423 18.0 70 ! 4nci 445» 18.6 7.0 8.0 3 4»10 20.0 13 7.6 471 19 7 M> »oU» 19.6 7.0 8.0 3 52U 20.0 14.0 7.6 .=V23 20 7.0 - — — R 1 WATKK-TANK S. • oiind. Square %. 5 _ JJ I'opi^r ■ • [ ^■Z. Coll. ^ r " a i'oll. . = ^ - !_, — 1 ■jr. * X c* ?-i ^ . -^ = 1 = *- ^ 35 — - C a ? - C m • ^ ^ B i*s y.— ^ = -■J Z— ; n." ± "^ ft. In ft. In. ^ ~ 'JO ft. in. ri.in. In. ft. in. i 1 ft. In. in. 25 .T*) : »^ .T 2 :*• '2^t 25 85" .V> 7 5 39 2S 25 25 35 TO S rt 2 .t5 1) 2'. :t> 75; 72 7 6 5 6 5«» 2S 36 4 50 VV> s.o »» 2 . -VS.O -'■* 35.:.=S. W 8 «.C 70.0 2S 48 4 75 VA' i».0 5* 2' J hn* 2», 65. 12«» ^ 8.0 1(6.0 2S tV. ILH* HWi 10. u '.» 2'* 125 2s 81 25:lrtl 9 (» s i:« 2S JW. l.S> -M' 11.(1 2', 125.0 2'. 81.2511911 9 9 144.0 2», 93 5 l.V) 24<» 10 i» -> 3 125 2-, 8I.-.2S2IO 10.6 «.o 100 2S 104. 175 iJ^i 13.0 ft.O 3 14(1 2- 91 >5rt9 11 9 US* 2S too. 2n' :n5 la.o 10. 3 142 !• H 118.« 310 11 10 IW.O 3 1408 '.SO aK» 14 u 10 ti 3 142 o 3 113 rt 3?« 12 (» MO l.M 3 147 3lO 100 l.T.U no 3 llh 3 140. \^ 13. o II. 3no.o 3 160. ;i.V) 53U . i.->.e. 12.0 3 210.0 3 10^. :.Vi(» 14 24^10 3 2M 4 ^A) t^O /d i:t 4 2I>^.0 'A 2K». ,670 U 13 (t 2>*» 3 224. Mv tkki rt> 14.0 4 -JHS ^ i*.^ v^Jft \\.^ W VN VV^O 3 246.4 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. II43 STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSELS. GBAIHS-TAnK. s Round. Sna««. 8. = B II s II m a S i s52 r. it J m bS JS 2B 7W !o3 BS MO S.« hV m 11,0 To^(f /cr Single Leather, Four-ply Rubber and Four-ply Cotton BeltittZ, Bells not Overloaded. t-'r ^idiB or Re Llll nchcc ^' Z 1 3 j 4 i a e W 1! >4 10 a> 111- ^ 7S ;iv'i irJS H.-W MIPCEI.LANEOl'S ISFOBMATIOX. =3£S?S;:8S»SaR«j: ^SSSSSgCS;i!5»aSK!*S3iS!;sSJSSS«SJ5 i-j Haii!iiiiii!i|i5ii|ii|ii|i|i : 1 *SESS55Eg|g=E||H?gSUi;??i|gi MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. II45 MEMORANDA FOR BUILDERS. Safe IVork'ing Loads for Masoury. I WALLS OR PIERS. Tons Per Square Foot. Eastern. Wistprn. Red brick in lime mortar 7 5 Red brick in hydraulic- lime moMar 6 Red brick in natural cement mortar, I to 3. . 10 8 Arch or pressed brick in lime mortar 8 6 Arch or pressed brick in natural cement 12 9 Arch or pressed brick in Portland cement 15 12M1 Piers exceeding in height six times their least dimensicms should be increased 4 inches in size for each additional 6 feet. STONEWORK. (Tons per square foot.) Rubble walls, irregular stones 3 Rubble walls, coursed, soft stone 2% Rubble walls, coursed, hard stone 5 to 16 Dimension stone, squared in cement : Sandstone and limestone 10 to 20 Drefiscd stoni', wiih %-inch dressed joints in cement : Granite 60 M.irhle or limestone, best 40 Sandstone 30 }Ieight of columns not to exceed eight limes least diameter. CONCRETE. Portland cement, i to 8 8 to 15 Roscndale eemcni. I to 6 5 to lo^ Hydraulic lime, best, I to 6 S HOLLOW raE. (Safe loads per square inch of effective bearing parts.) Hard fireclay tiles 80 lbs. Hard ordinary clay tiles fiolbs. Porous terra-colla tiles 40 lbs. MOSTARS. (In ^-inch joints, 3 months old, tons per square tool,> Porlbnd cement, i to 4 "^ Roscndale cement. I to 3 MlSCELLANEOi'S INFOKUATION. Lime niorlar. best 8to Best Portland cement, i lo 2, in U-inch joints for bed- ding iron plates ; Brickwork is generally measured by the one thousand bri I.-iid in the wall, and sometimes by the cubic foot. In cstimai by the one thousand, the contractor figures on what the br will eo«t di'liwred nt the site of the building, and adds to the cost of l.-iyint; in the wsll, including the cost of the mor The general custom in measuring the exterior brick walls huihlings i<^ to compute the total number of briek in the wall, i then the number of face or outside hrick thai will be reqtir! The difference will be the number of common brick. The outs brick geiierallv cost more than tliose used for the interior, h to)>e In I ulled. and ihe labor n hying costs more. injuring brickwork. t is eiislomary to deduct all open! ■r^. windows, nn-hwa vs. ere: Imi not for small flues, e i. 1>.>\.-. "f witi.l.iiv t ram.-., sills, or lint.-ls. cic-. on aco. «;i-l;is;e of iiianri.il in dipping around or filling in s' f ;lu wnrk. aiidlhv i icr.-.-i-cil am, Hint of lime required. ,■ ,iro ,lMT,r>nl iiH^lli. nh .if conu'ulinK ihc numlier of hi Rivtn T .,1 cubu- l e( of brickwork in ihc building, i V hv (he nimiKT ot rii-k onisined in a cnbic foot. all< «-:, jiian- iv.'t .11 surface; the numlH-r. .IiI'ini'i;:B tipp.n tlK thickness ..f llie wall. I i;--.'.i-ri -t:i'i-'. :he ■■ll..winB -calc will be a fair .iverai vM.f^T 'j-Vi.-k... r'^ bricks per superficial tV Villi, i-.r 1 -^'i.-k,... 1 .: bricks per superficial fc v;ill, ..- T'::-t.rl,-k-.... ^^'-^ hiicks per superficial f(i m:;, .r.. Vkk.... ,io l.ricks per superficial fr V.!;. ■.'T .•'■■iTick.... .C'j bricks per superficial fe rt,i!i. ■< ,1 -liri.-k 4.= brlcki per superficial fr ,■ tr-.M, ar,.l w,>-(>rr 'inte.-, Ilie bricks are larger. ,ind i ■i: ^.-nl,- vvil! lu' ,v ■re c.irrect fur that section of i «■.;!:. or ^■l-lini-\;. - WVt. v^^ superficial fo ie:.;i. ,,r 1 -Wkk. \ 1 WvcVi v«\ sa v^vA Vi MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION, 1 147 13 'in. wall, or iH-brick 2t bricks per superficial fool. iR -in. wall, or 2 -brick 28 bricks per superficial foot. 22 -in. wall, or aVi-brick 35 bricks per superficial foot. And seven bricks additional for each half-brick added to thickness. SHINGLES. The average width of a shingle is four inches : hence, when shingles are laid four inches to the weather, each shingle averages .sixteen square inches, and 900 are required for a square of roofing. If 4^ inches lo the weather, Soo will cover a square. 5 inches to the weather, 720 will cover a square. 5^ inches to the weather, 655 will cover a square. 6 inches to the weather, 600 will cover a square. This is for common gable-roofs. In hip-roofs, where the shingles arc cut more or less to fit the roof, add 5 per cent (o above figures. A carpenter will carry up and lay on the roof from fifteen hundred to two thouund shingles per day, or two squares to two squares and a half of plain gable-roofing. One thousand shingles laid four inches to the weather will re- quire live pounds of shingle nails to fasten them on. Six pounds of fourpenny nails will lay one thousand split pine shingles. PAINTING. Painters' work is generally estimated, by the yard, and the cost depends upon the number of coats applied, besides the quality of ihe work, and the material (o be painted. One coal, or priming, will take, for 100 yards of painting, 20 pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Two-coat work, 40 pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Three-coat, the same quantity as two coats; so that a fair estim.^le for 1 » yards of Ihree-coat work would be 100 pounds of lead and 16 gallons of oil. 1 gailo priming color will cover SO superficial yards. 1 Balk, white 7.inc will cover so superficial yards. I gallo white paint will cover 44 superficial yards. I gallo lead color will cover so superficial yards. I gallo black paint will cover 50 superficial yards. I gallo stone color will cover 44 superficial yards. 1 gallo yellow paint will cover 44 superficial yards. I gallo blue color will over 4S superficial yards. I gnll™ green paint will cover 4S superficial yanU, I gallor bright emerald green will I gallon bronze green will covet 7!, sw9tT^t\iL\ -s-i.-^*^ 1148 MISCELLANEOl'S INFORMATION. One pound of paint will covrr nbout 4 supodicial yards the coat, and nhout 6 each additional coat. One pound of putty. sinppinK. overy 30 yards. One gallon of tar and i pound of p will cover IJ ynrd^ superficial the first coat, and 17 yards < nildittonal coat. A square yard of new brick wall requires, for the first coa paint in oil. % of a pound ; and for the second, 3 pounds ; for the third, 4 pounds. .■\ day's work on the outside of a building is too yards of I coat, and So yards of either second or third coat. An ordir il.-or. including casings, will, on both sides, make 8 to 10 ys of pointing, or about 5 yards to a door without the casings, ordinary window makes about x\-> or 3 yards. Fifty yards of common {(raining is a d,iy's work for a grai and one lu.-in t« ruh in. In painting blinds of ordinary size, t a fair day's work for one coat, and O pounds of lead and i g.i' of oil will paint ihenv — (See also "Tre.ilment of Surfaces.") SIKESCrH .^NP WEIf:ilT OP MAXILA RllPE. Mia" llUoivn & fiiu^rct or A^iicri.-an C.iuge.) ;■"■ UVi'jh: .>f I'a:^- I!;,:..- '''■■:';■:"■ W*lBh;ori" : ■^ .■>. IM MISCEL s s r » 5 LANEOU INFORM ^TION. g i i i i i i i 3 f i i i i i i i i 5 ? 's an i S i 1 S r 5 i i i i i 1 S 1 1 ? 5 i i iiijs f S $ 1 i i i i i i 1 s B ; r ¥ s S; ^i 1 1 8 1 i j i i 8 1 s ; 1 f Ji i i 1 § ; M f 5 S i i s i i M M ? ill s M ; M ? S i i i M M M f H iili : M M ^ 4 i / #f l; i \n A if! I 5 I !! I MISCELl-AXEllLJi IXFORMATION, GUT or LVMliKi: reK THOfSAKD (M) FEET. I'uun(l> i.'arNin nirUtrilouoak .. Tiikirir >ln.li-!>;irk lik'kor trvi'f. ar;J i-allutg tii..'. luc !l.l7d.:.^.-;.. f"l!..Hs: ■■ 90 ■ - rj ;iB highost standard of our ft.rei: r trees will compare with it icr Pignut hk-k-.-ry It.ird niap'.e jt. \\]y.w :i^!i D.'CH • Red cedar '=5 \\k\ eherrv "« iiS^t;?;".::::;::::;::;: Vu:;..«- iL-pbr ii \Vhi!v 'o.-h \Vli;!c bircli 43 3933 Sills F-ii=»i iiiiililiiiPissti s'iH m m um iii'i n iiilililliiiiiiiiliiliiiliii nil an iiiii iiiii SgSS Pilsiiili i^iii mu SJS8 iiHi m pill iiiii iiiii iijii lL H Ssssf iiiii iiiii ||i|| iSiS I89SS issis uiii ii^ii SSS3' rass jiiiss mi^ mimRJi Ml ? iili? ; 8ISS gfsSi -lip !|||!»JlP Piii iiiii isr f|5 iiiii iiiii iilll iiiii iiillla-i»Vfe%^^ /ISsS= ,2 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. I'll ]i ^-'Sssn I: saslsasxn' U«S.I.BSI s«^: il'llliiHs!! !'Hl'!!J' SlSl'!:;?!!!'' If lj|i.Ss5SB'sssi«^!SH2 iBIslsHs siSi I 'I iiss; liiirgsSiis se^j ] i IISSs'cjSIS IMH J SScJ H|2l|!3i i 5M3f islsl HSS-" I 5115 •;;|i|ii! 5 ' -i 1 i sSSJS iljJS ?SI5| I Sjlj. IIIISHj ; 1 ] i <:!!•! !;;;i H!P i ?l;Si!!!! !!!■ 5 ~ jj . JsiSli SHsj iSsSs ,«iH!i«SSJH = ■ i^l tfiSS ;B11S SSHc ;pll.I5Si;5Sii -J ^^^^\ ■-'f-'-l'" MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. II5 SEAMLESS DRAWN BRASS AND COPPER TUBES. (Pounds per Lineal Foot.) The upper Sgures denote copper, the tower brasi, tubes. rhleknew. :S O.r,go Ouwlde Dlamelers lu Inchei. Bro«D * Sbiirpe or AmBtlMnOuge. (C)Dse- ly). ber. « X > IM .»u s« 3 -1 5 a-M 3-fll IS o.as o-ai 0,18 0.«6 II 13 (i!u o.er O.M !.a7 I.BO l.» (SI 04S o.se o.flO ss o!t6 O.TS O.M on O.BE o.w o.« u.u 0.12 i.»e 1,0. UN OS* ii\ ).«, J.S! 1 TH 1 *! I -a t.K I.BS i.ra 1 28 l.a l^li !:!? O.ftI 0.87 1.3C 1 2 3.83 0,H or U.N 1>,BI t K 1.83 . .„ .' i>.s "ii. HORSEPOWER OF BOILERS. Thirty pounds of water evaporated at 70 pounds steam pressure per hour from feed water at 100° = i horsepower. In calculat- ing horsepower of steam boilers, consider for : Tubular boilers 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one horsepower. Flue boilers 12 square feet of heating surface ^=- 1 horsepower. Cylinder boilers 10 square feet of heating surface ^ I horse- ^^"' HORSEPOWER OF BELTING. A simple rule of ascertaining transmitting power of belting, without Rrst computing speed per minute that it travels, is as follows ; Multiply diameter of pulley in inches by its number of revolutions per minute, and this product bv viiAvVi lA ■CatXiA'L^'^ inches; divide tfiis product by 3,300 lor awi^Xt ^sOiSvot, a* "^, i,ioo for double beJting, and the qttoticnt ViW X^t ^V« *!«««=*■ ^ onfpower that can be safe^ tranamittftA. - " 1 154 MISCELLANEOUS tNFORUATtON. TEMPERATURE OF FIRE. By reference to the table of fuels (p. 777). it will be seen t the temperature of the fire is nearly the same for all kinds combustibles under similar conditions. If the temperature known, the conditions of combustion may be inferred. The i lowing table, from M. Pouillet, wilt enable the temperature to judged by the appearance of the fire: ^«Tp- Tj^i unntce.divi »S- Red. cljjrry. cl.»r To d eter mine temp erat ure by fu sion of met als, etc.: I'rsn __ }'*' - ]^"'-^ ■.'■—■ 1 J*"!. Jj.WmiiBhi-jronV.I IMiv IRON PIPE SIZE BRASS TUBES. :orri.-s|>oiid with Iron Tubes, and to fit Iron Tul ListofSiset.Laigths.^tc^ Welitbt Pet Foot. iicuT, S*mc as Iron Slic. . MISCELLANEOUS INFOBUATIOK. SUTKBIM.. M..-r« «..„„„. ™rto«,™. 1 i.Tfi 1.3S 1.75 i;| 6.3 1 &:» <:& 7'.i- 100 i» lie s iffi isoo IWO OD square n. Its TO :::: i N 1 l« K IflD ..ffi„. jutobB^'Tr'"*"'"" "IMS. WiMmt in bulk. m«ii il ExcelBlor. Uvdeiiek eompr'H S HBrreli-cmeni. American... S9 tfl IMrral Kranulaled sDmr tt Kert. Bqnftre In. Squftre la. Square In. I.BB «• K.M I lb. pressure per square inch ii equivalent to a head of water or I atmosphere, is eq.uivalent. 14.7 lbs. pressure per squar-- inch :o a head of water of 33.947 feet, 14.;' ths. pressure per square inch, ot \ aMwi^ijVt^t, \* wc» 3 a head ot water ol 33.947 I«t, Ot Vt-ViJ tfttW^t^- MISCELLANEOUS INPOBKATIOW. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF BEAUUE DEGREES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY ACCORDING TO BOURGOUGNON. FM UQUma HEAVIO THAW WATHL Deg.B. 8p.0r. w.. JjO^ tt*.B. 8p i i Br. ;D<«. B.| Sp-Or. \.two i.iue ■T I oer l«M 91 1.1«B IS I m K 1 «;ie i.im ¥» 1 «B1> I iiona « 41 1 OD 1 -lU I.OM 9 l!lM e 1 ttM 1 «■ I na U I.ISM 4S 1 a*t j « 1 TW « liotn s TT« 1 LOW 3S rsivr M 1 Ttm I.OBM IT i.»n M ] «!» » 1 •m » I.SWT M!T i.ai4 « 1 n 1 N» litWB 10 i.aaw « 1 « 1 m i.vm >1 l.S7» BO I uoi , 13 i.nw K El 1 MM : SS i!»e4 K 1 1 ih i'nio 31 l-SW U 1 SW2 ■ gw » i.sani U 1 »» IT l.\Xl> an » 1 su » i FOE LtQUlDS LIGHTER T Bf. Gr. Des- B. Sp. Gr. Deg. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Under this head has been collected the titles of the original contributions to the science and practice of brewing, published in the United States, with the names of the publications in which they appeared. In so far as this list may be incomplete, the re- spective files were not accessible. The writers on topics concern- ing brewing, and the publishers of the periodicals devoted to the brewing trade were invited to favor the editors with lists of articles written or published by them, and in most cases the re- quest was fulfilled with the greatest kindness, for which the edi- tors take this opportunity of thanking their correspondents. An effort has been made to give a complete list regardless of pre- vailing divergences of opinion as to the correctness of various theories or the expediency of practical suggestions advanced \ / the different writers. AbbreviMions : A. B. R., American Brewers' Review Am. Br., American Brewer. Am. Ch. R. .American Chemical Review Br. J., Brewers' Journal. Br. & M., Brewer and Maltster. Bnn., Der Braumeister. Ice & R., Ice and RefriKeration. Pr. Bb., Der praktische Bierbrauoi W. Br., Western Brewer. Roman numerals indicate volume. Arabic Mmmerals indicate Page. HISTORICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS. Progress in brewing. — A. H. Bauer, Am. Br., 1882, xv, 6, 36^ 54. 272. The beer of the period. — ^J. E. Siebel, Am. Ch. R., 1883, iii, 213. Beer an antidote for cholera. — ^J. E. Siebel, Am. Ch. R., 1884, iv, 197. The adulteration of beer. — Brm., 1887, i, 257. Origin of the art of brewing. — ^John P. Arnold, Brm., 1888, i, 332. Secret nostrums. — Brm, 1888, i, 365. 1157 II58 BIBLIOCRAPHY. Beer in Ihe nineteenth century. — John P. Arnold, Brm.. ii. 206. Brewer)" apprentices 3pa years ago.— John P. Arnold. 1 1889. ii. 243. Glass or mug?— J. E. Siebel. W. Br.. l8go. xii-. 1522. Beer in ihc glass, and glass in beer. — Joa. Krieger. Am. 1890. xxiii, 14S. The hi^lori- of brening.— John P. Arnold. Brm.. i8qi. iv, 246. 274. 361. Secret noslnims. — .\. Weingaerlner. Brm.. 1891. i*-. 211. The brewmaster calendar for 1892. — Jos. Krieger, Am. iSgi, xxiv. 417- Emil Christian Hansen.— R. Wahl, A. B. R.. 1891. vi. 71. 8; Hislorj- of beer.— Louis Pio. A. B. R.. 1892, vi. js. 52. 103. '39. "55. '7'. 187, 203. 219. 23s, 251. 267. 300. 3:5, 331. 347 379- Jii- Beer and il5 place in diclelics.— J. E. Sicbtl, A. B. R.. i}lg 819. 835. FiTiiicniniion chonii<^tr.v 100 ytars .igo. — Jos. Krieger. Am iRo.i, xsvi. 313. Official finding of ihc beer jurj.— .\. B. R.. 1803. vii, 329. Census of ihc brewing and m.illing industries.— C. W. W A. B. R-. 1S94. vii, 59Q. Skciflie* from ihe far Xorlhwcst. — P. M.ix Kuehnrich. . R., tSos. viti. 325. 344. 365, 374. 384. 4D.e. 415, 425, The relative parls of ihe brewer and Ihc scientific jiatii controlling brewing operations. — L. Henius. .-\. B. R., 1S96. x 242. Beer as ,in alimcnl.— H. Lemke, .-\m. Br., iSofi. xxi^c. ij( ilodern brewing ecciroray.— F. Wyatt. Br. J.. 1897. Petition of the brewmaster in the I'nileil States.— Wi Stib. A. B. R.. iSg7. x. 106. Pure l-cer que'li''n and .\mcrican l'eer>,^M, Schwari. .\. 1 189,-. ^i- "31- Brief history of hop culture in the L'niied Stales.— W. .\. rence. A. B. R.. 1897. xi- '- Prejudices of brewers.— Jof. Krieger. Am. Br.. 1899. 3 IS4. ■ The imprcvvemcnt' in the hrewin ear?.- L. Michel. A. B, R.. i?t. xxvii. 413. Use of turbid glucose in the brewery. — Jos. Kri^er. Am. iBor>. xxiN, 503. FISISO-S AND cnips. Animal gelntins, lichen and Irish moss in the brewery. Schwarz, Am. Br.. 1869, ii. 125. Chips— A. Scliwnrz. Am. Br. 1S79. xii. 339. Tlic spiral clarifying chips. — M. Schwa rz. .Am. Br.. 1 -vvi. 41. Wahrs isinghss.- A. Schwarz. Am. Br.. 1884. xvii, 337. Isinglass and fining.- M. Schwari. Pr. Bb.. 1886. 737. Cornigntcd chips. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 18S9, 60. 160. VARNISH, HTtH. ETC. Bisulphite of lime.- .A. Schwari. Am. Br.. 1869. ii. 158- Bicarbonale of soda.— .\. ScUwan. Am, Br., 1869, ii, 231. Boiler coniponnds.— G. TVevcwi. N. ft. ^.. V«%, -ivli, 549, BIBLIOGRAPHY. II65 Brewers' varnishes and their uses.— Wm. Zeiaa, A. B. R., 1898, xi,369. Boiler compounds.— Ph. Dreesbach. A. B. R., 1898, xii, 3, 43. Mystic oil.— E. Hantke, Br. and M., 1898, xvii, 86. Pitch,— G. Thevenot, A. B. R., 1899. xii, 326. Wood varnishes.— G. Thevenot, A. B. R., iSgg, xii, 245. Wood alcohol varnish.- A. B. R., 1900, xiii, 287. MICRO-ORGANISMS. Mycoderma species. — A. Lasche, Brm., iSgi, iv, aoo. . Mycoderma.— A. Lasche, Brm., 1891, iv, 293. Saccharon^ces Jorgensenii. — ^A. Lasche, Brm., 1891, v, 242. Systematic classification of yeast fungi. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1891. xxiv. s. Aspergillus OrjMC— (Japanese ferment). — J. E. Siebel, W. Br., 1891, xvi, 624, 1 128. Two red species of mycoderma. — A, Lasche, Brm., 1892, v, 278. Ascopore formaiion is not a criterion for characterizing sac< charomycetes. — A. Lasche, A. B. R., 1893, vi, 713. Contribution toward the systematic classification of fission fungi.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893, xxvi, 20I. YEAST AND FERMENTATION. The process of fermcnlalion and the results of recent inves tions on yeasts. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 195. Substances checking fermentation. — A. H. Bauer, Am. Br., XV, S. Differences between lop and bottom fermentation and the yeasts producing them.— M. Schwarr, Am. Br., 1885, xviii, 217. The action of naphtholhydrate on brewery yeast. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1886, xix, 5. New contributions to the knowledge of yeast. — M. Schwai Am. Br., 1886, xix, 187. Number of yeast cells in beer. — R. Wahl, Brm., 1889, ii, 307. Infection of American beers with wild yeast. — A. Lasche, Brn 1891, iv, 206. Infection of American beers with wild yeast.— Jos, Krieger, Ai Br., 1891, xxiv, 3, 39, 299. The American brewery yeast. — A. Lasche, Brm., ift)i, v, 180. Infection of American beers by wild yeast. — Jos. Kii«^<», Kto.. Br., 1892, xxT, 7. 1 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Influence of certain temperalures upon differeni yeast formi.— A. Lasche, A. B- R.. iftu. vi. 23?. 269. Is the sugar decomposed daring fermentation inside or outeidc of the yeast cell ?— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1892, xxv, 3a& Modem methods of fennentation. — F. Wyatt and L. SaarfaadL A. B. R., 1893, vi. 818, 8j6: 1894, vii. 5. The fermenlation produced by the "Takamine" process. — |o*. Krieger, Am. Br, 1894. xxvii, 645. Glucose as a normal constituent of brewers' yeast. — Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 1895, xxviii, 87. The fermentative action of yeast due to chemical process. — Jo*. Kricger, .\ni. Br., 1895. xxviii, 131. The final degree of attenuation of Saaz and Frohbetg ycasl. KrivKiT. .-\m, Br.. 1900. xxxiii. 474. IMu^inlogy of itimentation. — Castnir Kocot, Br. J., igoo. xxiv. J48. JyC, ,146. 450. 5t»- PURE VEAST. Pure culiure of yeast.— R. Wahl. Br. & M., 1885. W. 6ij. The imre vtast in .America. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm.. 1».>0. iv. 14. Apiiaratus for pure yeast. — J. E. Sitbcl. W. Br.. 1890, xv, 1043. Ptirc yiasi and beer taste— J. E. Siibcl. W. Br. 1890, xv, 1522. \'ahic of ihe pure culture of veasi in ilic practice of brewing. — R. Wahl, Brm,. 1891. v. 123. Pofsililo dangers from the use of pure yeast in the brewery. — Jos. Krietd-r. Am. Br.. 1K91. xxiv. 339. Behavior of some pure yeast types in hrewing operations.— A. LafdK. Brm„ tSg2. v. 383. 308. .Actual value oi pure jcm*. m vVi^ tatwcty.- Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., iJ' mall kilning and geiminating apparatus. Br., 1874. vii. 64. ) buying malt.— A. H, Bauer. Am. Br.. 1882 Schwarz, Am. Some hints i Malting in Amcrica.^Brm.. 1887, i. 62. Dclerinining quality of barley. — M. Schwarx. Am. Br., XX. 249. The chemical and physiological processes in the germini barley.- C. Racli, Br. & M.. 1889, viii. 1090. Tht barky crop of 18*).— Brni.. 18S9, iii. 49- Turning uf malt on the kiln.— John Koch, R. Wahl and Hinius. arm.. 1889. iii. 9. Formalioii uf cane-sugar in mahing. — J. E. Siebel, \V. i*JO, XV, 318, 558, 1523. The barley crop of l8gi.— Brni., i8gi. v, 38. Weevils in mailing-— W. Kiencr. A. B. R.. 1893. vii. ij& Polishing barley.— J. Raasbach. A. B. B.. 1893. vii, ag?. Buying mall,— A. J. Mclzlcr. A. B. R.. 1893. vii. 351, For better raw material.— J, Raasbacli. A. B. R., 1894. vii. Cleaning and zoning Inrlev. — J. Raasbach. A. B. R., 1894. 187. .Malt fruin last season's barley in puini of extract and m ure.~R. Wahl and M. Hcniiia. A. B. R.. 1894. viii. 369. Amirican trade mall as compared with German brei mall. — Jos. Krifgcr, Am. Br., 1895, xsviii, 40. Ubser\ aiiLins on malt and malting. — .A. Haeusermann. A. B J893. is. 278. 357. The important poiitts to consider in buying barley. — G. Tli nut. A. B. R.. 1896. X. ao3. Uiffercnoes between domestic and European barley in n ing.— H. Leserer. A. B. R., 1896. -f. 3O6. Should slack mall be redried Ufore mashing?— Jos. Kri( Am. Br.. 1896, xxix. 563. Some fads about baiWy and vna,\\f-V^. G. Bohmrich, A. B, iSa?, xi, 49. SIBLIOGBAPHY. 1 169 American malt and its manufacture. — Jos. KrJeger, Am. Br., 1898, xxxi, 255. Moisture contents of bacley and genninating power. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., IQOO, xxxiii, 413. BREWERY OUTFIT. SKEW HOUSE. Baudelot's beer cooler. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 73. Iran surface coolers with new cooling devices. — Fermenting room and cellar ventilation. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 172. Ch. Stoll's patented mash-tun.— A. Schwarz, Am, Br., 1873, vi. Schilling and Imen's patented mash machine with live steam connection.— A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1875, viii, 9. Jean Schafhous' automatic mashing apparatus. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1875, viii, 26. Simplified brew house outfit.— A. Schwari, Am. Br., 1876, ix, 159. Doing away with surface coolers. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1876, 264. High or wide mash-tuns for sparging. — F. Gaugengigl, Am, Br., 1880, xiii, 436. Self-acting mashing apparatus. — A. H. Bauer, Am. Br.. i88z, XV, 178. Defects and drawbacks of our brew house outfits.—A. Scliwarz, Pr. Bb,, 1SS2. 479. Hop tearing machine (ZoHer).— A. Schwarz, Am. Br, 1884, xvi, 133. Yaryan's system of concentration. — H. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm.. 1888, ii, 10. 38. Cooling of beer wort — Theurer's system. — Brm., 1888, ii, 177. Hop aronia condenser, Seib-Haefner,— C Haefner, Brm., 1889, ii, 214. Seib and Hacfner's hop aroma condenser. — Henry Auer, Brm., Hop aroma and the devices for obtaining it. — R. Wahl, Brm., 18S9, iii, 20. Hanford-Slanford atomizer. — C. Robitschek, Am. Br, 1891, xxiv. 36, 8o- Han ford- Stanford apparatus for cooling stvA a.«a-'Ovt\% -*«ai\.— A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1S91, 865. ■ 1^ BIBLIOGBAPHV. Rach's brew house plant.— C. Racb, Am. Br., 1894. xxvii Cooker or lub?— C. Rach. Am. Br., iSw, "xvii, 55a. Hop mill fur belter utilising bops. — Jos. KricKcr, Am. Br., xxviii, 13a. Thcurcr iniproved beer cooler. — G, Thevenot, A. B. R., tx, 45a Simplifying the equipment of the brew house. — M. H< A. B. B., 1896, X, 126; .\m. Br„ 1896. xxix. 581. Surface coolers in modem breweries. — F. Bcier, A. E 1897. xi. 408. High pressure cookers in the brewery. — Jo$. Kriegn', Am 1899. xxxii. los. Outfit of a brtwery.— Ph. Drcesbach, A. B. R., 1900. xiv, : Iron fernu'niing tnnks. — A. Schwarz. .-^m. Br.. 1869. ii. I Swimmers.— .\. Schwan. Pr. Bb., 187S. -i-* AiTnline and rousing device for wort. — C. Robilschck. Br.. iSi)J. KKV. 88. STOKAIIE ASa CIIIP TELL.^R. A new barrel bung.— A. Schwarr. Am. Br.. 1874. vii. 6? History of a palcnled barrel bung. — .A. Sehwari. Am. Br., X. 33. Biiiiu-buslics.— A. Schwari. Am. Br.. 1877. x. 34. The modtTii bunging apparatus. — A. Schwarr. .^m. Br., xii. i'«. Thi; mtiJern bunging apparatus.— -X. Schwarr. Am. Br., xiii. J97. The modern bunging apparatus. — .A. Schwarz. Am. Br.. .\ luivel racking device.— J. E. Sicbcl. Am. Qi. R,. 1883. iii Improving the clarifying action of chips. — .V Sehwarz. Br.. 1883. xvi. 193. Iron ball.* instead of chips. — F. C. Wiedering. Am. Br,. Filtering ilcviees.— M. Sch»ari. .Am. Br.. 1R87. \x. 339. Krauscn mclcr of Zolier and Schiniptr. — R. Wahl am Henius. Brm.. iSgo- iv. j8. The Ih'it lilier. hs iiii(iorinni.-c and application in tlic brcwi 0'. A. Bachmann, Brm., 1891, w, 15a, ftv. BIBLIOGBAPHY. II7I VENTILATION. Apparatus for generating a cold current of air (John J. Schil- linger),— A. Scbwari, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 125. Ventilation of cellars.— Techn. Com. U. S. Brtn. Ass., A. B, R., iSoQ, xiii, 91. About ventilation. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 70, 155, MISCELLANEOUS. Holbeck's pitching machine. — A. Schwarz, Am, Br., i86g, ii, ■ 268. Grains dryers.— R. Birkfaolz, Brm., 1888, ii, 249. A new pitching machine in the Pabst brewery. — G. Thevenot, A. B, R., i8i)6, ix, 31S. The barrel pitching department of the Pabst brewery. — Am. Br., 1896. xxix, 194. Aluminum in the brewery. — Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 1896, xxix, 67.1. Device to keep beer from getting flat while being drawn. — A. Schwarz, Am, Br„ 187s. viii, 30. Water filters for breweries and malt houses. — Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R-, 1898, xii, 172, 211. Brewery pumps. — Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R., i898> xii, 327. PRINCIPLES OF BREWING, AND BEER. Influence of lactic acid on beer. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br,, 1869, ii, 181. The chemical composition of the wort determines the character of the beer,— A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1881, xiv, 257. Nitrogenous substances and their behavior during mashing and sparging, — M, Schwarz and A. Weingaertner, Am. Br., 1882, XV, 253, Fat or gluten?— M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1883, xvi, 217, 285. The quantities of nitrogenous bodies extracted in mashing and sparging, and those lost in boiling worl. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br,, 1883, xvi, 253. Influence of aging on the character of beer. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb„ 1884, 609. Salicylic acid as a check on fermentation. — M. Schwarz, Am, Br.. 1R85, xviii, 5. 35. 64- Formation or increase of acid during masVim%. — \&,. ^:x^-*t-a.XT^ Am, Br,, 1885, xviii, 391. 1 172 BIBUOGRAPHY. Mash temperatures, — Ernst Fecker, Jr., Am. Br.. 1885. xvjii. 3^t--Jos. Kritgcr. Am. Br., 1891. xxiv. 308. Alkaline l>eer.— R. Wahl. Brm,. 1892. v. 348. E\tract of mall ■rich in i so maltose."- P. Fischer, A. B. R., iSu, vi. 8.11, Exiraci of tnalt "rich in isoinaltosc." — P. Fischer, A, B. R., i}4).(. vii, 113- Prof. Liiitner'* discovery of isomallose. — Ernst Uhlmann. A. B. R.. 1893. vii. 166. Prof. l.iiHutr's discovcn- of isomaltose. — P. Fischer. A, B. R. 1893, vii. 187. Properties and behavior of cnzynies at higher temperatures in sohilii'n and in the dry stale.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893. xxvi, 140, 205. Dangers of September air.Wos. Kriegcr, Am. Br.. 1893, xvi. 490. The part of albuminoids in the manufacttire of beer, — R. Wahl. A, B. R., 1893. vii, 185. 201. 477. The jiart of albuminoids in the manufacture of beer.— R Wahl and A. NUsoii, A. B. R.. 1893. vii. 579, 641. 721- The albuminoids in bcti an4 *ot\,— «.. NSiW and E. Hanike, A. B. R.. 1893- \". 491- BIBLIOGRAPHY. 11^3 The part of albuminoids in the manufacture of beer.— R. Wahl and A. Nilson, A. B. R., 1894, viii. 36. Action of enzymes on carbohydrates and their transforina< tion into fermentable sugar. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1895. xxviii. 25. Malto-dexlrin versus isomaltose.— R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1895, ix, 42. The nitrogenous constituents before and after fermentation. — £. Hantke, Br. & M., 1895, xiv, 1148. Formation and consistency of foam. — G. Thevenot, A. B. R.. 1897, X, 241. WJndisch on the functions of the albuminoids in the prepara- tion of beer.— R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1896, x, 281, 329. Comparative researches on the albuminoids of two brewings, made according to the methods of Wahl and Windisch.— M. Henius and G. Thevenot, A. B. R., 1896, x, 409. The production of foam and the albuminoids. — R. Wah!, A. B. R., 1896, X, 46a. Examinations in practice and in the laboratory. — E. Hantke, Am. Br., 1896, xxix, iTO- What determines the palatefulness of beer.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br, 1896, xxix, 669. Albumen and beer.— Jos. Krieger, Am. B., 1897, xxx, 276. On the formation and stability of foam of worts prepared by dirtcrcnt mashing methods.— R, Wahl and L. Henius. A. B. R., 1897, xi, 41. Foreign odors absorbed by beer. — G. Thevenot, A. B. R., 1898, xii, 287. The carbonic acid bound by beer. — Jos. Krieger. Am. Br., 1899, xxxii, 49. The non-existence of the malt-peptase and malto- dextrin. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 99- Peptase and albuminoids.— R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1900, xiv. 121. What conditions give a steady head to beer.— E. Hantke. Br. & M.. 190a, XIX, 324. The nature of carbonic acid gas in beer.— E. Hantke, Br. & M.. 1900, xix, 338; Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, S^S- Foam-keeping capacity and fullbodiness of beer.^Ioa. ¥U'%t«ri, ^m. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 3136. ^4 BI8UOGRAPHV. Pcptase and the albumen of unmaltcd cereals. — R. A. B. R., 1900, xiv, i6t. Diastase and starch.— R. Wahl, A. B. R.. 1900, xir, aot. BEU. Turbid beer.— A. ^hwari. Am. Br., 1869, ii, 124. Keeping qualities of beer during long transportatioi Schwarz. .\m. Br.. 1877, x, 29, 173. Peroxide of hydrogen as a beer presenaiive.- .\. Wein rer. Am, Br., 1883. xvi, 287, 321. .■\ final word about gluten turbidity. — M, Schwarz, Am 18&4, xvii, 39. Peroxide of hydrogen as a beer preservative. — A. Weini ner. .^m. Br. 1^4, xvii, 267. Preservation of beer by freezing. — M. Schwari, Am, Br, xviii. 95. Keeping qualities of beer.- M. Schwari. Pr. Bb.. iSSs. 6+j Yensl ontt-nl of U.>er and iinwholcsomeness of turbid be M. Schwarz, Am, Br., it«aTi.. Pr. Bh.. 1877, 317. y practK -.V Sc'hwatt,'?!.^^^ . \%ri. -i^v. Boltio h«rs.-A. ScV^N.MT.■?t.^^.^^v»PV^l^.^^n, BIBLIOGRAPHY. IT/S e and strange phenomenon.— A. Schwarr, Pr. Bb., 1882, Brewing on a large scale. — M. Schwari, Am. Br, xvii, 197. Brewery managemenl.— J. Jacob Metzler, Brm., 1887, i, 8. 23, 106. 148. 185. About bottle beers.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm.. 1S87 i. '53- The art of brewing a tight beer— M. Schwarz, Pr Bb. 1887, 769. Brewing in South America.— Brm., 1888, i, 221. Export beer and local beer — C. Rach and J. Eisenbeiss 3rm., i8qi, iv, 197, 226. Process of making beer.— C. Rach, A. B, R., 1893, vi. 568. Lager beer brewing in Mexico, — A. Mantel, A. B. R., 18^ viii. 28Q- Stcam beer.- A. Mugler. A. B. R.. 1894, viii, 38a. The manufacture of weiss beer.— E. Hantke, Br & M.. 1895. xiv, 688. Requirements for producing pale and mild beers full and pure lo the taste.- A. Haeusermann, A, B. R., 1897- xi. 48. Influence of air on brewing operations. — Jos. Krieger, Am Br, 1897. XXX. 331. Control of brewing operations. — E. Hanlke, Am. Br., iSg? XXX, 617. With the practical brewer.— E. Hanlke, Br. & M., 1898, xvii, 12.^ xvii. 123, Preparation of California steam beer. — Max Hoefle. A. B. R. i8q8, xi. 336- Manufacture of Gratzer beer— Theo. Schuster. A. B. R. 1898, xi, 371. City (local) and export beer. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1900. xxxiii, 290. Practical notes on the production of beer for bottling. — F. Wyntt, Br. J., 1900, xxiv, 495. BBEW BOUSE. Brewing with raw cereals, especiaV\^ r'\cc. — K. ^^vwtt.tx, Kwv. Br., i86g. U. 253. 1 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mashing temperatures. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1873, ti. Raw cereals in brewery.— A. Schiran, Pr. Bb., 1S74, 139, 145. 178. Malt and water and the temperatures in diSerent ma; methods.— A. Schwar*. Pr. Bb., 1^4, 161. Hopping of beer wort. — A. Schwan, Pr. Bb., 1875, 193, 20 Sparging.— A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1876, 24i> Process of clari^ing wort and beer. — A. Schwarx, Pr. 1876, 257- Procoss of clarifying wort and beer. — A. Schwarx, Pr. "877. 273- The treatment ol beer won with air. — A. Schwan, Ant. 1876, ix, 341. A new method of mashing.— A. Schwan, Pr. Bb., 1877, The mashing in the tun or kettle.- A. Schwan, Pr. T878. 325. Yield of maltose and the method of mashing. — W. Schi Am- Br.. iSSo. xiii. 5. 62. DifFerencts in the concentration of beer wort. — F. Gauget .\m. Br., 1880, xiii, agg. Raw cereal brewing— A, Schwarz. Am. Br.. i8S(. xiv, 65. Foroe's patcnltd mashing apparatus and mashing proce A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1881. 447. Employmtni a raw cereals. — J. E. Sicbel. W, Br., 1881, 1463- Malt adjuncts in the brcwerj-. — A. H, Bauer, .-Vm. Br., ; XV. 1J7. igS. 265. 623, 643- Quantity of extract yielding material and temperatures ployed in different operations of mashing. — A. H. Bauer, Br., i88j, XV, 158. BoilinR ot beer in vacuo.— .\. Krcu?kr. .-\m. Br., lS8a, xv. Filtering iii wori^ and beers. — A. tf. Bauer. Am. Br., ] XV. 269. Boiling in vacuo.— N. Gerber. Am. Br., iSSj, xv. 278. Mashing.- A. H. Bauer, Am. Br.. iSS', xv.. 4^. 507. .Ma,t rhe raw cereals wort.— M. Schwan, Am, i»J, :*vi, 7. Rational use of hops— J. E-. Swbe\, Knv- Cn. ^.. \«iv"'«. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 177 The addition of salicylic acid to wort.— M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1886, 708. The most approved method of raw cereal brewing. — A, Wein- gaerlner, Am. Br., 1887, xx, 192. The besi methods of extracting hops. — W. A. Lawrence, Brm.. 1887. i, 39- Some of the principal properties of starch. — W. Slegrist, Brm., 1887, i, 63. Advantages and drawbacks of dilTcrent brewing methods. — Karl Siegrist, Brm., 18S7, i, 235. Cooling wort by filtered air. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1888, xxi, 360. Extracting the hop aroma. — R. Wahl, Brm., 1889, iii, 20. Influence of raw material on attennatiot:. — J. E. Siebel, W. Br., 1889, xlv. 97. A new method of brewing (Frisch).— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 1889, iii, 86, 133. 156. Influence of mashing methods on the character of beer. — R. Wahl, Brm., 1889. ill, 120. Brewing under high pressure. — O. Schrciher, Brm.. 1889, Iii, 286. Treatment of raw cereals under high pressure, — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1889, xxii, 354, 386. About sparging.^M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1889, 849. Brewing with raw cereals under high pressure. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1890, xxiii, 75, 105. Requirements and objects o( mashing. — Ph. Hildebrand; Brm., 1890, iv. 114. New brew house outfit and mashing method for beers poor in alcohol and rich in extract. — C. Rach, Brm., 1890, iv., 177. Disadvantage of the surface cooler. — G. A. Bachmann, Brm., 1891, iv, 197, 237- Maximum finantities of raw cereals to be used in brewing. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1891, xxiv, 262. Why do we hop?— A. Weingaertner, Brm., i8gi, iv, 276. Belter utilization of hops,— M. Schwarz. Pr. Bb., 1891, 871. Influence of aeration on the wort. — C. Robitschek, Am. Br., 1892, XXV. 89. How can a high yield and woct ol AcaiTti i\M5to.'i Ni«- ^*^- taintd.— C Rach, Am. Br., 1893, xxvi, 2a^ 1 1 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mashing mixIurFs and mashing heats. — F. Wyait, A, ! 189J. vii, aig. 2.1s. Raw cereal brewing. — Jos. Kricger, Am. Br, 1894. xxri Mashing to avoid albuminoid turbidity in beer. — R. A. B. R.. 1895. viii. 471. The wort from the kettle to the settling lank. — Louis £ macher. A. B. R., 1895, is, 127. Treatment of ihi! wort in the copper. — A. Harasermar R. R.. 1896, X, 2og. Infusion or decoction ?— Jos. Kriegcr, Am. Br.. iSg6. xxt: Straining wart.— A. Haeuscrmann, A. B. R., iSg?. xi. 2 Decoction, infusion or combination method. — C. Racb. Br.. 1897. xtx. 243. High or low mashing temperature? — Jos. Krieger, Am 1897. X.NS, 4S7. Rational mashing iiipthods.— C. Rach, Am. Br.. 1897. Pure crn siai .'.i, 40.1. Surface cooler; :8q8, .xi. 40S, On the pri'iiarulion of il*jS. xii. J.'.,. Forced malt and iiia^ ;n brewing.— M. Henius. A, B. R., modern brewetics.^F. Beier, A. I pale becrs.~M. Henius. A. iielhods. — Jos. Krieger, Am hing temperatures. — Jos. Kricger, Am. Br., won.— Jos. Kricger, .\m. Br. 1898. xxxi. 6, A \m. 'Uiiycflinn to Br.. 1898, XX.SL a be 8. ter u.iliz.-.. on ol hops.— H. S Th ilamagc done by the seed of hop 1— E. Hantke Br. 1 Sqq. -xviii. >fls. Sp TBinfi .11 hnil ng ter 1 pera lures .— Jos. Krieger Am. ftw. On Ihc prjicttcal v.ilue f Hnraalled cereals as yeasl fo Si: A. B. R.. EryllirnJcNtrin and llic temperatures of the sparging wa J11S. KricKcr. .\m, ISt.. \im- ^-^-f-u. 67Q. In the use oi rice aiiA totn '^visvAiAA':"'.— t. '9aR^, Rto, igoQ. xxxiii. 235. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 179 The American method of infusion.— C. Rach, Am. Br., 1900, \XKiii, 415. How to obtain a good yield from brewing material. — C. Rach. Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 471. Practical brewing (faulty mashing).^. Knorr, Am. Br, 1900, xxxiii, 530; A. B. R„ 1900, xiv, 86. Use of air in brewing.— J. E. Siebel, A. B. R., 1900, xiv. 87. Boiling the mash with direct steam.— C. Rach, Br. J.. 1900, xxiv, 300. Manufacture o[ Vienna yeast. — A. Schwarz, Am Br., 1869, ii, t02. Directions for proper fermentation. — A. SclrwarE, Pr. Bb., 1872. as- Boiling fermentation. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1876, ix, 93. Boiling fermentation, — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1877, x. 98. The attenuation ol our beers.— A. Schwan, Am. Br., 1878, xi, 69. The bubble fermentation.— A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1880, 389. Bubble fermentation.— Am. Br.^ 1881, xiv, 73. The relations between the quantity of wort and quantity of yeast used for pitching. — A. Schwan, Pr. Bb., 1882, 491, Skimming during the process of fermentation. — A. Schw; Pr. Bb.. 1882, 537. Malt flour as a yeast strengthencr.— M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1883, xvi. 319. Malt sprouts for strengthening yeast. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br. "883. xvi, 349- Fermentation for stable bottle and export beers. — A. Schwarz Pr. Bb., 1883. 569. Malt sprouts for strengthening yeast — A. Schwan. Am. Br.. i8&4, xvii, 200. Watering of yeast.- M. Schwari, Am. Br., 1884, xvii. 233. Bubble fermentation.- A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1886, xix, 249. In the fermenting cellar.— R. Wahl, Brm., 1888, ii, 173, 217. The vacuum process in the brewery. — A. Metzler, Brm., 1888, Some points about the vacuum process for t\^«ww»% ■Co*. beer.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., iSBa, "\\, IV Abnormal fermentations.— A. ScVwjatr, Km. '^t-. ^'^«- ^"' BIBUOGBAFBY. Some points about the racnum process for ripening the beer.— R. Wahl and M. Heniua, Brm.. iSgo. iii, 224. The pitching yeast in the brewery.— C Rach, Br. & H., iSga. ix, 8a Infection of beer and wort by bacteria. — }. E. Sicbel. W. Br., 1891, xvi. 3358. The vacuum process— A. Hummel, A. B. R., 1893. vi, 563. Barley and yeast.— Jos. Knorr, A. B. R., 1695, ix, 8& The advantages of higher pitching lemperainres for inciting bottom fermentation. — R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1895, ix, 81. Higher pitching lemperainres. — A. B. R., 1895, ix, 167, 306, 24Z A new method of purifying yeast. — F. C. Wiedring, Am. Br., 1895. xxviii. 215. Cold or warm main ferment ation.->Jos. Krteger, Am. Br., 1895, xxviii, 237. Transportation of ycasl.— John Hotz, A. B. R., 1896, ix. 277. ChanKf? eer. — M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1886, 741. Clarification of beer.— R. Wahl, Bnn.. 1887, i, g, 31. Importance of beer filtration. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brni., Partial replacement of ICraeusen by wort.— ^M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1888. xxi. 103. Beer filters and bacteria.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 1890. iii, 360. Quantity of Kraeusen and the time of bunging. — M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb.. 1888; 801. Kraeusening and bunging. — H. Schwarz, Pr. Bb.. 18SS, 817. A method to avoid the detrimental results of kraeusening (sugar Kraeusen) .~R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., i88g. iii. 17. Beer without Kraeusen and shavings.— J. E. Siebel, W. Br.. 1889, xiv. 1530. Carbonic actd versus kraeusening.- R. Wahl, Brm., 1892. v, 229. Anhydrous grape sugar for kraeusening bottle beer. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1891, 866. What are Kraeusen. and what causes the formation of kraeusen ?— Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 1892. xxv, 338. What is the object of kraeusening?- Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893, xxvi, 390. Carbonization of beer.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893. xxvi, 433. Changes in the composition of lager beers taking place during storage.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1894, xxvii, 274, 327. The absorption of carbonic acid by beet d>Km* ft* ^ti^^*-^'* of carbonization, and its loss during iac\dn% »rv4 ^a.'^i^'Mt-— i*« Krieger, Am. Br.. 1894, xxvii, 530. The rackitiE of l«er.— M. Sulil. A, B. 1 Alxiul kracd^ening and Ircalment of tiic beer in ihe chip casL —A. Haeusermann. A. B. R.. 1895. ix, ^05, Pracliiral hinis for the brewer (in chip cdlar). — F. Voiff, Am. Br., 1897, xxx. 60*, Working of Finings.— Jos. Kriegcr, .Am. Br., 1898. xxxt, 197. BOTTLE BEER AND BOTTLING. PasIeiiriEalion of beer. — A, Schwarz, Am. Br. 1878, xi, 3. R. Poller's beer pasted rizatiofi apparatus. — A. Schwarz, Am, Br., i8?8. xt. 138, Elimination of carbonic acid during and after the lieating oi bottle beiT5.~F Gaum-'ngigl, .\m. Br,. 18S0. xiii. 24a. Rntrirv- ,,i„--,-i.,n- - \. Scliivnr?. Pr. Rh . I»t_>. 17J. Dei-r pasti'urizaiion and the turbidity produced in pasteuriud j- beer.— A. Sth«arz, Am. Br., i88j. xvi. 3. I Bottle gla^s and its effect on beer.— J. E. Siebel, Ant. Ch. R.. j 1884. iv. 36. Preservation of beer.— M, Schwarz and A. Weinsacnner. .Am. Br.. 1884. xvii. 4. 3J. Neil process of pasteurization of beer. — M. Schwarz, Am, Br.. iJ«4. xvii. 200. Preservation of beer. — A. Weingaerlner. Am. B., 1884. x>Hi, Improvcinent of the keeping qualities of botlle b«er. — M. Schwarz. Am. Br. 1886. xix. 311. Preservation of beer by pasteurization. — Jos. Krieger. Am. Br.. .-Vlxiiit the keeiiing qualities of bottle beer. — M. Schwarz. Am. I Br, i8.)i. x.yiv. 3!*r; Brni.. 1891. v. 152. The durability of pasteurized bottle beer with and without an ai'diiiyii of antiseptics.— L. Hciiius. A. B. R., 1895. viii, 595; ix. 5. Keeping qualities of beer, espcciallv K>nle beer.— Jos. Kriegcr. Am. Br. iSg5. xxviii. 134. Pasteurisation of beer.- L. Hmiius. A. B. R.. 1896. x, 366. Kiiff' s pn^tai rising apparatus.- L. Henius. A. B. R.. 1897, x, 3A Influence of pasleuriiivvg. — ^ . t. SwA«\. .\, B, R., 1898. xii. 130. Bottle beer made tur\>i4 Vs v^t'^vj'iwts,— ^- ^*i, ^sd M. i/ci>ius. A. B. R., 18^. wi. »w. BIBUOGRAPHY. 1 183 The work in the bottling department.— E. Hantke, Br. & M., iSgg. xviii. 382- The bottling department of a modem brewery, — Ph. Drees- badi. A. B. R,. 1899, xii, 468. Tlie bottling department of a modem brewery. — Ph. Drees- bach, A. B. R., 1899-1900, xiii, 8, 47, 85, 137, 172, 307, 247, ^8, 327. 367, 409, 472- The boithng department of a modern brewery, — Ph. Drees- bach, A. B. R., igoo, xiv, 41. Clear glass bottles.— A. B. R., 1900, xiv, 89. Sterilization of beer in bulk.— F. Wyatt, Br. J., 1900, xxiv, 549; A. B. R.. igoo, xiv, 125. CLEANSING. VARNISHING, PITCHING. ETC. Cleaning trade packages.— A. Schwarz. Pr. Bb., 1883. S&f. Varnishing of casks. — Wm. Breuer, Brm.. 1891, iv, 195. Pilch and pitching.— J. Zunner, A. B. R.. 1693, vii, 506. Cleansing copper beer kettle. — Clias. Buehler, A. B. R.. 1897. xii. 331. Paraflining and varnishing of fermenting tubs and chip casks. — Chas. Buchler, A. B. R.. 1897, x, 387. Ocaning chip casks. — A. Haeusermann, A. B. R., 1898, xi. 411. Cleaning enameled steel vacuum tanks. — A Haeusermai:n. A. B. R.. 1898. xii. 9. Higher pitching temperatures.— M. Slahl, A. B. R., i8g8, xii. 126. Hoisting and moving casks in the cellar— J, Hoti, A. B. R., 1898. sii. 172. Feeding oil while pitching.— Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R.. 1899, xii, 246. Varnishing.— C. Haefner, A. B. R.. 1899, xii. 338. Accidents in varnishing.— Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R„ ift>g. xii. 364. Pitching with modern apparatus.- M. Slahl. A. B. R.. tP99. xii. 366. Pitcliing with modem appliances— Ph. Dreesbach. A. B. R.. 1899, xii, 406. Varnish turning white.— F. P. Sicbel, W. Bt., Vteft, ti.>:v) , i*. Varnishins^ 0/ casks and tanks.— Re^T\ 1<;c\v. Com., K."*"*^ 1 184 BIBLIOGRAPSY. VarnishinK vats and tuta.— Tech. Com., U, S. Brm. Asi„ A. B. R.. 1899. xiii, 114. Disinfection In breweries. — Joi. Kricser, Am. Br.. 1899. xxxil Shellac poisoning caused by the vamiihing of beer vats. — R Hantke. Br. & M.. igoo. xix. 39. Disinfection in the brewery.— M. Wallertldii, Am. Br., igoa xxxiii, 267. BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION. Extract and alcohol, feed value o( waste prodticts of a bnw- ery. — A. Schwarz, Atn. Br.. 1876. ix, 15?. The presenation of spent grains. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 188a. xiii, 121. The losses during straining of malt and hop wons. — .A. ^icliwarjf. Pr. Bb.. 1881. jjO- Utihzing brewcrv waste products. — A, H. Baoer, Am. Br.. ii<8j. XV. 68. Preservation of spent grains. — M. Schwarz. Am. Br.. i88j. xvi, 32a. Brewers" grains-— J. E. Siebel. W. Br.. 1890. xv, 1765. Brewers' grains. — J. K. Siebel. W. Br.. 1892, xvii. 336, Zitip. Dried brewers' grains as horse feed. — James Nielson, A. B. R.. 1893. vi. 6ia Dried brewers' grains as horse feed. — A. Nilson, A. B. R., 1892, vi. 653. Malt germs and how to utilize them. — J. Raasbach, .A. B. R.. 1804. viii. 84. 106. 120. The drying oi brewers' grains. — G. Theverot. A. B. R.. 1895. is. I. Brewers' grains.^. E. Siebel, \V. Br.. 1895. xx. 104a IZ|I. Colleciinn and uliliz.ition of carbon dioxide in breweries. — Tlicurer-Fi^dier, A. B. R.. 1896. ix, 316. Expressing spent grains before drying. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br.. It,ic,.i,y, Top-F,, T.cnlalitiiL flarunii, l Animal ■:li]ri;»at.aiiD4nti>U>. vpireJUx.'. Vial 11(1 HI, i A pignut' iiiL«aaatiua, Mt<>»*n Sth- islablo. t^dltrifmr — drurre o( ailrnqatim, *«' isimeni (mi,;,', Ijinflelluiw. biirtt H«i|iaiiinB«lta*, xt. iBtua, — QXtrai-i, tAtinbamVimn. r-lrrni<;nlili.in. ^adNaruini- I Arc IJtrbi. So^cnliAt. ibeer. Wri>r. , Arch, lAtlfclSi. ale (vva-.! .au'iiebdl. i ArrMleJ fiTinenlatioa. Xatlgaiug. Iryintf imali;, sdllKll*, Artificial ite, (tunlhii, tMniiiijiiim. vultnattrliubuna. I Aseus (biniiniJinil. ciilMiicibn. Kill. K.mTUM^. AirD<»i>bericc<»ler^iicttlHna«taUn "■Vm.iU.'rtJrinn.ili, lion. Vnaftraag. ,in.f[ntitl|Hul1rnlt, m«nlai>on. bORfl' r, ^nraiMii. w DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 1 187 labbii iiicidl. SalifrBlagtmHlal linrnttiu!. laclllus. Stulilnifliiii. Latk. »uti(. lackpTEBBurc, Scgtnbmd. :acterla, eorttliini 6MllpiI|t. iaiadce, magi. — ' and sottet joint [i flEltnl. — of Bon, ©aiitaiDnittttaiijiiBt tti RSttEjt, eiomiiiiBliTii. araipoUIfcrmentatioaJ, loVt Vmu ech.), (tnadi SS; ^kerii^b!",' StlSti, eam. ttafl.t. — scale, ^Wwagr. earidit (mecli.). S"Pt"ilofl"> ■etch Itxii), VudK. wl Buuar. WiilKii(udtr. — conveVut,»uiini(niii«pDtl(ui. cnioic acid, iBinjacltatr. gvrl whi^l, AntliBt; eiinlclnili. ibb, sentlcittaSn. icacbuiiale nf HOila, boppill loliliii' |aun« ^InlCDii. iEnlphlcla ul carlwB, e4iH|tl>>>W"'- — d[ puiasli, towtll |itiHnifli>»"tt flali. — u[ suda. bDpMIt fitmllislaiinS itin? WHi (Bleeped barlejl, SifiPioBt. lack mall, mfiiali. — buers |iop f.), buntti Biin, — Diiild (barleyj, |4niai)([ ediin- UckediMl lipH (barle)>), Wmaiii — pnvKlcr, Qtlortalt. lend {beer k|, MrfdincilKni MrRi^di. lock anil la<:kle(n1«b.l.9laiAllt(U8. BodT (beeri, Sulbaiutkiiilt j lloil, 10, lUien. Boiler, TompfMfi uiKiunu, mill - Jle, iltflrtfttia. Bulling dawn won), tiatatin. Bo ilia IT feraicntatlaa, Ii>4cBbe Saianfl. — point, eiibtpunrt. Bolt(aiB:h.),eDl.(n. — 10, StHltln, ntteiu Budc-black, KttiMmiMl. Iloradc acid, BilliSutt. Buitle beer, giatAtnbln. Boltlino- deparlouBt, Qrlul^nbitiab- — ninesB (topf.),|(al4(niiit. Boltoin Ic I men tat inn, nntiTfldTuna. bui malting Ipneiiaialli;), RaRtll- laaijtni. Bracts (hops). XWiftilltlEi. DranchiHR, txcimigtiu Brand In IT, bTaiibmilTfin. — iioa, annniilni. Brass, Wiflinfl. Break (won), Qiiiit. Brew. e(btitu:&iib. BrewE jifbii. Brilliancy, eiBIIl. Brilliani, gWiiifriii. Brine, ealiUtuns. Britlle. fpitbi. Bru«li, same; ^InlK. ' to, [vunitn; iu|£aflcn. ' plDK. epnnbiabtin. Burr. Aoplinblktat. UurtoDlsiniilwaU r),^ihn Pi (Oanttn. ItuBbinir, epun bring. Buljric acid, SutttliauR. Dy-prodncla. 3ttttiipttibHll(. nulpblie, boppill f4t»11ia- I aoear, »i*ijuiJ«. ilaiT attraciion, I>aatibtT(i itttunntrnitl; anMiLaii.bU.. iiB yea6V,W\tW«V"- DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERUS. - dioxide. RMknllirt. Carbonau. tu,fcttiinitiin. ^ D[xDDuiiia.eti1MenlaI|. — — lliH.fDlkalaiiniitalt. ' 'a, l>HinluR4 Molinu uta, JgbmlaaiM Ralu :id. JJaWcBUin. ■rrtiBc cask I lop iBt In in. Au^iicn. .)«?(■!• 3M Cnlar. re r niNli-', M(i:fitl>i Caich'ba^in. «u. HilltTlK(4inaEt. CrlUrait'-.Atluni. Crllnli'H', <|i-i>!v]> n Aiir. anHntdxa. — >>t>i.'a>i. Ot'ttnO'il. Characir r':-iii;-.llinii](;d)>R;WtiIm>iH. I'haTti-al. ^.'Itliililc. Cb»|[i! ■ Culitctlar Tat. TMMl. EanwlbirtliA. Color pnUDclDf bacteria, 9 tqacalta^ Oimbofii .KK.te .irast. IRilAbi'c. Cotuguunil niacbinci, Wtbn «>-« j: rasl . iR^htlt. re niirroT, $ebl'hlni.'. MttnfiR. C.irnwioD. drtliifluaa. L'Mtuin lilirr. VantlMltBllIht. C»acb. Oau!• I. Sknut*. Pir, A»l>i r*rkliiiai Float, eAonatnti; ( Fluilin^ ittem^ FIootinam.knK; "^nvf"^':: Fiicus. IinKBpaili. fVrcatK. Sunrut. Ftru nantMi iteoti FulcToni, 6ttHn■^ Fmwl, »1IK- Fbw, Sut-Mitnor. DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. ■in*[»p«nl), Iiflii. retnoTer, XuttnbccCDrttAtnna. Talvc, WoifitMBlil. wateij EUl XntwcK a'P"!)'' i|, Vnilitiiifllfnll. I. (CAilltuiin.) iigi ... ,JAfllt GriU, gilAEDttiin. titttailKc IMikn CirooTS, ^iiBt; llinnt, Gi.nriaK Iron, eprnMoticlcilcn. Ground*, SelBflti- Graim out (in all), anlgilintftil. cirmins noor, Rtlmttuiu. ■all), SBnittrtiim. Gyle, Cull. GTtHUI (lop f.: libflltt. aindcakc. SHitbrlAtit. «Hiu1(tri«d(, UardenldK lower. Xtaiin tarn ^lUn MaiP, hai I nesL e4Uin. Head Ibeerl, CAaun; M .. — (fermcntailnn), ftrOultii. Seacl mold, AopMAiMOII. Heap, Oaufin. aeapinu up (malt), «aKftn(i(l)tn ; jo. lanntnltHii, Flt^at capaclir, SBAmtMtmlSHrt. — onil, STAlinRiiibdl. - value, (xijlwitS- — ol suliillficaliun, Eillanuiiat- Heater (luecli.), SDCtvimil. H.'ats (lup f.), IrtDDtnitunn. Uickory, nKi|(a"tn>a>ii'4t3Bailnab. ibaL-h, KatlAlaObaitt. • jack.&DBlinffiM.. mill.^oDKniitniS"''!*!"'' -oil, 9im)in&L rvtciitlon.ra&ty HDD ^opftn lu- Tll4g(4alHn. it^ltuiiM bdWrdtiul PoUffiiiUCnii. Hydrochloric acLd, 6al|tllii". Hydro»Bi.,«BoJ|[iflon. H)-phumyceieB, ijabinpirji, i©il(iiii m (barlejl, liiAtt Riimt. tiofl, CiliaHttn. SiUHr. Iii-Tcire(aied(iBalt),iAinbinnEaM Imaltinv), |itMi(. «, V«»ttiitila1t; SUigtlolMir — — a[ lotion, ZAniliumini rJiTKrcw.vAiiiutNiitPlwn. rt-ni!tk fif iwiirl'. VURIniivllil. lieiuu, Smi Liuaifacili'U. Vnllii t,ii|D..r,m3^li. .ma Litv SI.MW. »rtrti>t Ltud .iHiiMiavl. » VraiRiiN. line. ^DPiinbTi CioVttiinwliU irlili-. CM fpTIBiium'i uin R>illi4litnii(iD[|J(ii|itun« Rail. iitt. Sanrtii. ited, bur4brDiteii, biirdilDdjI. Jtali. I rin.ili). OauftB' |lli:isllUn[uirl,1lHl*IDi1ll)HlBfIft. nr Uliick. etURhtflit. iic>it;k,Ciittld)bsl)ii. Iii-il, rInAifdrtflrt. .Siaittjianti.. Pilchhiif lyeaw). atlMfltSm. •- machine, «1(feBMIilt. PUchy la»le (beer), 1!(itqi|«i t'ilb. ScUAlBwbt. PIvoi.3q»|(ii I'lasiet nf I Jtnlf. Pliers J etilt. «, (djlnffrllonrtr liers.aonflt. luir, WroBl. emkl 3"fl*"- ■— lie, SlollttlBU lalic cnjeyor (n.™l,.), Bafl. lli>pf.).(l(WloI!(nr Wttrbflllt mil Wann[ii4 obtii >uiii nintfiDbcn btrftfTf. PoBj-maHher, SJtrtinoitiSoMMtuI, K"*'!" r,U!upti('l. ■i'.uin»),'3!aiiil>|[oi!or. lanirer. I(BiilaB(t. aoiilaund (tali. ■, Utafl. litate, to, nuSl^tliiii. uictwtlibfa- IloHlEibiiitnnSiititlrl. Pressure, »iut/ — rauuv, CimliiKlln. _ _n, ttaNltii mil 8ulrilu|ni Prlnclfial (ermenlaliini.&niilil* PtogKtiy, 91(i4Ii>tnnni!Aiifl: Crni Propaitatiriii, ftortrHniriiinii. ProiEld, SiatrlittBrtiti. ~ tDrhidi[y.VllHifilTiltiiii.|. Piaieulvilc.titniMlialltiil). Pulley .'» itiiitn|4nbt. Pul|), 50 ki. Puncheon (ton f I. HUrla^. Pure cullur«,«tmtvtoi).i. tI94 t>t^'OVARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. ?,T»J«M.lti>i>»B> d^niiTiiindi un» Vai. Kackiair benck, «MiiUI>i<(t, — iiin ir» itnii I.'. nMuUbmtt. RaJlatf.w. £tii)bmii4. Radlclr ,b«t.'. Wutuircint. KMf, tHccttR. Rancid, inn (ii|. RiW [LK^lr , biib. i1>. WpMihAI. . iiiiiirfMIr iHtajf. , 1:^1111:0x1 VnidfL .lij^'Ki;;™—. Renrsinir (mr. Undiutmnd. Ridrrcatk, ealMllaJ. KiDf,ini( (cask*'. ?i«||dunDttn.~ * ftivet 1iiitr,Si(tlsit- Ritcilni;. WTHiotn. Ruui .mall, toll tn. K ivk ■ 111! vail <■, »HiiM«itt«it>ti!t :. R'Tller. WdlK. Kootinu uaurr. laAbiiVM. K.>.ri].-i, UiivlbiiP. Ril|ri'.i^l>rn|icWi:b. K»>in. HMPVM>Rii>:li. - ..i'..0«|i'l KiiUrjr i_iumi<. WuTtttlDuniM. :.-'.:nr.bi R)!uii.l:i:i..1.f?,nili'ilr'(u'rtHltir!"*'" n:;»>Jlt:t«K. MCnOMARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. uPtfnmiKi. laJjtTCbii. Setilne lap* (won), duoMn- SetUing tank, Ufl^ti, Sever, tili|iia. Panal Sbkde of ci)Iortnai Slialt (Rwcli.). BtHt. Shailogs, epllnc. Shell, $Ut(. StalppliiRbMr, Snianbh •j>DTl>fHit. — cask, ZniElpBRla^ Sbot, BipiA. Slirlnkace, eAniBbn. MXHHlmaii. Siamese |iucc1i.|, SiriDitabnMnbiinsi ganlUNiti. Sick fret, IraNnalte Sa^ganiBB' Silica, KifldtaHIt. Silicatcul Bod*,IBafln8lal.(itfc>liiiiiiit|(iili. Slide (mic.!,'Cli|(tllraflfr. — (nuscti.l. SAicIkt. — valve, (plutilxDiiitljji; Sd|i(liw Slime-forinliig bacteria, e41i<> (cliem.). fHaluii. SpontaaeaiiH cumbMtlon, BtUflni^ lOllbUltH. SpomlailoD, epnnnbilbuna. Sprajtae noiite, 6i>iiBtop|. Bprin(( tmocb.), J(*b(r. Sprinkler, fflmup; Ciefeldnn.. Sprocket wh«l (mecli.J, Itcunnb. •^ — '"""££■, il, Elitnral Stab culture I III ic), eiiittnlliti Siablliiy, (KiIlteiML Stare ImicliObltfUiM- Stale, tttoL Stamp (beer), CltBtitlBaitt. Stand Imaiih.}. StiililHihiil*. tuning tub, «ii[l(llboll<4- 3 lav a, Suubi. itay-bolt, 6pnnB'- ^leim chest (mech.), SamPltui — coil, SapintfAloiilU. — jacket, SaDplniaRltl. — kettle, SanPlftnuUlD II nr. — Blerlllier, iBamrtlopl. — trap, SmRptwiifftRolit. eely (m. I, CuidXkL rotiAbllllt. er. SDciqinallEi. Slenchj fernientatiun, louliat waiunil. ?it"i!i;' iv..ri, ajiaijt im UrtlEl WttiT. Stinker' (top (J, llteliiti(tnt« 10cr)antit- Stirrer (niashj, 3Nai|4ma1[tint; IRoiIdh Stock beer, CoB(iliin. - celUr, WuMdlit. - tnb,91glilo|. Stone winateVov^^. «*»Aw!.*'W'- 5:^5^, ,,,6 Vf^""*"^ OP TECBMCAI. : sum. lo, MBt"'.,^ Stmk cmiuie (mlc), 6tTi»riUn, SiritM (•»»>. snllAIxin Slrlklu hnlllopf.), * iiiBBll^Mnnl. SlTobileihDw'.XtlM. SbccIuLc iclil. StrnftnnUnrr. SncliuB pump, eauflpuBM- — uf milk. nilAlmiln. Snlobaie, f i|ia>tklliuini CoIl Ciltat. — of lime, MRwttl)a*ni^l(. MM. — of mviwo'a; lAwhlluun OIbi- Kiflo. OintrfalL — ol putaHtlum, t4«MtMnl RoIL Swlpfc>lgofindliia.j nm|(lfa'iTl*i na I pa lie, iqiKpifliaBR* eou. SBlpbantled bj-dnwcB. C^W^i Sniphnrlnr, f4ncttli. >n, IIilRMa(:'Sanln; SafKi. ca attncthm, ClnVA*tM>|itV IJJl- r.AaWIAiff. iir«lli1Mln)i_u Sjmthclical. t — water, •nntaiafln. Swaa iiFckii[tupf.i,aBrsai11|lnauk ntlcttt Bt Am lam 0(K«b*Si*«. Sjmtheiical. Mitrirttnlit aatkoBCBtL f|B Taih Ik. iinuitittn oiintAin. — iK-.it.ltntwiatuibti SPlrKlKii ~ ro.ni. eitmnmrlb. T.iivriuu. liddirtniid. iRi>t (Blau'iiil T.i|.s .masli lul'.. lUtAtH V"""- 'I'.ir, lUtrt. T.irt ii.i.io'. ttrb, (ijail. !<">"■ Tariar, SetmHiin. Tartaric ni-i>l. liftiiiftnnlauit. TVmiilrt. cOidMfiit, TcmiH>rar> baiOnnm. tcnl>DrlH, t>i<' BttrnhrEtc iUxU. T^iiniU. ntr.'nirtli imitb.;, 3m|1['i1"- T.'n>.i..n.^l>Aiim]r,I. Ti'-t inlv. SI(i>o»ll«lltlt, THicl..m;i4li.5mmdi14»- TliiM til,' ll.xr |ni.-itiMi>aDTtn)i(l:(n. ThI«'n,"'\-.ik.3Hr .!, taniliK Tin. jinn. tBtifiblnt. Tinfial. eWBi- Tnp|iin|r iboprj. ramliil' — HIS iiadiniitn TiTred. t<>. rtllni. Turrefacliiin prodacts, S Tndc |Kickat.'i~i. Inin«t>< Trap PtJIS^^' — (nastainM.Wail^tititiil. — dunr.nomtiiT. XIMipc., Travelinr crane, HaaftniL Trip™], frntafc. TroDch .vcaitl.daiifi, StBltt. Track, RarwB. Tr.ve.«k. Sn-itftl. UrnbiciMB. Tub,*""". ^Mti* Aabei. Tul>e imi.'.'. WifirlFoln^bn. r;. lalldL SmtAIauAca. .tU(R. Wooda1culiot,4[il)ll'iR.S)ttil)IaItobiir. Work OHI (beer, Teikt], aulflDfitB. oat* I4afltn. Worm sear, eqnutN D^ni Cnbt. Wort, raBrji. Wrench (mecb.K S^couliinblttitl. Wrung lit Iron, CAnuMtiltu. isi bi.uill.m. wanitifld etitaaliutt. bill-, biiurci Ocfitva^ ddr M' (iHtl. lealbrbltlnK. EpKim sail; aiuptiate of llaltnalitui llalllEim. I eitnbc|iiiil.j;iinc\w«. 1200 DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERUS. Viallaftfi, SitMN-tiicn. Iirandiiii! — auttiwl loci. — punfl iDhf. . uwi -- Mile l«il.'. I'-:' SluA W«M'- lptIMi>l>liiiUiiiM ShiiiKii. bicartnm- — lAmlijiiisni Aait. bipui)>iiii< oi u:vrtr.I! Sni'til) trifi-d. ■nbk- J. rui-i' Junt. 1(A M.:£ XuiSfL-dKn. \KfU-TMvT. SuiOKLa HtJavr. . ■.■ullapK<>t wn iHMll. — \.i»!i'ii-i. vn«wiA v»^"»jvl , DICTIONAHY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. !tM.), priBurr ballery. tlPfl-nuttil, motlierof Tin Clinilt. label. uftiiacini. bnat ot ■ tnb |»iirl, ropr- gfxatittftii, dioiiitiin!. -r ftljfl. fire copper, Ikellle). ilp; fiUT. k; barrtl. |i'll.mB|5°pi.lp. li«b.n. |timm*l'«.'fc J'm(i.)I'lriclio« p»ll«j. MllBilBl, rotUB;«ttnclir. RniiW-lBplt. embrjrii. "-^ lu«er.^teTBl.ie. id|'[im& (mit.). microiiH.'ier SuStfoS. carrlanB cash. n. rock or innnel cellar. {{uJeISI, fnsel oil; anivllc aluiHol, nu&funti imt*.). loo. pound. iSli.'slack'maf.'!; {jiitHtMI. leed. 1ie<.li Jltrn) u>lc lun; ~ ttrtfltny IyIUog«■lic■ •f fvrmentatloni ecUait.' blast, galioii. «»(btln. brEw: gyJt. iclteon: siiliiim; .->-pc>il<«l ISHDt.:. eqnilibrinin. •nflc. barlCT. M(i4n|i. aiuiiun. •ciailiaLHiiiralcd. •liiMtttItt lUMt-I. link bell. •clAlliflln SanPI. wiiBraicil >.iiuin. SlMbnKitliL punpri vaivr. «cj4li|l, Bluiiol. •ntiRi. lo lake Indioaiiiiiu •■! < etHAHKIkltHil-MlclilutTiov •nbiiWiil. luiKGo^init dcT-iof. •cmite. iirain. ciim. •tank, nnilvrback. — sitcn, CEFcals. Snifcn :lNa[)i, tunali tofcit; loca •tiritbi. iiii'iuD. Vran IdHtn: rack i ni; f rum lermn tttnuiMin, IJHati'. vcveuinl; unnvn. itliila lernuataiioB ino BtivinlR leitiiiHlit;, ilnead. pleic. AcniMbr. aivh. — nali, ificen ualu lAiflllanBC. Hurinklrr. IsBBini. India Tobber. «iM, lOpHnai: ul/i>IEr el I'urr-: >iil- HuiUnlnnKlnnRlr. bell cuDTr.T.ir. ttlanilBI. briUiiwt. C. — idlilaiwciit, 1 OAliit, i.i|>: OKTli 1 s|iIiiKi. — tiUti yi-oM n OulllHiilKi. M.^liiiiiv: hniiint; jno).- (witii rUHa-l. fttxkt true ilur;iliu. ^ccli ActitHikil'. ra eflriidafl.t |iB(*.l. ilii-ti liaautr. vcilBtnn *[t». 1 ' lorn <>ne brew tu uiiuiiiirr. tvTiiitlin ,^alv. w ^liTii. liuriliie-». CkcumKiIiHiii ilSui — Irbu, cliiircual. G>DiUMn. i» lii>ti: liD|>pi uif iiuH - i]i(bl. Invnltn. — lutbllliau. niililev un fa«|Ki i X''::, DtCTlONARV OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 3 3k 64>i^ tilHR igonn). amuirlns In 3|Dba[Dintttit4 ^npiaanittn ' (mil iliitltiilBKn), to ginliniiiii. Insnlatlon. 3 SolipiiiM. Iodine tcs(. 3mia4auftn 0^^1(1. floor when ftoblc XIalliii (eAluIgl, bam spota. Saim. film: pcllldc. — tN|(. mycoderma. Ra:imilV'o(|lme' — ini!4una, freMiDB miiiuTt BqiKi »iiii», tteak of toW won. «aL(htt, wildjE»at, ffapMln (»iiT). tappimr- ffaftsnie. chutnut. Jhfld (MKft). cone. — f4iini(i,coolc»lit«perlnf. ftbi^T, paste; gilallnlied hi Wsnnnl). mallet. RnoAmrDMt. bune blacli; Ri'S'nla '(nUnnitAil 9itm^. RmSfitl). common sail; ch ■ tilliiii ntiuji-apli, CI - (auiii Motion: bo bo n ale of aoda. - Taunt Hall, caibn fltnii,t(id)tit. cbaracicriatlcH. flciiMXd. seed veaal. — IPolIt (etATltJ. cenital spl OflTrr. Ilie toopeV; kwilc; boiler, — — ' milKL builer compoi fittltiinti (nuiSJ. sprocliel wheel. Jtwtd, fir. flitWun. silica. ALliDIIDitKnbaccc dumplnr kiln (l< fliPUrntl (mtil).). dumping grale. — uMninkiflltlL plat — t^iMHEl. club mt RolntibDiiiuM. rosin. RDnbenfalDT. cundensrr. ltgn)nDiiuna«nllttl. prcK RotlUAiIItlllEt. brail mold RStnia (OTali), hriitle. BoiK-faltr. wcETil. ffottlAltult! sewer. Jliall iktii.l, power. — nbcitiaguna, irai -" b(i'.n'"larM or' Tri'l^y" 1204 DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. RmuBlAiAttl. tviitcd berries peca- Ailing maiie: com. liar lub-ruHluIlcj. RMniMt. cbIIub reiist- Mm. cuopcr. JtaafBiJ, anificUl Ice. IbwL splierc: ball: balb. ftuiia^auti (6N4n|. ■«■<; ni«i. — bolKIii. cuccoa. ... — tibial blsa *iuial; sal^al EABtttiuni. ersod. XiMiL lI^Ked oil. KaftBugtOhgliil (■n^I. el UitgCBM UalAiH*. taur Saumrten lSiir\ tu nt roiir. tfntiiitt Wanu. lalrnt Ileal. liqHltiBlig, IntvclinK rraoF. Cu trn, aeraw; tuliliiie. VBh-l«Hii; rein. ffinii! ln< IN gilded I' TOJU-iiilitM^. auitnt. a WolvFdK. malt bin. — |uni'i1''lL>naliadJDacim. — rrrliftian. mail bm. '" — UHnhafDuiiit malt tncn inliilc Itsafltij, pi VrHritAe SitDlt. FeuidiRh. $Biiiilrn-t.nj(iS, reireiable all — laltr.ccllulime: fiber. — oiUn, chloroptayll. — ftim. Teiretableflne. motl. epUe; pluir. 1)(rDp(. plBgi stopper. VI|i>lptDrfoBnl Kali, pliFwph.ii SlAsplMiEt. pllchlnii mactainn, Siittn, to piicb. VlllttMA'nM([, brash mold; Sliutlftaiini (mill.), cunnecilnir gDliiciiilAint (anolj), m^H iK.li>. itDbiiiMbn, l>low uA or try iiBltinltipci, pmteida. i2o6 dictionarv of technical terms. KaWiunf. KS> Itnn SDMrn. rve. Miitliii4L ■onulli-d ccreaU. 9l6tnaliatl< Alii bur. piiw cuil att*ai|» Mtnatnela* Mil t™t »i4cn. raw. I una. Irit-ii.in. ESi' taiiMf. Hi SSI KtDoItiri (mir.l. ■«« wietu. SJincB, twit; Mrap. ~ |ikti»iinn».:. pDllcj. Rlnnt. KKM^c; Knlur. lobiiiKlii. caiw n| lsfl(B(4.1. giate. latnn. lurrrfy. Nifl-val|. b._ _... ~ PTDtulti. torrefu )liltii)n. 1^al(lW^ll^aCltrKii. sliiiitf 1,1 £likiiniiU tAiinnfl. \l«cuiis -t r ZdHimmtv t>i *ra«li. 2il)lcmnlTn»t. wliitirnlDK. eiklunH. r.u-kine n'. eamHltb^lH VldlU lUcit.l, fnilMr I'l CAnKluii. t.i (u-ii-. S4>ii(lt-;'ii::ll. mrlilnir puint. '^awHX.bv.ditt intit.:. »ii >.-ii|<: lui-i DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. CA&nt, Balajf, lalnilau. CinARin. lo Bna: lo clarify. edotntUlB, Rmokc Hack; cli *4riiub(Il-*o^ii, laiTKr™. epcdlsl^^tiofflitili. eptifflrr (fcinibc). elivator. epeilcBumlK, feed uunip; Inji epilit chaff; busk; aUell. eptlflll imsiu, Sid), aart: epRciab, ratchet ohecl. '•"asr'is?™,,, „....„.... epi|>n.lochiu evItnloB. Bcdimentation glaf mill. eS«l'»H(l. e»tn.ct-jieldinir malarial.. 6b™. chaB. "^ 6Iiri|-Iont«malijr (mtiS.i. jet c eoniiiili :««itM. shrlnkwie. — (dbI. Bprayinir nonle. etnmti lifwn fflBirii. »i"l. clea™l. 6I>Toncn. bnddiair- Mtt1»CJI Epiltn («(iflrj, blackened — oDliacat, bnngldg appa llpB. — ifliSh, bnshlnifjbHiinl = SKrc™ - Wun,™iphBtlcacW. — iop((R, bung plOK. — — Mif«tn^ sHliibiiric acid saSisr.!;.... — faun CeIu. nulphaies. — intllnftDn. anlpbii retted hjdro- of won; origioal n 64l«t(1n'Sulpbnrla? (bleaching bar- ICJ). "^ 6lQiini»l. tin fuil. eiaih-tlrillti. gelatiaiied edmllifiltlun Co^t. sulplilles. 6*lt«itan. welillnB. ejiKlttii. air drrrnic; wltherUK. edlniiinrneT (nntMltc), attcmperatoi 6t7inarIt'n. - titwt. .iDk« siUTl... ■"••".'•1.1 a"C"is I»Rt. floor. »!<■. t.r. ton. cUy. Dtltt Vmill (mt« IN lOoikt:. s»aJc ottolor. otl, ptnt. BB«n (BK*.). t«T iBliua:^. lift, inm. iAa> «M»iift. -liiMirti (crat* lifltT. beam^gin ~'~V-*;;i.! "r)"o*''zi XtA, Uf.-', bndi condltlod. XTOPt-bUT. ml Iieer from iwdiiKM — tan. >«dlnHiit lair WMniiwf. Zitti4(.>lalU(. ilrup)ci cBltiirv. Inb, th^dipwnt (rnm wurt: dnw — lad, «*^liiuDt bajf ur Hiraiaer. UnHtdMn ,lnMi . rr-rakr Unftnuninii iHHA'. rcvrri UBttuI[||»iin4[ii>. ■niiK.Tmc Uti(ilruiit«n.i.'- UnttialiBXIl- I^>>^ Umian.i. circuintctviii-i-. Unltitr.il ■mKTdiii Virbiittiinqtrin.i mnk.-. u.i(klni; f inir. VcTiiiminii .mnt.' rivpti KiBMhlfn ittli'if* wirinj. ^UnUnblticr. t-xuici ur . VdJiiiimiiin, va»>niitli<>n. «trtittt»:l. hJiv. Uibunni!; ItDiribi'Xt iBnltimn-. .lilm- **t<4!n!l m1». iioiiKitTthoil. Hiildiliif^ M.^iprri dm S'JS'VJ"- '" "'■■":»•■ f<'!'- WriilBdMn, iJblond. »«tflu'niA)>lr: aih-nnabl'. VttftiAtn fid . tui Men ttrrrfdrnitii, A-rni<'iitntt<>n:aii<.>auav»>n. ««<»>«)«. ^jsi^iab).-. DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. SoiBhigtbtntt ^Actt eUAaV SDnpAniHr feed naler bea SuTbcinflr)!, flrHi nrotl. VsilauTnuwm, circuluiur: nort pump. WoncaWi, ci«ern>l or aplomiitc mash macblne; fure muber. Viii14ittl"<. circulate wort. BBaflt, scale 1 balance. WafftrtAI. Unriionul. aUaUBUb. ~alnnl. — mtiftti, bichory. OlilT|(, niller, cilindei XUainu. Ileal. — (instil, heat noli ;. EBrntbtnimtBung, delerir IBi*I(n (tJoS).' washing. ISiittlgBni. nlcklnii. IDiiniAt Rllrauciloii' re. raiitli^tl fftiof I, real e: — Btrnaianatfliab. i lo6ii™» (innW , cnir wheel. wpariHU. fcS: |,l.«r». Kpik-; 1 'lutt; bre».r - loacrliBci Jtrie, oil. 4rtnHmi(t. cm i'liina" ■tally ?H leuH. juice. £■ ■losixn. K-ns.. Sua lit*" draft. — Ttatllmnt), tei 3BnM*iiut. tniie. 3utild(Bhn (Hilliihit ItulainiiintlaiitlTatlc, | Sufamiiit!i'ifB(ii'(5llil MulaMntnlttunfl. o 3l0i*l, Irj- cock. PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED. BOOKS AND PAHPItt.£T8. DJe Blerbrnncrrl mlt bcaonderer Berllc?b«Icl>tlciinc der Dlt-knuils^ brauorel.— I-prcr-IIclnii. Brauer-Knlendrr.— IlfraiuceKebeD Tom Ver. 8(. BnnmrlBrpr BnDil. Brew^rr Arrblli'Ct'B and Rncldp«''B IIoDd-Book.— E. Solimldt. BrcRing BDd MnUlns Prartlcallr ConKldPrcd.— Frank T1iilch«r. ('hpmlBPlms IJilMiratorlum 4m Braucra.— W. WliidlBrb ClK'nilP an DiPD^rbllrhpn NbHtiiiirs- unit (icuiDwinlttPL— J. Koraifr Cbfuile und Physlologle dp> Mnim nnd B lores. —RiiK» Vttor. Clicnilstty lit Ike Cnrlioa Coraponii'lB ~Vlr-ti>r von Rlrhtrr. Cominrri'liil Organic AdbItrIh— Alfrril II. Allm. 4'uiu|icnrl nf Mtxlianlfvl RofriBcradnn.-J. R. Slolii-l. Canvcniion of the UiillPd SIhIps BrcnmaHtcre' Assadntl<-. lUIrt' innri'.— AildrcB? I>; R. Wnbl. 4'rltli-a] Ulcllonary of (be RnsllBb nod (■(■rnMO IjiDBiutre^.— ThKni'' I'n-n tuw r- Wpsrel y. lili-llunBry or Applied I'homlHlry.— J. B. Tbnriip. t^iri-i't)! of Bffr OD tbafte n'bo mnkp anil ilrlnk It.— (I. Thoiiiann. l^iirri-lDpnlta Brltnaclra. (i(lriinE)^ri:anioni(-a.— Allvrt KIGrkor. Uaiiot'x Kl^uiPniB de ['hyxliiiio. lIUDdbiii-b (lor BJrrliranerfl.— EhtlPb llaMcb Ilnmlburh tlpr InDdwlrthscbBtrllolion ttpwrrlie.— C. J. Liniopr. llfiDdbiicli fUr den aiiK-rlk. ItmUT unrt Miltipr.— Krnal llanfk«. Hnnriy BtKik for Biw.-n.-tl. E. Wriglit, IIbmhtU'i Mrcbnnlrs' and KnRlnoi-rB' I^ockct-llnok. Inaub'iirat Olpntrnatlon. Ilalli'.— llrrlifHd. iDtpiiiprranre In thp Llfrht of Coniiilr LawR.-lli'nry I. Row'H9. -Addn-n, Dr. BaVi-krr. KpiiCs Mifhniilral CnEfni'rrs' I'orki'i-K»\¥». Ualilicrolliiog nnrt BVcrtabrttaV^ton.— IviWw PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED. I: Unnlpnisllon of the Mlcroncope.— Krtward RniiBth. Maiiiinl of Bncterlolog;.— Cirorge M. Sternherf;. UeehnniBche Technologle dpr Blerhraaprcl.- fmis Fsclicnder. Mi'dilelPlBpr fro (.'arlHberg I.aborBtorlrt. MioroBCope RDd Its Ite vela t Ion B.—Wni. R. Cnrprntpr. Microscope In the Brewpry— MotthewB na Cblcago.—FranE Scbwackb&tcr. Orgnnlak Kcml.— C. W. BlomBtrand. rrneUeol Ilrewlng.— E. R. SonlbLy. PmcllrnI Studies Id Fermeatallon.-Eoill Cliilrillan Hau'iPii. Principles and Practice of Brewing.— Walter J, Hyken. Proceedings of the Fortieth Convention of the V. S BrewiTB' A QiioutKatlve Analrsls.— C. Remlglns FrpBCDlnti. Second Annual Beitort of the State Cammlnsloner of K^irlre of State of New York. -11, H. Lyman. Soluble KemicntB and Fermentation.— J. Iti'ynolds Orpen. Soliidnn of the Temperance Prohlem proposed l>y tbe . - lDI!»>o« on Tel,l. r.lT. - luMliTllr, li,f, SM. Air all>'ii>i«nil->r. fB-nnuid.' uinllln.- ~ ''r^Si..*T!^i«is!"^ '"■' in nni 1!^. - In ramlflim. t-4. ly"-;. ti-. or. r. ffiST. T. IKS. AU-.h..|-ii«'I.-r. Ti«ll.'->. (■ni|-«iii.« «f. tn-IOur" ..C. IIt! - ■■ IT.-lll.-Ii..N .■(, MS. - I<<;'ii1.. Illa.l 14,. ■ -i-.iii;o«..f. sii. -. r.(rlB. ii:i'->.iinv. 2K. 2W. .IfG. - H'll'l'lif riir I,Tl.ill.fl<. Iiow 1.. ■•». ■ - >i.'i>niii..ii ..t. lam. 1...™. VM. -■ KiiBllrti. Di»bliw mMh-t - HiKii'oa !i> II. .-ill,! I.. II. xa. K.14 America pnrtlr atHDilan], 1103-1107.' coaipuaLtloii of.' T.' 4U, 470. — iHipr bren. ri>ni|.), 6M. tnliyilrlJe. Bu1|Aurir. detenu.. 684. \iilnia1ii. luver u/. 248. tnllHiiltv Hit. 4D1, 843. InllKI'llo, 4M)-493. 84 1^43. on rerrlg InucUliKe. 3W "nftlg. much.. 208. SOV I. eiiecUlcallaiui tor, 374, rm.. 085. leil. iiTOfiertlee of. T. 3 IT. enBtL of. T. 310, — ItUDKlDff. U84. eotlDg inwer Il'SI. Ilia.) 1010. lou-ltarlne. bov. Ig, D8Z-M inV.' eiw-ui:. IDS. 0O4 ■"- Ll lnlKinitorT. lOlM - for Iii]>]>liig barrel!. 802. ry 1>r Brown 4l Moniii, iXS ' Ht^lKbloc sculr* tt luFF. 130. ssa. rmaa. «». Bi-.-! .in. 3S1. lat. vl»iiMiii (II..), HOT. T. 5ia. — il.'hrli.llwi oC. 511. i-k iTTMurr InnW Ull#ra, ttnH u»l rack. STI. '. 450. T. IBS, - b1lilJocniI'l>7. lies. — rbnnire* In. dnrine (tongp. OZU. — ripunr™, 670. - ImrU of, MS, - vlOTiiiln.: or. fiU2. ~ almeliire of (Ha.). *sa. - filor of, IBT, Ilnr PygMln (•« bariejoorn). IIorTprhoruM («,o biu-liy..-o™). — «™, *57-l(i0, C8B. Barijnc, 4M>. - mp, of u^ ™t «™m na»i (iM leaat). Bannetpr, 117. (lla.) 118. Rami, hrcr. U. «.. 80. SS. nt™. T. 8T. T. M. 97. 06. - - Brltlah, T. M. — (or OcniMB nult, UnJ hhiI, 880. nrei™'''™' *'"■ °""' "*■*■ - i^rnilutliK oiMcCtj of, <58. - irowlb, determ., D§a. - - predared from laBSlMO, T. 1131. - MBtorj of, MB. in luoo, by alatc^ T. 1120. TodnwO to mblc (»(, NO. - Innrti tnjurlmt to {11*.). (S:n-a>4. — fmctlona bdH mnltlulja of. Ui on. dutmclloD oC, M4^«. 1W3. — liwlelng of, 46T-*S0. - nomber In cyllndHeal luwla. T. 74. - itandanl U. H.. BO, T. Bfl. ninltlnK ot, OaMBT. In olennlnK, nklniiiilng nul Binlt- T. »T. te. ins. GittMnn. ~ UpplDg Of, tn mttle abop. SS2. - In RlHiiIni In wntof pilnicdon. B.«l briatlo, birlo, (l|,.r4M, «H. n..», liyiK-rbolle. as. _ and malt, compared. T. &13. - of 11 lofarilbm, JS. - naperlaD, 28, - of nnmbcr. 14. osa. — molatun) of. «0. — o* powor. U. — Oelonnlaatlmi of. WS. — or trtannta, W. — ~ deacrlptlan of. OTA. 0T4. dlmroMoiia of. T. 1141. ilae* awl rapadtlM of. T. IWB, naaiuhiiwr'a'BTMtial tablp. lOWi. IlnTirlan (»"■ alan Munich)! tlon' of. ISO. di'nnlllon of, MO. ho|n DWHl In. TS3. t2l8 ■J brcvlni bnrltr- **>■ vuDi. frli'UoDi) aatif or. ITT. - titu. Mte lua.l: - Rlttfiw. «S4. - fi'nlns of. vifrTtB.' - liK'im tn. artlftn <.r. :iV4. lilM I. ['. S. I !:M ISKP Of. ni.~ - '.■....■■• tff. ,iiw In rrot^.ir. : wnine n(, T«0. . .tiiKrleoa. mri)< In. •I.'t^nii.. ]>*.> -- porltj iHadaid t, 110 - nekinc r, iM. - n»l «lr , an. If, mleil rnlM tot, iw ■mm bn wirlct w In 1900 1130. b, S* ■ tc M oimlttH on or, tllnGllDOl d ■Ions of. T. 1H2. nt, IndlnlioM, TD7. e U, Til. lUon of. T.- SEO, MO. in, compiMllluD. T. «2a I. proiliwllop , BIB-""' •ud iiBiiw'. m. n*rry, Diirlpj, <6T-iB0. BSS. U*Tel gp.t, Mellon of, 183, 184. lUbllocnphr. lIST-im. — milt, ■pcclikillDo tor. 302. - ilu of, to aDd, IB. — itaniiv, null and gnlax, 079. OGZ. lllcloR- Of RilFn>-ar(iinlanu>. )03-B(l8. Inimrtaan to brewer. 4BD. ni«nlplili)« or carbon for ilHlmjInE ■nln IDK^, «4a. IIIanlphllM. 89t. - of UuM. «97 *M. ai intlaeptlc, 4SI, S49. Itlnilikrr fenneni tlleacblni pnwiter - yriMa (met jMiita). - - cl unification, C34. ^[lo. floor (lla,). «2. - crnln (lH,). WS. -Wn.'nnDnoalllon at, T. KM). r r«i>t, T36. .]«H.(™ (Gere . Ulnd. fHW. 11-1121. ntory. ees-ioio. oi'imniu. 1003-1000. cliemictl*. M«. ilnct (or mult) tor brewing, com- - twr qairlw (BillUta). ilsllMi]. WT ■ ■ of, T. «78. ot B». T. 873. mdartloa. GTS. ir bolu'l, STS. rvnnfia, cumptwltlon of, 873. Milst. r»)*Uoii to bnwiDK mi- idll. STS. T. ST4. mniilcs for iMlriU, ptopanllon tJIEutlon or. BT0.8T4. et. bniUieltfelElit of, STS. i rclniloD of. ir uf In IJ. S., br itBtea. for W. T. 1138. nils luiwU In IMO. T. 113S, tlltUllOD of, 4 ■ iperlOc (TiTltr. «M. riUoQ, eM-eu. oolfll, MT-on. _ bibllognpbj, ll«e. of, T. lHO-1143 - vorKmeo, oeaiu rmu of, 1111, tllS. mnenl hultb ol, 1118. 1118. bnltb (tntlitln of. 1114, IllB. phrilqiw of, lUO. MroBftb of, ItSO. rewln*, aiUDiKta, ue of, oplnloiu on. litis, 1108. - beiitf {an boilcj). - bibiioRnmbr, iin. - caleolatlouj. r ~ ' tbw.n, MT. S31-83e (see i Bmiliilid. TM. net jleldlDf, 448-4T4. t, blbllorraifbj, 1174 - prfpantloot of. 473. ' ItmpertJes of, 4T4. - nmple* of, for anal) irehc* In Doors, SSIT "" vorl. Di^rare, 80. llUanl ale, American, prodarllDD SIB. Ine ■tlempentora, 978. rnlrlnm.chlorlds, T. 313. c'ircalallon, 810. colli, STO. 1222 Br Ibc— C'apac II7. liiuflian. roniw - lit uialb tD)>. W^IHS. - iiiafrrliili f.ir a lnv«, Kli. - nal>T ror l.rpw, iiuouul -I - yk-hl i>f inmertnl. Vl.-h. VK- il!iiH tit iiiF>i>lni:. Mn (i-r cr-i-IU-illDc Mo.l.^.c I'.l-al. »». iiy. motltlp*. l-fr wnt. T. 114!!.^ ,■"-»"'■) -iiT. T. ,-.73. I L-r. Ilaixlrl..!. T. lU Capaaltr— CktU. i(/. UIOIBUKI ot. 80. U r1.;e tub. 609, T. 1141. ■ti^ Uak, to MDd. TG ■lark IDtM. T. 18. rilnl In Uqnor tnDkr, T. ■■k •ouport, ess - ulIsgD ot, to Sl.d. T3. - U. a. mmmreiDtiit ot. 72, ametue. E8. oollilo*et lUge Id top femi. ■uHi of bcei turtddiiy. 10S2 aiiBlIc ro'ii'i, 364. - (odB, S9G. u fln antUcptlc. 490. far ctHUlDf, 843. elUnm. tDiuliltlan or. 33T. ~ cumposllloii or wort m T. ell. 1. 80. Kjl.y.l rales. 400-414. OI.I1H' .cale. 0T3 n brcwerm- ■nlca, T. 873. eonvertlDg into Fahrenlwli aixi u re«t. 051. nenmoDr. S7I. T. KB. CvlDcnl floars. STO. ilr'rHiqiiwl In combtntlo (, lOT. - wuibn. hrdnnllc, SeS. .i.ui],i.i.j(. or. tor de>in rl CodKI tenin), 01. Cvulrr. 00. 402^33. CenOjnOf (■» CUlon). lioilde (W.-0 cirboulc ac U) Cectlmeter. grsm. •«»»] (C. 0. S.). c1ec[H»l unit. a.1. o( conpor. 400. Ccnal hoppen. (fcvrlptlao ot, IIIh.) ot Iron, SM. at lenil. 400. gB2. SBS. ot llnie Icalr-lum). 31W. at poUnlnin. 304. rcreallnc, 400. T13. ot '»d.. aos. (Tenpoota. .pfcia«tl*n» tor, ;0B. Chnln. itiengtli ot. Ml, HmSti^ o^bwr. rar. UiiBractCT ot beer. maU-i luDurnce on, vacKDiu beer. TBS. SSS. m»hlnit method 1ni1nou«. 7«8 .lL-velop«I, 1032. irnlnrnce ot. on jtiat. H.S. - uoni o( aestrojInB' iDsect*. (MO. -properties of InbrlfaoW. 1041. Id retrlg. tnachlnci. 303. T. 318. Chemical* tor laboratory u>c., OIW. OOT. utIllulloD at, KTO. CbemlxtiT, 3^2. 433. wMte of. In broworl™. STO. - .nnl?tlcal, S82. — yeasH. T. 022. B34. - organic. 402-433. C«.k H: 8. welfhl), OJ. - rn|«iebt7 of, to nml. TS. CbeJaiic? birter. 440. C h 1 1 > ■■ K-^;a lo r. - l'l|]|loxn|>l>f, 1IC4. vmiinil.i]. 488. I»rrf|>lldn nr, Tl£ Jcmian. TBT. iiplal. 4SS,' -KS. Urn or. *m. KMhi-r. (111. in fjOlar— Conaaetors. wort, errrcted b^ roBlt, 010. J il<]i«r Ian. lom. ta. tex-ist. eos, me. lysla of, melhal, 094. ir llnDctD of, detami., SOS. umlUeii at, 483. t. 1M. jturs In, deMnn.. BM. pcrtlea at, 4S2. nr Id. dolcmi.. DM. g nutrriill (•«« nrionial). itlOD, cbamlcal ■nd mecb.', SS3. leqntred for, T. lOT. coal, 'beat of, 202. na unilar prenim. lin. [FDtuckT, pmluctLoa Burea to metric, cool — lnj||«, T. 498, T. 4T0. — malt, T. -HI, T. ai9, T. 020. Ilndlab, OIM. aproDti.' am'. — NorwceUn 'b«n. T. 830. — oniB, T. 400, T. 470. ntlnc, 4tu-4tT. t eitiact. tlH. 870. OKope. m. lots, 11)20. ,117 «a.' wo. ilKMllloD tf («« Btao analyala aul „7t „.: 288. _- Bleam, decree of, 288. al™. T. 8S4, "828. Am^rlnn al«. T. BSI. S20. CnrKiTle lo Hour InBulntloD,' :=a - Wilaahcer, ' T.' asa'. — preiinnitlon of, 3H. AuBtrlnn bcq™. T. raO-829. bnrlcy. T-B. , barlar, In dill, countrlus. T. >i, hull, ot lUI. cooilrlM, T. le. pctn.leoRi. 2W. 407. 1030. - dIallllattOD, Diolucla of, - US amina at lubricant!. IK polMb, a»4. - a'amiilo for aiiBljala, 4H. Itlcn. 08. octlon mettiod. T80-TBI. In Bnfdanil, TOO. - ralrnlatlon of. DIT. Kitrr llflnoc Iswa, 1002. itlnm imlluliDa. (I la.) D 1228 Ue!k.trlDii— Dr>. I>vxlrlu8. achrtM*. 411. ('olorU'M. 421. — amount of. influi>ii«v uf Invoniiiin ti'inpenitiiri' tm. 7iNi. — niiiylo. 411. — in \twr, iK'tenu., 081. — vrythro, 411. ' .— fvrniiitloa of. %lewa by dlilcrcut lu- v,-Kl lira tore. 420-421. — lilnturU-nl ixvliw. 4 JO. 424. — iii.-illo, 411. lin>|it>itlcfi of, 410. - n-J (prjth'^'-'^^'^fliH. 421. - tl!i.-«'rtt«. diffoK'nt, coni-vruhii;. 420. -- v:irii-tlc« of. 411. lk\tnMM>. 412. — In lio|i8, 479. , — t:iMo. .\flllin'«. lUOU. MIU. hiii;;ruin, f«irce. 153. I>tiiplir.i^iiii (lohFcs), 120. — of nilt-nwouiK'. iMl'J. — tfUMiu tnii'tf, Wi<. I>iiiim>(r>r. Cii. Phiniotois of citvk-tf if com 1 luUi, «il. -■ iZiJira, 1G»>. I»i;istjj*t\ ju-Moii of. on bi.iix-Ii. rj'»-l24. : - >iH fi-».l f.ir irtTUj uf linrk'>(.iirn. 0^3. - !'i>rirnii«iii uf. hi nuili, 017. ppipi iiii-< tif, 117. - .iii'l si.iiih (Mfrluiii.al nvirw 1. ^2»i- 424. J«-i'.| I. t:iir:v -if ill si:-iii-i!'ii. T2l. 1 i..>r iti.- i-..u..'r wi iialT. Uu'., \?jO. T. 017. «;ji. - — .|i.ii.i«»' i.f. In iKc "IK'H. 7^.i - - 'Ii iiiiti.. 1»1>J. - - i.n -.i ..f Kilniii.: 1..11. .v.M. 02J. l»i. iii.ii:i y uf U«.-!iu!>-iiI t»rrii>. llfyi- l'lii<- v.iiiif «if malt atii] :i<]jiiiii-i:<. i:titi>ii I i:>i-i,:iii. 1 III... k .Mil f.iil. 10r» liiiiir;. MJ. Ml. li jMi..t..r I ■.: .;■. 2iW. »«n\\. 1«'J. l'ini:^5..ii, li.'i, :.'.j I'ilijfj.iii iii.ili..i;. II iiis.-:i'>. It»22. I' •■ .■iisi..ris. r..:ii !i l.-t •■■... lir. r. 11 tl >i-.r t..iik. "l*. 11 12. I ■:,-.' I . nW. T. 7^ T. IMI. - Ill wviy \.K-;.l>, T. in«'ll4:V i-.-k^. I'i'.i.il . I.. I lix.il. r. 77. — r. tl' lilt. :>:. 'J'. 7*'. L-:-.:ij, t.M!:,<. T. 111;;. — 1-..II j;i.L. T. 1112. M.tsh iniK. T. nnv — III-.- tul.s. T. 1141. ^l'Hk■ III!.--, T. 1^. ■ ^t'.lli':*. »>|-i-. li^ ,. tii.'ll- fi'l . I'-Z'Tt. - l!,rf... 0::. %..i:-r J;iiik.<. T. 11 12. l»i-.\i.N. i.f i;ir1««in »'■■■.• i;i;|H.)ii.- :ii iiit /'//♦■«i i.iini.-iii li^.M.'jo. 1;0. DIrpot expftDBlun. SliS. DlM'luirsP. co-eflk'lent of. !:;£«. — of iirlnnatlc re«aol. 138. — of water for a fflTen Iwa*!. T. It: to flnd. 142. throQsh |>lpc«. T. 141. T. Itf ItUoa (rofrigrratlnr plfie^). dt09. HiH^'Unt 00 lie«r tax. 1043. Dtebea, CTaporatins. (lU.) 96SL — IN^trt. 1014. Ola.) 1015. IMcoaM^l yeast I Dial riot of Coluuibia Uqoor Ltwa. IVC Dividend. 2. Dirialon. S. >- of deduials, 10. — of fnctlcina. 7. — alpn of, 2. DlTlaor. 2. — ciminkin, 3. giratoat, 3. — exact, 3. iHMjrw, Inanlatml. 8i«cUlcatiou. 3&» — uianlioli*. G81. US2. iKuiMe rolllu;; fii%-tlon, IbT. — wiiljci-. l."»7. IJVS. pMiiMiii): (yiast). lliZ*. Ihiiigiiliii; iu it>ni|ioratuiv. tn rto-.i. w wutiT, teni|iMi.tini ili«iuid uieavare>. ^7. Dr.iiii. aiiOthtiary's welsh t, W. -- r. S. wt'l;At, fN». Itr.i:iislir p laws, states ucd tern: : * liKV-lue. iirnii.:]it Iw-or (see also boff). — - - iNiHiri. |irx>dai*tlon uf. 77i I »ri ■_•.«* r'Trub'), ivuioral vt. >74 luh-ii iiix>\viM-}i* irrains. 87»*-S74- ■ \;iliie of. 870. ^T1. |iri<>n<. Ii;irlvy and frruin. r»74. — i:r:i{n8. renulta vilth, ^71. — f.ir laiut. S«.B!. l*u*i* ruiiurv. Lindner'*, fur »attr c\- ;iiiilii:itii>n. lOSTt. sis. ha 1014. in«.J 1010. |ii-,,|.Ii-t i-uliurv motli«>l. l.in>lni>r*is. l«w- ]>rii[>|ilui; system In Knglf<>b fenui^tt.. til III. KKi. I'Mtri. ilifTt'rx'ntlal, lP.'K!. d^>fiu«^l, S&7. -- ::i;iiiis i-*i'0 brewers' ffraliu, driwl' — L«i|i['iii:r iHvra (top ferm.). M)7. — Hli'kni>sa eaosej by, i>lj kUu (soo kit II). - \uv*\\. i^^XvA cc«\^a Itsmu. si7i. miAiltlon of, T. B2n. »n, OSS. Mr, deODllloD or, TOl. il, 771. dllTercnt barlerl. SSI. Blllptlcal CTlladoT, t». Kmbno ot birlejreorn. 41 'liuploycii In Hqoor tnili ■Ed udIm, eaa, < n ol, 4ES8. I, 1b EermlMtiaD, 000. UrIIIMi) lOB. T. Bto. (top fctn.). oiwnfliiDa ilta of. ion. 2Kt. I dlcUaoiirj Utt t4H'bDl' ~ In hoiw. 4711. Inhnnlnrj'. 1011-103(1. — i..al..ri»l». OS*-!W.-.. i'>as-inK. - mlt.pnil ■>l]i. ewl. _ rl.--. U93, 102,!. — of cow.^r, ISl. -Ilrml.!.,' 131.* - mni|tw1l1iin of, Si - lilbllDgnplij, lioa, IITO. - blHrlOerr, TEO. - bolllnf. TBI. I. d^nilDot npon. 740. IntLclne, 7rt-^B0. i;, iiruUva or. TRtT.sa, lu of. S2T, MT, T18. ■nil eipUiutoiT, 627 -&32. (hbb c(, ne. 'fide. I Dioobolk. 5.11. 532. lirinclpni. T. 7W. — deOnltloo o(, 73i -- poticu. ns. - .una-, for wmcr. an.l — K'n^nitiify. - 33. SOT. FlllerjDg DinleriBl. 084. T. 734. Biiinplca tor onBlrBl hccn. as tlon of. 4flT. — Kliuraa of. 7a i — oporatloiu. 708. - KyHlOIM, T. (OaEllili) SW-ROT. - of btM-r, 7OT-I08. - t..iiii>fr.lD.f T40. In>»« tcom, SS8. 743. Flnul nttcnnallon (Englli - i,*"(iw'^5 J-"OBt, 63. - tPitiiKTiitiin! of muib. to nl of .. T 7K. FLiiincliil Iniiiorlsnco of 1i T. I12B, 112S. ilticrli Fli.lne of bwr, 7U3-T«U. — vletn of dlir rent nntbar on. .127. - of wort, pit T, 740. — II Hi reoHI, 527-BHl. ' ~ blbllosruphr. ]ifl4. MO. T. MO - pn^nntloB of. 7B3. Fomented llignoH «ltt<.D if bnel lean. If*. IM. ■uttom or DprJ^t (fanrt, 1ST, ■oeilWIenl, T. 170. >n bnrlnnlal pIedc. 110. - tviiiDE. laa im. iiiplhod of mublDC. 119. I jKim. 1. G33, BK. In ballcra. £M. tiead iLigo (t-<-;. of. MO. trin|>cratDrF Uurlns, (£8. — p[Vcaul1'-D> ilurlng. 609. IS. i 'ailr.MU, doODci, laj. le (HtKHn bwD, 822. I. SSI. 1unc«i In lurlcrconi. -ISO- 11 rtiborn Hit, 3V0. wli^y ddwn-dnfi fi rna „,!„ ,- n in b«r, doe to' Klhl mlDol * ™"' « clRulattan of, ISn. Inutll'lot. Iin. — In boiler K*le.. 2Z1. n inmnilmvlcr. (11a.) 1011. Inir hj'Bromstcr. IIB, [iimllLon. on tcmimmir* proMnn, II lnnK^n nioli. UK.) WAS. 1014. (•■r'.lnlfctiiw Willi tenft. ID3U — iinrn enltore miiliod*, inU. jtmat, EGS470. — - — ii|>|innitua. {I1».) BiM-WW. — Mfiillintinn W, SM. ' boiler H>t«. 221, I lli'tebt at ' 1 IT«ilii( flock. flU.I 1012. ' Hi'OiT (elMlric onli), lOo. i ll.-i.tnEnn, U>. llolDia comlruKiT. £10. — unwnnt of. ror il - Invk (w* iMii Jnr«). - IxilH'.ni. 4tiiS. - Nlilloirnililir. ]1G3. bnlliT. IM. lo lilHl. UJS. iltur,' III i:. iiillun of. liSKi. T. W<. ' Hrn cf imr.-h. 420, r tor lu J- Tii'l, IPS. enflue. 214, or. zie. 81, 282, 283. oullliilflnc hd. Ii; tnelloa, T. 1 IteieoiK lawi, lOt^IOBT ( tlonul Duni'au u-I^lM»ri ivn |-. l.-inilr! Inc vl. ^i'- K'tl — -."llLL'':v'^l-.:li,.ill,* t-V. :«T, lU-l d!'r,v!l^„u> :y'..!:i I>lii^-I;.F«. lu>. 4>»-«" 1** ali-u v^'Uli" It. T. 1111. — <'l.rli>iii)C ^.--lUJi u(, iw. — •li'LUiiii: of, Mti. l.'-l. IVO. _ - •l-f..'ll-IMl »f. OCT. .lli . - fP!!i K.v, frl liun Mt ILo. l!.' Klll niolbod tiir, 3WI. or. itMUtlurJ. n. iimrini of. laa. a barlprtuall, 400. -LUnU. 1239 Ll«!ii«, efftcl 0(, 1 ain.r» t fountrliw. UM. Lire or beer, TOO. Lirt pomp. H8. UtM. an. seo. - i*.m or. vm 250. - InUuencs ur.'on - m=.al., 804-307 a/silHiIi lud welKbtB T- 381. LlRblniDg rfdii, HIXKlOviitloDS fi Llgmlne, propttUcs ot. 103T. Id boiler iter ror ijn>ia>, l«ir. impouDd. 3S1. u intlM[iUc. 400. r KHUdtDenU. 43S. D , lai on. 10I MnltliillrHnil, 3. - 1 Jrwrtn.. CMS, OOS. MnlUylLc-nUoi. S. - ■iBwii. tn. - of f^ttloM, 7. «rV""""' ■"""" ■'■ T MolUiilltr, a. - ilMermlBiitlol). BSD. or, T. SSB. — KdeIUL. unioDDt of. e08. Miinkh (»*6 D]» II»¥nrliB|. - (Ipnnmi, aoiognt of, 000. — Biwn-. iiuouDl of. DBO. . - trenlDgwnt*™, com'|>Da'll1o - Mnnlrh. >iiiDt of, 81*. MT. -J - malt, kilnlnt of, 013, (CI NirKntic .CM. &a: for clennl.ir 8«. Ino.mnl in com pmlncH, D>I, 623. MT««lEnufi, KM. — nwll. lonilnt bj (lop frrtn pstroylng g™!" In- i, bArlej' crd|t of, T. T at ilUer. 400. 'V.i" turlcT. 440. 4S0. il.'i. cl-lrmilnnllnn st. KT. -. IV* L.W, 10ST. io .irM. iS». ^ llinnt liwp. lOST. - Id waltr. 436. +38. iiMinni ioeil», (il&) av.. la wHm. T. CIS. nil nnJ rait. 4'a-40i<. - ""iTsirii on refrif. 'ii lo 1! ,11. T. Oil.. ■ - IJ<.n.|.-d. 1039. i- - '■k.«n. lOKi. In l>ar1>T" rnf. tM. i; .-llnnlarioa H-frlf. nic - - in hc^;. 478. - pUMUh-JllOB of. lOfi. - - In nijlt. unnDai of. Vt. . in own. 4US. 470. »mlllu»nli at rrixt. dSI. i,rn.lu.lii. nvcian. T. .fT'iKlu^t'dv. .l-flncl. l!s. . .MOIilMl. 40T. n:1:.lKr ^jlE.-. T. 530. - r-ni.;, r«r ■™j. s.--;. .vv-iiflv" niiliTnlll. >llj< n.-.i - }i\f'.. v^ loss. i- - fUK-l. vn. Xt. 11 a rprir»D i .. .. i.}r.l«l. Mj«-I=M'. 1. '*' - "(^ \^-t. 41)1. 4IS. 4>0. l...rat:iri- on, KIn I>v •oM inrtaM*, 'l ■K.! Fnlmi.T welKhl), M. eDtagonal [>rlni - pTramia. OB. cpInK' (historic I'epaln. *10, ['cptoiM. 41G. >r turieicHB, I 1248 Pereeii taire— Pi teh I B V. ! ■i? I- ■I 1 ;i 1 ; r : i it •■;i- . I1 1 I I 1 !! 1.1 rercentngc. dlfrerencc, 11. , — • to filHl. 11. j — nite of. 11. — Rigu of, 10. — of sugar Id extract, lnflu**nc« of teuiiK'rature of Inyersioo on, 7iiii»«ition of, 2UC, 103G. — < ni«1o. 407. — - distillation, products of. 10::7. ns sr»*jrce of Inbrieanti*. 1iO.«i. — ftlier, pn»i»erties of, 103<». re\\Ur. 402. lM.il* isophical wc-oi. 399. I'imno^r.ipli, l^l. I'liMspliatCP. oIK:. -- in l^arlcy and mnlt. amnnnt of. T. G2i>. — of i>«it;i3. in tl;i* asli of Itops, 479. -- — in lioer. di'tonniuatloii of, ;«70. IM iispLojus. :;yo. Plivsical pntptMtios of iabri<>nnts. Um. riiy.^Iis. 112-i:tl. ri.\ si"lii}.i«'al ilntp. ami pn-,;*i-'ssea In Ti..iltlni:. 017 r.21>. rfiiff. iriash lul). 004. rirnunif^tr. tll!«.) l>«iii. Im>1. 902. - sin-iiih- i:iaviiy. to lliui liy, 9<'.3. ri«itt lluid. prnpertii'S ««f, T. 310. I'iiTc (II altln^'i. ili'r'iiiiii->n of, 595. Pier in. n. ^{*^. PH,;i:K-nt lia»-lorla, T. 512. 514. I'iisi n I'lxwln^ wat«'r.<, «'oinpi»«.^Mi.in of. T .**2<», 8-7. — 1:1.: It, IvilniMK .'f, T. 010. 0J4. PilvinT (sto also I*.ii!u n:lan». I'Ino lMn!ii«!, jiMfo Imi.lfi. T. 1140. I'im (Itrltlsh liipiiil ituasurvj. !»»;. T. H7. — ('Irj- mcMsuri'). SS. — tl'. S. ll-ini'l iinasuro). 85. T. W T. 97. 1 Pi|ie, pipefl. — (Rrltish liquid measare). T. — (U. S. Ibiald iQcasare). >7. — brass and co|»i)er, dlmensioiis 1153, T. 1154. — cleanlBS of» 851. — computing diameter for clrc charge, 140. — cooler, Bandelot, (11a.) GTS. slzea and capacltlos 4 675. T. 1141. — for cooling, Imolatlon of. 34i — coverintr, speciflcatlons for. : — diameter of. to fliul. 142. and bead and dfachargv of I T. 141. — fitting. S|»cclGca(|AD for, 379. — flow of, approxIniAte. 142. T. i of and bead of water In. I of upn-ani or downwanl. 144. 1 of water In. 140. steam tbrougb, T. 198. — iron, dimenslona of. T. 1151. — layinir. nilea for, 1-15. — li-ngtb of. for a ^Iren ^^a find. 142. — linos, to bottle sbop, 914. application fur. I'M.-. rcveuiie rog^lation. 1051. — rt-frlReratlnir, amoant of. : discs f«T. 3t«. Pllt'tte. (lis.) 9G2. — testing of. 971. Pipiui;, ammonia, sficcltication ••f. -- si>4rificatii>ns for. 379. PIsti.n. li'aliase of, 279. — pnmps. 350. Pltili of coars. ICG. — for Insulation, S30. 332. — Jtrowors*. 4S5-4!>7. — -- J»IMlo>;rapliy. 11C4. coin l>- .sit ion of. T. 472 colopliony In. 4Sti. cottonPCfMl cU In. 4S5. linsidl oil in, 486. pnipcrtlos rf, 486. - n'sin In. 4H6. — — samples for analysis. |trepAi of. 497. — — s*»ftcninff tem|»cmtnres of. taste of. 4S7. - iniluencc on l»cor. 4**? v.iluation of, 4M5 Pitil.liii; applian**e8. fi!M-f5»7. — naoliln'^s. 095-C;)7. — ..;!t, «levioe8 for. C77. — - iiiptlnxl of. American. ^:M T.ngliHh. 803. high temperature, 7 750. advautagea of, 7' ' ntc hIaK— PreaiiB re. t. jenM. nmonnt. AiMriPA, GngLimi. T. wn. nd. it«aDlllani of. 7ft, 80. Wiilc onlliiren. I - (ICL-lita. 128. pi-iiiiuui. boi. l-oMa Blr lilt i>udi|>. l>alDti. i). 8. mpRiur IMM, i|*(>t1vc, 120. '" nMm iihI (vrriti tatil.: glrani i-uglne. 383. l-n-r-rtiiK •urfncp for ipolntlng. 6ft American, unxlnrfkiii ot. MS. Ea»li»h, TM-TBR Hlr loiimilltH r?|»ri on. IIM - nitnnl. lu Kort snd bnr, I>l (erim, i'ss. ""^ *' ""'^' " ot T«Ht. TM. 1-icM. Imp. «T3. — hT'lruullr, ISA, (lln.) 140. .•jrb.j.iiil.> of. HM. I-iowd r«*t, kind ™«l for. 53(1. l.y.lrale •nlultot Id inlccrM.'olT. ini9 nifia-hliiulphiie o( IK. M. 8.), »0I. - bunglnit. T(B. nllrun. of, 395. oililp of. 31M. Dcriiianjiniiul«. t«2. — Joiinul, 18B. — uiiiBb1n«. niw cereala. IIS. T1D - n»-Htiire* of. 103. 'k-^>'.r."" T'''" " _ normal la 1iyilnialln<, ISi, Pan^AT Kolrcliiiioli E^^^^H 1250 p„„. „ ..„.„.. ■■n»urr of KiitPf due to btlihl T. rnjivHIra. ninll. lUnlr t-I (rr-nw In. T. eSO. ilrni'iii. A<9. ei2. iDdufmfll by kUalnt - - » koo^. ew, Bii'. - mniliih. ue. hV-l. »8. - r""!. M3-m, - '."imi'i": ':?-■ "TJoIlwu'llT' rmi'rieinn 1u ll^unr iniffi. of. T. uj;. uss. ■■roln-itnn "I nirtncpi. stii-?' I'luiplili. 4in. ;iii i»« iU '-'"'."'.li^h. CI -.;!2..=. - b«» In l**r. 701. 1 ' ,|>...'tnms"''M'. fk - iimtrii;ii1np nl. TU. in ITni.vivik- eozyn™. «K. :,-.i --„l;i='^;£.„ I'n.l .■.«■., *i-.. . ;;•'';;.,';;: 1.; - vli.illif -f," i*»i. [■ly.llio. 4111. r«ul'Ji"i?.i 1"'™ ai, '""' ' ,.;-:;.i'T ;;=:■"■ " ■M: r? f.,r'i<~-r' lnn, ': ,.,|i;j::;:^^;3,J/° |-"mi'*1"iuiw! 147,' 31a X>/'.. -^ .!■■' ■.'.■.'rmiVoV. .V-l - M:.i'ii-tiiT"f. a-T. - !T.".|",."^tl" :ar.' K2 ., mil «"«.' iWi.' ;;-^^,.,. ,.-,...„._... ,«lr.s, ,„,. ■■■;■" : ' -: ,;;■■ '" .,.■, :":'■■: ■''■#■"" ""■ - -':t;::yrxsr'" '_r /..-'■■'. ,., ruDchHD. U. S'UqnM meBinn, T. M. Rate of tutoTHt. 11. 10X1. Hitlo, 12. Uann'i dllnUOD nwtbod, 1022 - ■Icn of, 12. gelitlM BNttaod, lOU. - >iipir to »D'>imr. to Bod. 062. OTT B>w l^mlM. 40S-4I2. Tll-714. ^t022. for ■ bnw, ulculatlnf, B23. Llndnfr'i mstfcod. 102S. 828. wa. miililDS with, 7111-718. niitun. UT-DT'o (wt u«]«r Reil«llt>, 8B0-10aS. — mJcnaroplral labantocr. lOIS-IOIT IlMl ntnimilhio. mcDliK cf. H8. PDIrettctloD bulerli. T. BU, SI4. «lciili.tlns. 848. - dEDnltlou of. Mn, &B3. - ot Tcut. 660, UGO. PnrttJ ot bwn, KiDdtTd, 1103-1111. Dinnlnf of, BOO. PTnoiKI. e*. muBlM ot, 818. - [«n(ii«oniil. OS. rtohi-H KOd CeUln*. 872, T. tl.R. - wBiiliir, B8. ^ right, andliv nrr^iM of. OT. HHtmiitlP, 68. ntire analfili defined, DN>. HrlUsh, llquldl T. 88, 't. 8T. B. lliiulU 'moBsure, 8fi, T. 80. B; r tBHtlib). T. 17. T. BO. 'HDlBC. {Ilg.l 063. uFhlnM. 200-306. •qnarc, IB. ~ (for I-IOOO), K. — BibHIur of metbod, 1 ttet of iMrlcjconi. B8S. >t tuall (Kc iiinnitf). c trIclliHi. ISS, 1S4. irrlKbt of. T. Ills, e wall*. apcclBi-atlnn, nsS. 1 alooii or Mono tnba). H^.' dliwHon for, Itl. cnnaM .i(. TaS-TiM. ej crop or. T. 113s. I. m. : T. iiM. . «B, T. 470. «"l»«. 1253 - iDdlntlODS drflned (•«« ntBo Ball- Iiu). MT. or h»r. maaBlBg of, W9. — Kalnefa. SOB. — KMeccr'a. snS. — L*nr«. aw. — Preibtl'a. DM. — BirliardHii'a. Ml. Ricvlmranivlrr, lilbiia«nphy, II6Z. IHa.) 5Sa. iI»ri1ptloD ot. 6H. (13S, — wrevlalae. (lU.) B13. 6H. T. 620, T. aa. (Da.) ox, 983. — claaalOntkHi or. SH. — ellliMDldaua I. (11.) B19. T. BM. (lla.) B3S. II. (III.) BID, T. Bai. BSB, IH2. lurlildltr «ua«l by (tou (srni.). 812. — Hliniua. saa. 'slT'''^"'' ""^^ '^ ""'' '''™"'' — lAdvifii. lat. — nwmbniiMritnana. BM. EM. — PiMortaniu. 1. (lla.) BID, T. 020. Ilia.) aso. BM. 11. illa.i on. T. nw). (II..) BO. Ill, (11..) ni7, T. BSO, (lla.) S36. Ill tOrblllitT «UK<1 by (top — ffmwBMdon or. Mi. — profwrtlaa of. 413. ifewlnn. TST. ft.tlFjlie and for wlI1n« wa.i - i«ir«r-. (or cnlo, iw^ ( fltHrtlutf luht £31, I. raaportttan U. T. «M. t»ls»i). M. MrltlBC imrr nrai HnnlclrvU. M. S*uM nuuulttH n Snateli— SpeolfloatloAs. 1255 Snatch block, 1S6. Soakers (lee bottlo ■oaKing). Soaking bariej (see steeping). — of tMttlea. 880-886. dcTlces for, 885. volution for, 888. strength of, to find, 883. temperature of, 88ft. tanks for. S81-888. wheels for, 888-884. — of kegs, tank for, (lis.) 008. Soap, 406. — In lubricants, 1040. Soda (see also sodium). — as an antiseptic. 490. — ash, 385. (see also soda carbonate). — bicarbonate of. 896. 489. — bichromate of, as boiler com- pound, 228. — as boiler comiKHind. 226. — carbonate of, 226, 880. In boilers, 224. in boiler compound. 226. — caustic (soda lye), 395. as an antiseptic, 490. In boiler compound, 226. — sulphate of. 895. Sodium. 396. — bicarbonate In brewing and malt'g, 439 — bisulphite of. 896. — carbonate of, 226. 396. aa a boiler compound, 226, 444. — chloride of, 396. In water, 486, 439. — fluoride of,. 228, 396. ;i8 It Imiler c*ompcppd. 448. — phosphate of, 886. as boiler compound, 228. — salts. 395. — sulphite of, 395. Soft soap, 406. Softening hard water, 220, 443. 444. Solar day. 101. -- year, 104. Solder. 402. Solid, solids. 03. 112. — expansion of, 121. — extract (British), defined, 967. per barrel (British), calcnlatlng 063. conrertlng Into Balling. 064. per quarter (Brftiah), calculating. 066. — lubricants. 1040. — measure, 85. — specific grarity of. to find. 069. — total in water, determination of. 982. Solubility of gases in water, T. 316. Solutions. 116. — soaking, for bottles, 883. — normal, for analysis. 997-1003. — staining, micro-organisms. 1016, 1017. Solutions, standard, for analysis. 997- 1003. Sommer beer. Bnropean, comnMltlon of, T. 826-828. Sorting of grain, 676. Sound, 130. Sounds, different kinds. 488. — for finings, preparation, 763, 764. Sour beer, U. S. regulations for, 1048. S<»urlng of ale by bacteria. 812. South America, beer production, T. 1139. South Carolina dispensary law. 1093. liquor law, 1093. South Dakota liquor law. 1094. Spain, beer production of, T. ll.W. Span (U. S. measure), 88. Spanish beers, composition of, T. S30. Spargers, dimensions of, T. 1140. — bop Jack. 671. — mash tub. 662, 668. Sparging, 771, 772. — Mpiiamtus for bops, 672. — of grains, directions for, 721. — hops, directions for, 727. — water, amount of, T. 721. for hops, amount of, 727. temperature for, Engl, beers, 796. Sparkling ale, composition of, T. 824. Special brewer's tax, 1044. Specific grarity, 116, 959. and Beauiue degrees corapnrcil, T. 1166. degrees of (British), calculating. 962. '— defined. 967. of gases, to find, 960. liquids, to find, 900. mineral oil. determination, 096. and saccharometers compared. T. 067. of solid bodies, to find. 969. — heat, 124. of malt, calculations with, 938. of saturated steam, 194. Specifications for brewery buildings, general. 364-881. — carpenter work, 358. — coppersmith and tank work, 878. — excaTatlon. 864. — floors, 870-372. — insulation, 873. — iron and steel work. 368. — machinery and millwright work. 370. — mosonry. 366. — miscellaneous, 373. — painting, 866. — pii>e fitting. 879. — plastering, 871. — plumbing, 308. — refrigerating machines, 874. — refrigerator or stock house. 304. — roofing, 866. — tank work, 378. I2s6 Spee I flcatloM Sii«N*l!k>atkiiw. tlnnlnff. troowork. 3jT. — wash boase. 305. Spelt (fptdermls) iMirley. 454. Spent irralDM (nee brewers gnilna). Spent bops. 874. use of, 852. — jeost (see yeast, waste). Sphere, eo. — circumference of. G6. — surface of. QG. — volume of. 06. Spherical aberration. 120. Spiles (top fenu.). 8U0. Spindle oil. 1037. Spontaneous combusthin of fata. 108S. — fermentation. T. 734. beeri. «81. Sporangium. &10. Sporea of bacteria. 513. — omU^ipenouii. r>]3. — of molil. 510. — of yeaiita. (lis.) 508. 514. 525. time of formation, 1030. S|K>rulatlon. 510. — of yon at a. ri24. Siwnts. eruln. (lis.) 581. — 8|K'i-If1(*atiitiiR for, 377. Spray iiii; beml. Kpargor. H03. S|irlnkU'r (s*v also sp:nvt*r». — for kf>:s. iiWl. .^pmutini; :ip|>:iriitii«. iUs.) t»S?*. S|iriiiiT'«. :iiit Hint of. lu malt, T. 032. T. ♦•..t:^ T. «>V.. — of liarl«'yi-{<. pi-.»|H>r K-iictIt «if. uJ»S. — malt, at-lils \n. tiiiiuuiit of. T. tl2T. itiuipiiHiritiii r»f. S()5i. Iiiio«|.l,;iii>«( ill. ainmiut of. T. tl-T. nlill7.:iti«iii of. Nil*. Spur ):tMiT, frirtUtu of, 1S2. -- iNiiiMi'iN* iiuasnnO. S'*. — iKii^lisIi f»Tm«'HtfiK TliS. — .in'. I «if. ti> liiiil. ."•'.». — aiKl riilNS fi.r l-miH». T. I'J. I -.|H f,.r i-lmm. T. IH. — iiifasiiif. ^'I. ~ mill' thi'iil nn\i. S,'. - riHii. l."i. ;iii>liiiil:♦.)::*■. iiii«iMSi"'ia'. li.'lS'. St.>Iiis. InliS. 1017. Stiiii'i'.: \' . «.■: !.i. I'iJl. — tiioMs. 1«*-J4 — yi>ast ol!-*. f.ii .oiinrni;;. lu:?.». Stiimi'S. !.'•« f'l :»!!.\. l«»Hi. — If l»r»-w-r «.. lU :i''ail. HH7. — iMiw I ::':r. Itn:'. — can* •'lllii;; <«f. mh-. f..r. lUlT. — hoii t'» ol.tain. l'»l»; — iiitiniKlv j>siit- f..r IHOO. T. 11:1^. Stamp p-nate. application of. I047. prpparstloa of. 1047. — on reroored psokaiiv*. 1. 80. — - lieer (U. S.), 80. — for Iteer. natlon.il opinkm.«i oa llrt.-». 1107. . ^ — dlmenslona of brewery TeaiBela. T I 1 140-1 14.T — ffslloo. Ikiuld (U. S.). SO. — heaiied bnsbel (U. S.>. 80. — scales (tbermoroeterl. 872. — sol ut Ions. 990-1003. — of steam engines nuil boilers. Iflfi. — Htnwk bushel (U. S.K 80. - — unit of lenelb. 70. ^ of weight, 70. ; Starch. 471. — action of diantase on. Tiews by dif- ferent InTestigators. 41iV420. -- nlliuniivilila In, 472. — In liarl»\vi>om, 4.Vi. — for lin'wlPf; purpo«ie9. 472. ciimiKiditlon of. 47i. — oellnloae. 410. — f^ontahiinc materlaln. 44S-472. — ili>ui|H>8ltIon of. 411. — d«'Xtrlnit from. 410. — and dlastaiv. 420-424. 703-707. — ?idannlz.ttion of. 703. 74.M. — - :rraniilof«». 410. — - iiivi-rtdon. pDHlncta o', 7tVi. time of. T. 7l>4. — I'Mlint' action on, 410. — as malt adjnn<-t. 714. — in ni:>l(. atiii'unt of. MW. — rni ma. -571. 472 — (»il In. 472. — pMHtl'. 41". — pn'iKiration fur Invenlnn. 7«^. — - iir.Mln«-t«» I'f liydnttlon of. 422. — pJt.jtTtlt'* \:iininlnK for. 10211. — yl«>idins; matoiiul. v.ilno nf. 44S. Startlnt: tuf<. »;77. .^stutt'S nf mattiT. 112. Stat Ira 1 p1«-. rriiity. 12.S. Stntlon.iry stnani engine. 2tU!. StaiUilo t»f liiM'.ltli of brewery work- niiMi. 1114. 111.'*, stfnm. li*::. -- I r raUfiiviila. |inv|iH*tlon of. 770. — ■ ilrimiiltiii "f. tan*. — IniIIit. 2iCi 'J17 (aee also boiler). — loilH lu kt'ttle. (Ha.) 007. pj, Amntlcun. a02-OM. lIliJfT-. cql-oB. 2>M. HWcincallnB (pi. 370. Mlvel. Klllnil of.'liM. — How of. tlirongh pl|wa. T. IWI. - i.l|->. .iliiH-mlniM nt, T. Il.'.l. Ilj2. — ^^diiB^to tcnpermtDm. T. J05. 202. e uT barlvr. ISO. 1258 Stor«se»SwedeM. Stong^ of lM>ttl«d beer. 914. ~ cellar oiieratloiis, 757-709. tblck mash been. 788. — malt, blDS for. 579. — of malt, effect of. 637. — Tata. cai»«citj am! dimena.. T. 7S. Stoat (aee alao top fena.). — American. proJuctloo of. 816. — compoaltion of. T. 824. 825. — definition of, 089. — Iriab. maablnr metbod. 796. — London, maablnr metbod. 796. — water for brewins, comp.. T. M5. Stralfbt line. 5ti. Strainer, maah tab. 601. .Streak cultarea. 1022. Stren^b of ammonln ll<]uor, T. S16. ~ of material. 237. — modal of. 237. Streuirtbenlnj; of j-«**t. 744. Streaaea. 237-241.. Strontium. 397. Sublimation. 123. Submerged rt>ndoDiier. Holm's. 289. Subettiure of barley loat in storace. 629. — ci)m|H>unJ. SS2. Subtrartton. 2. — of (-umniiiu fraotiimsi. 6. — uiixtHl Duiulii.'r!i. 7. — sipn of. H. Suhtr»li«'iid. 2. Siirijiil*' n- I'J. 4i.'.'i. — — ii-* a ft-nnt^iit-itl'in pnMlui.-,. Ill •■v::. t "f «;--::i:iri t:i:i1i^. Cll. -- f"! iiLiii"!! .'' \ i.Mv«j ..* »lJTt»rfnt iu- v» ih^ii «>iii:.tr, : itio. i-.il. .>i.t:niu:. Sn^r. i.ropertlea of. 412. — ratlc of to Don-msar, 977. — remainder In beer. 74S. — in wort determliUn?. 976L Tolnmetric eattmatloo. 076. Sulpbate. aalpbates. 392. — i^tper. SJe, 400. — Iron, 892. — Ume. In maltiny and brewing. 43S — aoda. 39r». — In water, determination of. 9S. — Bine. 309. Snlpbide of iron. S85. Solpbitea. 391. — aa antlaeptic. 490. — aodlom. 395. Solphar. 891. — In bariey. 459. — comboation of. 196. — dioxide (aee aolphariKM achl). — In boi»s. determlnatloa of. 98CL Sulpbnretted bydrogen. 892. produced by yeast. 547. Sulphoric acid for cleaning. »I3. propertlea of. 302. — anbydride In water, determ.. »S4 — etber In refrift. macblnea. a02. Sulphurins of iMirley. 392. — of lirifia. 391. Sulpburous add (anlpbur dioxide t. ^9! an an antlaeptic. 41i0. pnii>ertle8 of. 316. in refrig. macbinex. 302. Sum. 2. Siii-i>rhoated steam. 193. SupiKirts. tub, OKI. — .MHlv. 082. Sim-liargine batteriea. lTi9. Snrf.ii'«». 07. — '.^.-olor. 673. I l-nnlnir of, 845. Mi:t mi. 72Sk. — ff ouIh-. to find. 06. — oyUiuler. tu find. 67. — frli'iiuDal. 17."i. — froatnui of a pyramid. C7. — measure, mvtrlc, 92. — rlclit cone, OS. l-risni. to find. 06. I'jni!!!!.!. to find. 67. — of split rv, OtJ. — i-r s<;i!;ir".' lorNtaurea. S4. Surfaix-8. nifiisiiratlon of. 66-68. — prvparin;; for palntinj;. Ji63. — protfotluii of. S40-S68. — treatment of. S40-S6$. Siiiveyura lin»^:ir measures. S3. -- siiuarv measures. 85. Siispc:i.!r 800. .^MaiikvT. IViin^vIvania brewlnr. 779. .'^ueai i!ii-iltin;;« warm and culd melh- i^\*. r»'.'7. ."^wtiK-ij. I'lirlfV crop of. T. IISS. — I ■«.*•• r |-n"iii4 tkon of, T. 1139. i'.VJ. SiFreillsli^«TerniO. 1259 Swedish been, compositioo, T. 830. Sweet water attempentors, 678, 079. Swimmer, 667, 680. Swiss commission ioTestigatloD of tem* peraoce problem. 1122. report of, 1122. Switch, electric, 261. Switzerland, beer prodnctlon, T. 1139. Symbols. 386. — of elements, T. 884. Symptoms of abnormal fennentatkm, 760. Synthetical chemistry, 882. Syphon condenser, 281. Tangent. 62, 68. Tank, tanks. — (U. S. measure), 72. — beer, dimension of, T. 1142. . — bottle-soakinff, different, 881-883. — capacity of, to calculate, 71. — enameled, 682. (lis.) 688. — grains, constmctlon of, 666. — with hopper flnding capacity, 75. — iron, staining of. 860. — pasteurizing, 000-912. — round, finding capacity, 70, 71. — soaking, for kegs, (lis.) 602. — steaming, 000-912. — steel, for malt storage, 570. — time for emptying, 188, 189. — vacuum fermentation, (lis.) 763. — water. (lis.) 666. cleaning of, 845. construction of, 068. dimensions of, T. 1142. — work, specification for, 878. — for wort or beer, 678. Tanking of beer. Indication when ready for. 757. Tannic acid. 406. as an odulterant of lupulln, 481. in lupulln. examination for, 1023 — sulistances of hops, 478. Tannin In hops, 480. Tapping barrels In bottle shop. 882. Taste of beer, 700. abnormal, 770, 771. Tax on barrels, multiples and fractions, 1043. — beer, discount, 1043. how paid, 1043. special, paid 1899. 1900, T. 1120. — from liquor trafllc, T. 1120, 1127. 1128. — on malt extract, 10G6. — retail dealers'. 1044. — special for beer, paid 1809 and 1000. T. 1120. brewers, 1044. paid by bre\i«»ni and dealers 1800 and 1900. T. 1129. — stamp, 1045. Tax on tonics. 1066. — U. S. Internal ReTenue, 1042-1067. Technical balance. 606, (lis.) 971. — terms, 1186-1209. English-Oerman, 1186-1197. German-English, 1106-1200. Telephone, 180. Temi>erance beer, composition, T. 828. definition of. 699. production of, 776. reTenne roles, 1067. — and natural laws, 1111-1114. — problem. 1121-1126. Hamilton's opinion on. 1123. inrestigatlon by Swiss Got- emment. 1122. Jefferson's opluion on. 1123. opinion of U. S. statesmen, 1123. Temperature, tsmperatures. — air, for floor malting, 596. — of bottling cellars (top ferm.), 811. — of combustion in furnace, 199. — detenu, by fusion of metal, T. 1154. — dougblng-ln. of mash, to find, 940. water, to find, 939. — in drum malting, 603. — during germination of barley, 589. — in fermentation, T. 788, T. 740. improper, 748. — of fire. T. 1164. — final, of mash, to find. 939. — Influence of, on inyersion of starch, 706. of albnmeD. 707. — In kiln drying, effects of, on dif- ferent properties of malt, 501, T. 622. 624. — In kilning In U. S.. 001. in England, 607. Munich malt, 614. Pilsen malt, 616. Vienna malt. 615. — In malting, In Tarioas countries, 597. — mashing water, to find. 935 937. — mixing, ice and water, tu find. 943. of water, to find. 935-937. and material, to find, 93S. — pasteurization, proper, 908. — pitching (wort), 729. higher. 730, 740. — Rpurging water, 721. — 8 team, and corresponding prc-ssures. T. 195. — top fermentation, 804. Tempering, 114. — steel. 399. Temporary hardness of water. 219, 433. determ., 980. Tenacity, 114. Tennessee liquor laws, 1006. Tensile stress. 237. Termo bacteria, (lis.) 606, 507, T. 512. i26o Termc»— Troy. TeriDA iMCteria. docrriptloo of, Til. Terms in algebn, A2. — arithmetical. 13. 27. — in ent. TM. — — KriinsiMtin;; nf. "Mi. — — |iniilni.-tl-Tl«2. — — proiitTtirs ■■f. T*»«^. «^;|1«mI.!Ui'«i. IMl. !»!■_•. ■ ili.-iuiiii; III', i .ill iil;i[ 11):; ii'irr^'N. '.Ml. — KM-t!.-"!. 7^ii-T«*4. liii. kiU'.l ..IN. H».'^.». I'lioiiuin. r.l'T. riin*'. mil- i.f. l.T Tifi. f il'.iifSV li'ini'l nw;isur»»». 9*5. — iV. S. ]i.)iii«l ii..'.»<*iir»'». S7. 1»»V Till- ;i..ii..iv. iiisiii:iiion. x\*.K :u'7. :uu: — — fill- w.ili-. :i."i7. Tinili»»r. \iiliini«'S .tf, ti> llu'l. *»'.'. Tiiiio nf li.-t r <:"i-.ii«'. 7.'i'*. 7r»V. — ll|iM«.-:'lS i«f. lo|, ■ «f-. I ini:. ..-f l»:i:;»'y. MM. fiOtJ. li'i »«»i - f-iil. lol. -- — ri"'. 'i^r-vy iif. *»*»«5. — — M'tiiiiVi-rs. •**',*i. !■■ -r- j.:iiiifiri:; I'f. si'.J. — s!..-.r. I«'l. Tliii'iir l.ii li.iWiT "it .Nil ■'•J-iiTiniS' -- — i>f 'VitiMMtitx. ■Ji-t-nti . [fXt. Tldninj sf itii :ttMiii'4. .''Im Tnii. I'lii;; «ir :rii»'>-« il .'«». im liht*. 'M^ — rJJ.Mric. !»••. 9^.. — Jvfil::«'J:iTi"ii. ;U4 — n'L'i.-^ft'r I . S.. sS. T*m, shl|»|iln«. U. 8., 88. British, 99. — abort (fiion of |iower. 230-201. oleotrli-.il. 249. wire roiK*. 245. Transverse «ir»*?»», 239. Trap, steam. (M7. Tr.iiit»zliiiu. 5-s. — • -.iycir fif, to find. 00. Tr.ii. 7.ilil. TkS. — ari'.i of. lo And. 50. Tr.ivA. sti-Mtriiii;; (pastcnrixlnjr^. 908. Tivntiui'iit iif *«nrfaces. 84t.i-!iiit8. Tn'in|M»r ptvi-nior. 263. Tii.in;:!*'. r»7. — - :ii uti- .iiiirlcil. 57. ~ ftltlrn.i" ..f. .% ilnd. 58. — Imso i»f. .%7. — (>iiuihit(-ral. .'i7. — lu-i^'ht Ml". r»*». — l84.»»e<'li'!*. o~. — tut>it8iir:iti7. -- rjpht an>:lt*il. 57. Triaii^'ular prli^in. tW. — |>>rntniil. Os"i. Tnci'Mi-nu-triiMl fnnrtlons. 02. TiiiiM>th>lan;{ii in bops. 479. Tri-sfMliniii p'-.-^j-liate. 395. ■ -..41 Vrt^VUv «-«>m|ioond. 228. 443. '\\%\'>f \*<\\\\v\. "'.^ Troy*— Vtrvetati re. I261 Troy weight. 00. Tiypsin. 420, 42G. Tub sapport*. 681. — fermeuting (see fermenting tab). — masb (see mash tub). — rice (see rice tub). — starting or settllna?. 677. — stock (see stock tub). — yeast, 678. Tubes, iron (see pipes). — seamless brass and copper, di- mensions of, T. 1153, T. 1154. Tubular boilers. 206. Tun (British liquid measure). 96. — (U. S. liquid measure) . 06. Turbidity, albuminoid, 760, 813. detecting of, 1033. — bacteria, 514-618. in (top ferm.) beers, 812. detecting of. 1032. treatment of, 769. — beer, 760-770. causes of, detecting. 1032. determinatloo of, 1032, 1033. treatment of, 760. — hop-resin, detecting of, 1083. — proteid. detecting of. 1033. treatment of, 769. — starch, detecting of, 1033. treatment of, 700. — In top femientating l)cer, 811. causes, of, 821. — yeast, . detecting of, 1082.' Turkey, beer production of, T. 1130. Turi»entine, 860. — oil of. 407. Two-armed lever. 151. — row barley, 450-454. time of steeping, 504. Type, metal, 402. — of yeast, for pure culture, 5^8. U tillage of casks, to And. 73. Undcrdough, 874. — composition of, 834. — excess of, cause for. 722. — loss caused by. 833. t'nderlet, mash tub. tJC4. Union. Burton, (lis.) 801. Unit, absolute. 135. — compared, 103. — of electric measure, 253. — graTlty, 135. — heat-, 104. 124. 150, 103. brewer's. 034. — legal, of electric measure. 106. — length, 79. — metric. 81. — money (U. S.). 100. — ijower, 103. — pi-essurc, 103. — thennul. 103 (Hce oIho heat unit). — of velocity, 104. — of weight, 70, 103. I Unit of work, 103, 135. Unmalted cereals (see raw cereals). Unsteamed bottled beer, production, I 774. : Uppertlough. excess of, cause, 723. UpVight boilers, 206. I U. S. (see also American). I —measures and weights, 83-01. Utah barley, 452. time of steeping, 504. , — liquor laws, 1097. Utensils, sterilization of. 1020. Utilization of by-products, 8G0-S77. Vacuoles in yeast, 610. Vacuum, 117. — beer, chip cask treatment of. 75.1. — fermentatiiHi, description, 754. 755. record of a. T. 755. system, 752-756. — fermenter, (lis.) 753. — plant, 752. — refrigerating machine. 290, 301. — tanks, (lis.) 763. dimensions of, 75 1. fermenting, capacity of, 754. weight of. 754. Valuation (sec proiiertics). Value of barley in U. S. i>er acre, T. 1132. — of coins, foreign, T. 110, 111. — of drie7Tainid. 65. Vertical boiler. 200. — Uoe. 56. VeaaeU. brewery, dimeDalooa of, 1140- 1143. — cjrllDdrlcal. capacitj of. T. 74. — preparing of. for Tamiahlng. 8M. Vienna beer. 7M0. mmiKNtition of. T. 836. T. 827. bopa aaed in. Tsn. malt for. .ntftlc ai-i»l.l. — mother of. .'il7. V|r*l:ittiip rcTcnuc lnw«, iH>ualtie9 fur. 1052. \ irfrliiia Iniiior \:i\\». 1000. Virtual mi»ni»»nr. 170. — Tohvliy. 170. — — law» of. 171. Vlju'onn bartvrla. lUa.) ri07. T. TilS. dewrlption of. r»17. \ Is-'imsut'ii* iif Wkt nup ft'iTO.). S12, \ iirl«il. liluo. Sl*'2. 4tiO. — pr\*on. a»2. .TliP. — oil nf («iil|iliurli' flclil^. 302. — uliii.'. ;f.iO. \'ila!lh» ai i«l In U-tr. 4iVi. — — — (IttiTiiiinatt'in of, ItTS. as f<>mieii:aii<«ii pnnhiot, M4. Ill wiirt. ftrnioi»!«»il hy diffvrpnt ToasiM. T. :*i*\. — I'ils. 407. \.Mt. H>:>. 120. 25.'?. — .liiij-i^r". 2."»4. — (■••iiininh. LTil - mc!« r. J.'iT. \ ..?t;,;.. J. itT.^rv. iL^.i, — oMl. 12:». \iS. — prisu}, t«i Cn.l, 06. oli::n^i.-K in dtor Volome. pjmmld, 00. — aphere. 66. Volnmetrlc analrala deflned. 9M. — eatlmatlOQ aogar Id U'achahaafen (German maltl^rt. m, Wagona. ISO. — acalea. 652. Wahl's formnla. 016. — iMlDglasa. preporatloD of. 704. — lauter-maah method. TIT. — procesa for lalnglaaa, 489. Wahl and Henlos apparatna f6r reaat. (Ila.) S664T0. Walla, hollow tile. — inaulatlon of. speciflcatkm of, «■ — partition, tnanlatloii of. 342. — nibble stone. S65. — uiM^l insulation of, 333L Warm sweat ««ing. comp. of. T. 441 T. 44."i — nlknilnitr of. deterrainlni:. 087. — aliiniiniiiii uxltle In. deterni.. S**2. — for .Vm*>riciin lager been. 715. .— Amerl.-an. typical, coiup. of, T. 441 — nmmtmia in. 438. .illiuniiiiuiil in. deterra.. 0S6. fnt' In. doterminitlon of. 0*5. — amount for brpw. 715. calculating. U3U. 037. — :iij:jIv!.js. 0lfi.*-988. -- r.ll.nn.-r.»pby, 1163. -- f.T l.-.il.'r8. 218. 210. trr.iinK*nt of. 218. — iMlhuf: pt.ipt of. T. 123. lino to pressure. T. lOT*. T • •n't in vacuum. T. •2S. — in lir«'W(>rT for dlfTeront nses. 440. -- brewing proi^rtiea of. 440. Kniilifb. 444-447. liiirtonlring. 442. — — lianlvnlnir. T. 447. iiupntriiii;, 445. 446. -- — i:«'riii:in. imp. of, T. 447. nifcntsitipical examination. 1025 ^^ateiv-l¥eigrhtii. 1263 Water, chlorine In. 439. determination of, OSS. — classlflcatiOD of, 436. — 00-efflcient of discbarge. 138. — constitoenta, action of different, 436. importance of, 436. — coolins, 806. by ice, calculating amount. 914. towers. 344-346. — destructive power for wort. 1027. — discharge, 138. — donghlng-iu temperature, to find, 933 — effect of on boilers, 1:20. — examination, chemical, of. 982-986. microscopical, 1024-1027. Hansen's method. 1026. Lindner's drop culture, 1025. Wichmann's method. 1027. — expansion of. 121. — flow of, through orifice, 137. in pipes. 140. — grains-, pressed from, 722. — bard and soft, 210. coniiK«itK>n of. IST treatment of, 220. — hnrdness of. 437. of, determining, 080. — licnd of. T. 141. -- hfat of evaporation, of, 194. — heating of, in tanlcs. QM. steam required, to find, 046. — hygienic exuralnation of. 1026. — and ice. mixing temperature, to find, 943. — ignition loss in. determ., 982. — Improving, 440. 441. 446. — iron in, 439. oxide in, determ.. 982. — judging of. 436. — magnesium oxide in, determ., 9S4. — malting, properties of, 440. — maalitng temperature of. to find, 935-937. — and material, mixing toraiwratiiri', 9'J8. — measures of, 103. — mixing temi>erature, to find, 935- 037. — nitrates in, 438, 987. — nitrites in, 438. 987. — oxygen consumed in mo'.8t oom*»u8- tion, detormiu'ttion of, {»Sunds). — salt in, 439. — sample for analysis, preparation of. 496. — 80. - It.llli.it i.f. MT. I2J-T»., , n< fur. KI. 738. brml ar.) Ralllnc. !■.! Wort— V«a«ta 1265 iHiiMi, '1'. iooa-ioa< — ■Urillnlloa of, 1U21. — itroiiilli r-t, toi dlSotvat > - Dinaafuctarlac oi - hlMlotruiihT, 111 >j, 1160. IIM. Id criwral, 4«S«tt. -nn.). BIS. - boUnlcal cimnl — bnaK ef, BM. TSS. tor dUiminc iplriU. ^33- (or pnaaHl ymt iiroilof tloi — — tor wina prodotUoB, B33. — iBDCth ot, Elfl. — LofOh tTpi at T. BS:. 588. - nltra«rii;)iu r r. cbtalnnl. TIB. - nmtoiilum oi. BIS. ■terlUuIJaa 'or. HI. ' - — Carijbcit Inn*. "*. tSX, S cullnn. fiST-en, •lennlllod or, SOT. llnuHD'a, U»«Ta I'uatnri. BCT.' I»8.* I, typo of, T. 822. B»T. «(« (orr"«40.' vinptaBi of.'TU. OBd. lOM. Mining pnjperty of. OM. l»KlD. SM. bMd In top t«n»-Dt>lhM ortire for p^nUiv. 88S. ■re ■■» eitnrl). nUiUne oC. SIS. n ROGUHt. SOB. rpHTlflc cn>lt7. MS. It net. ilellHil. VIS. ■ralorj, of ' miil^ nlnlati .) »<«. !II4. BZt, QUI. V