The Brush of the Masters:
Drawings from Iran and India

Esin Atil

m

The Brush of the Masters:
Drawings from Iran and India

Esin Atil

Freer Gallery of Art

THE FREER GALLERY OF ART

iQl^ Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 197 H

Library of Congress Catalogue No. 78-70427
Copyright © Freer Gallery ot" Art, 1978

Design/Chaparos Productions Limited
Typesetting/Composition Systems Inc.
Printing/Srephenson, Incorporated
Production/Baker Johnson

^ A "1

Contents

Foreword, 7

Drawings from Iran, 1 1

Jalciiriii, TiniKvid and Turhmn Schools, 12

Safavid Period, 32
Drawings from India, 97

Mughal School. 98

Deccani School , 126

RajpNt School, 130
Notes, 143
Appendix, 147

Foreword

Artists reveal themselves with disarming candor in their
drawings. As faithful records of changes in forms and
compositions or as notations of experiments with new
imagery, drawings provide insights into an artist's creative
processes that cannot be gained in any other way. Neither
verbal descriptions nor written records of an artist's work can
duplicate the immediacy of the information communicated
directly by drawings. In Iran and India, where the names of
all but the most famous artists are unknown, drawings are
especially important since they offer tantalizing glimpses into
those artistic techniques and traditions that were transmitted
from generation to generation in imperial studios as well as in
provincial workshops.

It is difficult to distinguish Iranian and Indian drawings from
paintings, because the artists of those countries used the same
materials and techniques for both. In some instances, as with
the monochromatic decorative borders of illuminated
manuscripts, it becomes all but impossible to make a
distinction between the two media.

Since the majority of Iranian and Indian artists were involved
in some way with the production of book illustrations, they
excelled in the intimate scale of the miniature.

Their drawings constitute the initial statements for paintings
that they knew would be studied with the same close
attention as the written text. It is not surprising then that
the drawings and the finished illustrations were also meant to
be "read." Similarly, most of the texts were so familiar to the
readers that the heroes, heroines, villains, warriors and deities
depicted in the accompanying illustrations were immediately
recognizable. For most readers, recognition of the various
characters described in the text would be sufficient.
Connoisseurs demanded more. Trained to differentiate
between the styles of individual artists anci schools, Iranian
and Indian connoisseurs prided themselves on their ability to
detect variations in established traditions or to identify any
innovations an artist might introduce. Many innovations or
exotic motifs were introduced in the decorative margins of
illuminated pages where they would be relatively
inconspicuous. Iranian and Indian artists were less inhibited
in their drawings, and it is there that they were more apt to
explore problems without regard to the strictures of
prevailing canons or traditions.

With tradition playing an important role, it was inevitable
that Iranian and Indian drawings and paintings should reflect
perfection of technique. Yet, technique, in and of itself, was

never considered sufficient reason for acclaim. It was an
artist's ability to work within the narrow confines of carefully
prescribed traditions, not the least of which was the
juxtaposition of extraordinary realism and highly
conventionalized motifs within the same composition, that
occasionally elicited imperial patronage.

Among the Iranian and Indian drawings included in this
exhibition are some examples that were acquired by Charles
Lang Freer as early as 1907. Mr. Freer's interest in Indian and
Iranian drawings at a time when most collectors still paid
them scant attention, provides further indication of how
enlightened a connoisseur he was. Mr. Freer continued to add
to the drawings and paintings in his collection until his death
in 1919. Thereafter, the curators of the Gallery were
responsible for the growth of the Iranian and Indian
collections. Many of the finest drawings included in this
exhibition were acquired during the curatorship of Dr.
Richard Ettinghausen from 1944 to 1967. Dr. Ettinghausen's
discriminating taste and scholarly research were instrumental
in raising the Freer Gallery's Iranian and Indian collections to
their present position of international eminence. This special
exhibition of Iranian and Indian drawings was proposed by
Dr. Esin Atil, the current Curator of Near Eastern Art at the
Gallery. She selected the drawings from the collections and
prepared the text for the catalogue.

The drawings offer unusual glimpses into many different
aspects of life in ancient Iran and India. The subjects range
from the dazzling earthly paradises that typified court life, to
religious mystics who appear to have been in a state of divine
grace. As we study these drawings, we share the artist's
reactions to people, to places and to events from a time that
is irretrievably past. Because of the intrinsically spontaneous
nature of drawings, these people, places and events come
alive in a way that is more poignant than in the more hieratic
world of miniature paintings.

Thomas Lawton
Director

The Brush of the Masters:
Drawings from Iran and India

Drawings from Iran

The earliest drawings made in Iran are found in the marginal
decorations of 15th-century imperial manuscripts, as well as
on single sheets which were later compiled into albums. The
marginal decorations generally employ floral motifs and
occasionally animals are placed within the landscape. The
only exception to this scheme appears in a unique
manuscript, the Divan of Sultan Ahmed, the Jalairid ruler
whose courts were located in Baghdad and Tabriz. The
marginal drawings of the Dii'an contain narrative scenes with
figures participating in specific activities and are pictorial
representations of the themes expressed in mystic poetry.
Executed around 1400, these illustrations depict idyllic
settings with nomadic figures, lovers and scholars and include
an extraordinary scene with angels bearing celestial fire.

Single-page drawings bound in albums were made during the
Turkmen and Timurid periods in diverse centers of the Near
East and Central Asia and represent a variety of subjects,
including courtly ladies and warriors. Among them is a
remarkable group portraying demonic creatures which is
associated with the shamanistic traditions of the pre-Islamic
peoples of the Asian steppes.

Although these 15th-century drawings were made by
anonymous artists, each was executed by a single hand in
contrast to contemporary manuscript illustrations, which
often reveal the combined efforts of several court painters.

During the Safavid period the artists began to sign their
works and the styles of individual painters became
identifiable. Sixteenth-century drawings executed in the
ateliers of Tabriz and Kazvin depict portraits of solitary
figures as well as crowded compositions harmoniously
blending a profusion of diverse elements. Studies of single
men and women, representing elegant courtly youths in
addition to elderly commoners, gradually became more
dominant, commissioned by both the members of the court
and wealthy citizens.

Patronage has always been an important factor in the
development of the arts in the Islamic world, and the shift
from imperial sponsorship to that of the middle classes is
strikingly noticeable in the 17th century. The artists began
to assert their individuality, choose their own subjects and
inscribe even the simplest sketch with statements that
indicate when and where it was drawn. This highly personal
approach characterizes the production of the school of Isfahan,
the last Safavid capital, and points to the end of the long
tradition of illustrated manuscripts as the individual works of
famous artists became sought after by collectors.

Jalairid, Timurid and Turkmen Schools

During the 15th century, Iran was in constant political
turmoil with a number of new dynasties rising to power and,
shortly after establishing vibrant artistic centers, falling
victim to the expansionist policies of the neighboring states.
Cities such as Baghdad, Tabriz and Shiraz continually
changed hands as the fortunes of a dynasty rose or fell. Yet
the 15th century was one of the most brilHant periods in
Iranian art; each dynasty produced remarkable sultans who
became enthusiastic patrons of the arts, supporting large
studios and employing scores of calligraphers and painters.

As the political scene changed and the courts shifted the sites
of their capitals, the artists migrated to the new centers and
continued to create outstanding works of art. The traditions
associated with one school soon merged with those introduced
by the emigres, forming a synthesis which in turn influenced
the styles of other schools as the artists moved, or were forced
to move, from one court to another.

The confusing political status of the artistic centers also
affected the production of their studios. It is often difficult, if
not impossible, to identify the provenance of a painting given
the heterogeneous nature of the studios and the movement of
the artists. Fortunately, there are a few signed and dated
examples indicating where they were executed which enable
us to more or less define the traditions of a particular school
in a particular period.

In order to determine the influences exerted from one
tradition to another, it is necessary to present a brief
historical account of the major dynasties of the age and to
review the status of the artistic centers.

Upon the disintegration of the Ilkhanids, the Mongol rulers
of Iran, the Muzaffarids (1314-93) ruled southern Iran from
Shiraz until their defeat by the armies of Timur. Another
successor state to the Ilkhanids, the Jalairids (1336-1432),
controlled western Iran and Irak, establishing courts in
Baghdad and Tabriz. Baghdad was particularly creative under
the patronage of Sultan Uvays and his son, Ahmed, during
the second half of the l4th century. The city was captured
twice by Timur who took a number of artists back to his
court in Samarkand. The Jalairids were eventually
overpowered by the Karakoyunlus, a federation of Turkmen
tribes which had originally settled in eastern Anatolia.

The Timurids (1370-1506) ruled supreme in Samarkand,
expanding westward from Transoxiana into Iran and Anatolia.
Their periodic campaigns not only resulted in territorial gains

but also enriched the Samarkand studios, bringing back a
booty of artists. After the death of Timur in 1405, cultural
activities shifted to Shiraz and Herat. Herat was chosen as the
capital by Shah Rukh, Timur's son, and the governorship of
Shiraz was given to Sultan Iskandar, Timur's grandson.
Shiraz, which had an active studio during the Muzaffarid
period, became a major artistic center when Jalairid artists
fled to Iskandar's court following the death of Sultan Ahmed.
When Sid tan Iskandar was called to Herat in 14 14, he took
members ol his studio with him to the Timurid capital. The
Timurid rule in Shiraz lasted until 1453, at which time the
city fell to the Karakoyunlus.

Herat flourished under Shah Rukh and his son, Baysunghur.
In the painting ateliers there were local artists, as well as
those brought from Shiraz by Sultan Iskandar; others arrived
in 1420 from Tabriz after a brief Timurid conquest of that
city. Herat's greatest period was the last quarter of the 15th
century, during the reign of Huseyin Baykara. After his
death in 1506, the city was attacked by the Uzbeks and the
Safavids who took some of the artists to their respective
capitals in Bukhara and Tabriz.

The Karakoyunlu Turkmens ( 1389- 1468) expanded eastward
from Anatolia and spread throughout Iran, briefly capturing
Herat in 1458. They chose Baghdad as their capital and
established a provincial court in Shiraz. The painting studios
of Baghdad and Shiraz flourished during the 1450s and l460s
under the patronage of Pit Budak, the son of the last
Karakoyunlu sultan, Jahan Shah. In 1467 the Karakoyunlu
Turkmens were defeated by another federation of Turkish
tribes, the Akkoyunlu Turkmens, who rose to power from
Anatolia.

Under the Akkoyunlu ride (1378-1508), Shiraz continued to
be an important center until 1478 when the court moved to
Tabriz. The Tabriz studios incorporated artists from Shiraz
and Herat; Herat had been captured by the Akkoyunlus in
1469. The outstanding patron was Sultan Yakub, and his
avid support of the Tabriz studios during the last quarter of
the 15th century resulted in the production of a large number
of remarkable illustrated manuscripts. The Akkoyunlu
empire was terminated in 1501 when Shah Ismail, the
founder of the Safavid dynasty, defeated Sultan Ahvand and
within a decade brought the whole of Iran under his control.

The most important group of 15th-century drawings from
Iran are in the Dh'af/ of Sultan Ahmed Jalair (nos. 1-7).*
There is also a series of single leaves, most of which were
incorporated into albums (nos. 8-1 1). These albums include
samples of calligraphy, single-page paintings, sketches,

drawings and manuscript illustrations, as well as examples
from European and Far Eastern traditions.

Two of the most famous collections, popularly called the
"Fatih Albimis" since they contain portraits of the Ottoman
sultan, Mehmed II ("Fatih" or "the Conqueror"), appear to
have been compiled by the Akkoyunlu sultan, Yakub." The
paintings in these two albums date from the early years of the
l4th to the end ol the 15th century. Among them are a
group of fascinating tinted drawings bearing the attribution
"Mehmed Siyah Kalem," or Mehmed the "Black Pen," that
is, one who works with brush and ink.'^ These drawings
depict either scenes of nomadic life or fantastic creatures
(monsters or demons) engaged in various activities reflecting
the shamanistic rites and traditions of Central Asia (no. 10).

The artistic milieu of Baghdad and Tabriz during Sultan
Ahmed's reign was extraordinarily creative and innovative.
The painters illustrated literary texts, such as the poems of
Nizami and Khvaju Kirmani, which did not have earlier
established prototypes.'"' The sultan himself was an
accomplished musician and poet, writing both in Arabic and
Persian. He is said to have carved seals and knew how to
paint; he was taught the art of painting by Abd al-Hayy, one
of his court painters, and executed a drawing in a manuscript
on Abu Said, the last Ilkhanid ruler.

Sultan Ahmed's strong interest in poetry and painting is
exemplified in the Divan, a collection of his Persian poems.
This extraordinary manuscript is the only copy of the work
and contains the earliest marginal drawings which are
conceived as complete compositions including human figures.

1-7. The Divan of Sultan ^-^^^^^
Ahmed Jalair

Ir.in, Jalaind period, ca. 1400

When Sultan Ahmed ibn Uvays (1382-1410), the last great

^^T^l^^x^'m')^ ruler of the Jalairid dynasty, ascended the throne, he

Text: 18.5 x 11.5 cm inherited a highly creative and energetic group of artists,

(714 x4i/2 in.) including Shams al-Din, a former student of the celebrated

337 fohos, contemporary binding, t^ - ,■ i-ii • oi

illuminated heading (32.29); Ahmed Musa. Durmg his relatively long reign, Sultan
eight folios with marginal Ahmed was under constant attack by the Kipchaks, Timurids

drawings (32. 30-32. 37) .^^^ Karakoyunlu Turkmens.'* The sultan was able to survive

these defeats by escaping to the Ottoman or Mamluk courts
and avoiding direct confrontation. He was killed in 14 10
while fighting against Kara Yusuf of the Karakoyunlus in a
final attempt to save his domain. Soon after his death, the
Jalairid lands were divided between the Karakoyunlus and the
Timurids.

In spite of the political turmoil of his reign. Sultan Ahmed
managed to sponsor a series of outstanding illustrated

14

manuscripts and to support renowned artists. Among them
were Junayd and Abd al-Hayy, the painters who had been
trained by Shams al-Din, and the calligrapher Mir Ali of
Tabriz, who is credited with the invention of the nastalik
script. The artists of Sultan Ahmed's court were so highly
regarded that Timur took a group of them to Samarkand
when he conquered Baghdad. Following the death of Sultan
Ahmed, a number of painters joined the court of Sultan
Iskandar, the Timurid governor of Shiraz. Several masters
appear to have remained in Baghdad and Tabriz, seeking
employment under the new rulers, the Karakoyunlus. The
stylistic features determined by the Jalairid artists of the
court of Sultan Ahmed were influential in the development of
Timurid and Turkmen schools of painting.

The manuscript contains 337 folios written in a fine nastalik
script; eight of the folios have marginal drawings rendered in
black ink with slight touches of blue and gold (fols. 17a,
18a, 19a, 2 lb, 22b, 23a, 24a and 25b). The work was
rebound at a later date but the original cover was retained
during the restoration. Presently, the binding has a modern
spine and lacks the traditional flap attached to the back
cover. The bookbinding is a brown leather on pasteboard '
with stamped and tooled decoration and contains traces of
gilding. The central ogival medallion and corner quadrants '
decorating the exterior of the front cover are filled with
arabesques, enclosed by several braided and interlacing bands.
Although the layout of the exterior of the back cover is
identical, the central medallion depicts a landscape with a
deer and doe; a crouching hare appears amidst foliage in each
of the corner quadrants. The enclosing bands are also varied,
using floral scrolls as well as braiding. The interiors of both
covers are enhanced with reddish-brown leather; filigree
work, embellished with gold cartouches and placed over a
blue ground, decorates the central medallion and corner
quadrants.

The work begins with an illuminated heading (fol. lb) and
contains the poems of Sultan Ahmed who practiced different
forms, such as the mathnavi (couplet), kasida (monorhythmic
poem), ghazal (ode), mbai (quatrain) and kita (fragment).
Gold and blue lines are used around the text leaving wide *
margins; there is an additional border of blue and red lines,
and on the folios with marginal illustrations, they are drawn
over the scenes. Gold lines separate the poems and divide the
hemistichs. The poet's name is also rendered in gold and
appears as "Ahmed," "Ahmed Uvays" or "Ibn Uvays"; in the
ghazals, the name is always in the last line in accordance with
Iranian practice.

Each poem begins with the following phrase: "and by him
too, may God Almighty make his caliphate and sultanate
abide forever," executed in gold, blue or red; occasionally
only the word "caliphate" is used, or the order is reversed to
read "sultanate and caliphate."

The works of Sadi have been added to the wide margins of
the text, beginning on folio 2a and ending on folio 3 1 la
where the date of this later addition is given as 1643- The red
and blue lines around the margins also belong to this date
and terminate on folio 311a. The remaining 26 folios have
blank margins. There are also several blank, or almost blank,
folios toward the end of the manuscript.

The text lacks a colophon, but on the last page (fol. 337b) *
there are two notations, executed by different hands, which
give information on the date of the manuscript and its
copyist. The notation on the very top of the folio states: "the
book was finished with the help of God, the Giver, in the
month of Ramazan, in the year eight and five hundred in
Hijra of the Prophet, God bless him." The date "eight and
five hundred," or 508 Hijra, corresponds to 1114 A.D.;
however, if it was intended to be 805 Hijra, then the year
1402 A.D. is given, which falls within the reign of Sultan
Ahmed. The month of Ramazan, 805 Hijra, corresponds to
March-April, 1402 A.D.

The second notation, written on an angle on the lower
portion of the folio, reads: "the handwriting of Mir Ali,
mercy be upon him." It refers to the famous Mir Ali of Tabriz
who worked in the court of Sultan Ahmed and copied the
poems of Khvaju Kirmani for the sultan.'^ Since this work
and the Freer Dh'an reveal the same style of writing, there is
no reason to doubt the validity of the attribution.

The flyleaf at the beginning of the manuscript and the last
folio of the text possess several seals. Only the one on the last
folio is clear enough to decipher: it is an Ottoman tugra (royal
seal), identified as that of Sultan Beyazid II (1481-1512),
which indicates that this volume once belonged to the
imperial collections of the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.

Very little is known about the history of the work prior to the
20th century; in 1912 it was purchased in Istanbul by F. R.
Martin, and in 1932 it entered the collection of the Freer
Gallery of Art. The reconstruction of the early history of the
Divan is purely conjectural: it may have passed into the hands
of the Karakoyunlu Turkmens after they defeated and killed
Sultan Ahmed, then to the Akkoyunlus who put an end to
the Karakoyunlus in 1467. Since the work contains the tugra
of Sultan Beyazid II, it could have been presented to him by

the last Akkoyunlu sultan, Ahvand, who fled to the Ottoman
court after his defeat by Shah Ismail in 1501. The Dii'an
remained in the Ottoman Palace, or at least in Istanbul, until
it was obtained by Martin in the early years of the 20th
century.

The eight marginal drawings, executed in fine brushwork,
are conceived as complete scenes filling the entire surface of
the folios. Although positioned around the text, the scenes
appear as if the poems are placed over them, harmoniously
extending under and around the text. Similar to the other
examples of manuscript illustration executed in the court of
Sultan Ahmed, the drawings reveal a new concept in
painting: small figures are placed within a landscape setting
which extends high into the horizon; a multitude of elements
are integrated into the scenes, creating rich but spacious
compositions. These features, determined by the Jalairid
painters, were fully developed in the Turkmen and Timurid
courts.

The lyric quality of the drawings parallels the themes of the
poems which are mystical in nature, exhalting love anci
praising the Creator. The drawings are not "illustrations" of
the text but pictorial representations of the sentiments
expressed by the poet. In a recent publication by Deborah
Klimburg-Salter, they have been interpreted as depicting
scenes from the Mantik al-Tayr (Conversation of Birds) by
Attar in which 30 birds (symbols of mankind) undertake a
spiritual journey in search of God, passing through seven
stages or valleys. In this study, the artist has been identified
as Abd al-Hayy who worked in the studio of Sultan Ahmed
in Baghdad and was a master in the art of drawing.^

The placement of the drawings within the manuscript is
rather curious; they are clustered together between folios 17
and 25. It is possible that the entire Dii'an was meant to be
adorned with marginal drawings since the folios have
exceptionally wide margins. The artist may have executed a
small portion, almost one signature, before the manuscript
was collated and bound.

There is also no logical explanation for the six empty folios
toward the end of the book.^ The suggestion that they were
left blank for illustrations seems unlikely; the placement of
the paintings in these locations would have been most
untraditional for Islamic manuscripts. Perhaps additional
poems were to be included and the author was still engaged
in refining them while the calligrapher copied the finished
ones. The work on the manuscript must have been
interrupted by the political disorders of the age, most likely
by the 1401 sack of Baghdad by Timur.

I. Pastoral Scene

Black line on paper
32.30 (fol. 17a)

The drawing depicts a country
scene with a tlock of geese flying
over the landscape. On the left,
an old man leaning on a staff ac-
companies a woman carrying a
child. Below them are a pair of
water buffaloes and a body of
water with several ducks. On the
lower right, two more buffaloes
approach the water; a young man,
riding one of the animals, holds
their reins and guicles them with a
stick.

The scene is executed m tine
brushwork with varied intensity
ot pigment. Certain elements —
such as the outlines of the hills,
clusters of bushes and blades of
grass — are defined in darker
strokes while washes and softer
tones are used in modeling the
landscape and figures. A feeling ot
depth is created by the suggestion
ot receding planes, moving from
the water in the foreground to the
hills placed high on the horizon.

The vignette ot a young man
guiding buffaloes resembles the
theme employed in Far Eastern
painting. Cultural exchanges be-
tween Iran and Central Asia had
been established during the II-
khanid period, and a number of
Far Eastern features are frequently
encountered in I4th- and \5th-
century paintings.

The scene has been interpreted by
Deborah Klimburg-Salter as rep-
resenting the Valley of the Quest
from Attar's Mantik al-Tayr. It
symbolizes the first stage in the
spiritual journey in search of God.

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19

2. Landscape with Two Couples

Black line on paper
32.31 (fol. 18a)

A plane tree in full bloom with
birds fluttering about its branches
extends around and under the
text. On the left, a youth leaning
against a barren tree converses
with a young woman. Below
them is a tray with two bottles oi
wme, an incense burner and a
bowl of fruit next to an empty
bed covered with carpets and
cushions. On the lower right, an-
other woman reclines against a
cushion while a second man, lost
in thought, sits behmd the trunk
ot a tree.

Similar co the previous example,
this scene is executed m varying
tones of black pigment with no
additional color. The empty and
disorderly bed, together with fruit
and wine, suggest that it was re-
cently used by the couples. The
theme is identified as the sym-
bolic representation of the Valley
of Love, the second state in
Attar's mystical poem.

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20

21

3. Gathering of Scholars

Black line on paper
32.32 (fol. 19a)

Similar to the previous drawing, a
fully foliated plane tree teeming
with birds grows around and
under the text. On the lower left,
a pair of bearded figures hold a
discussion while seated on a carpet
with several books piled in front.
Below them, three men listen to a
couple of personages who hold
additional books. On the lower
right, next to the tree trunk, is a
terrace with a carved balustrade
and a bunch of flowers growing
from its upper edge.

Scholars and sages holding dis-
cussions under a plane tree are
commonly seen in the illustrations
of contemporary literary texts.
This scene is thought to depict
the Valley of Understanding in
which knowledge is sought.

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22

4. Angels Amidst Clouds

Black line and ^m)ld on paper;

tinted with red and blue
32.33 (fol, 21b)

A stream of golden clouds flows
down the right margin of the
folio, fdling the lower portion.
Three angels peer from the open-
ing of the sky on the top while 12
others ride down with the clouds.
Two figures on the lower portion
carry flaming torches or incense
burners.

The sky, wings of the angels and
some of their garments are ren-
dered in blue; a brownish red is
used on several other garments.
The extensive use of gold in the
clouds, bursting through the
folio, is quite remarkable and pos-
sibly represents the Divine Light.

The theme represented here is the
Valley of Astonishment in which
neither man nor beast dwells.
This valley is the sixth stage in
Attar's work and appears out of
sequence in the Dtvan. Six lines of
text in the upper left margin and
the catchwords below belong to
the 17th-century addition of the
works of Sadi.

14 ^ ^

5.-6. Camp Scene

Black line on paper; tinted with

red and blue
32.34-32.35 (fols. 22b-23a)

This pair ot drawings, represent-
ing the activities of a nomad
camp, is the only scene in the
Divan which spreads to double
folios. The right portion depicts
the actual camp whereas the leit
describes the surroundings. On
the upper right are four tents with
their convertible hoods partially
or completely open for ventila-
tion; smoke from one of the tents
escapes through the opening.
Strolling around the structures are
a pair of women and a bearded
man guiding his cow. Below him,
an elderly woman tends the herd.

On the lower right, a couple is
busy setting up their tent, attach-
ing the convertible hood and
tightening the girdle around the
structure. Seated next to them is a
young mother holding her infant
while a pair of children play in
front. On the lower left, a woman
blows the fire lit under a large
kettle whereas her companion
washes clothes at the edge of a
river; behind them are several
dogs tied by a leash.

On the lower portion ot the hieing
folio, a pair of figures bring more
firewood. The margin on the far
left depicts the animals of the
nomads: long-haired sheep or
goats with large horns run about
while several horses graze or rest.
A horseman on the upper left
holds a long whip and waves at
his friends; next to him, a woman
converses with another man who
is riding a cow. The margins be-
tween the two folios are handled
as a unit: on the right an elderly
man holding a stick and a woman
carrying a bowl walk toward the
man who stands on the facing
page, next to his flock.

If •

4

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24

Touches of blue appear in the
grass growing on the banks of the
river in the foreground and clus-
tered around the tree as well as in
the clouds, plants and foliage till-
ing the left page. The fine red
lines seen on the garment and
headdress of the horseman holding
the whip and on one of the tents
seem to be later additions.

These folios depict the setting of a
nomad camp, its activities and
inhabitants in great detail and ac-
curacy. The artist has clearly rep-
resented the construction of the
tents and their decoration; the
men, women and children of the
tribe and their function within
the system; the domesticated
sheep, goats and cattle, plus the
horses and dogs which are essen-
tial to the existence of the group.
Although a multitude of elements
and vignettes fill the margins, the
scene is not overcrowded. It repre-
sents the Utopian harmony of man
and nature as expressed in Attar's
Valley of Detachment, the fourth
stage in the journey of the birds.

26

7. River Scene

Black line on paper
32.37 (fol. 25b)

This scene is devoid of human
representation and depicts a land-
scape with birds flying over a
winding river in which a pair of
ducks swim. On the upper por-
tion, cranes and geese fly through
swirling clouds, while on the
right, several other species of
birds and butterflies hover around
the trees and shrubs growing at
the edge of the river. The river
swings down the margin and
flows into the lower portion. A
tree and pair of birds appear on
the left margin.

The harmonious juxtaposition ot
the elements suggests the fifth
stage in Attar's work which de-
scribes the Valley of Unity where
ail forces of nature follow a single
rhythm.

The remaining illustration from
the Divan (32.36, fol. 24a) origi-
nally depicted a river scene with
several ducks, and could have rep-
resented the seventh and last stage
in the Mantik al-Tayr, the Valley
of Nothingness, beyond which
one can go no further. The mar-
gins of this folio are now com-
pletely covered with the works of
Sadi which almost camouflage the
delicate drawing. Two female fig-
ures were added to the small
squares on either side of the last
couplet in the text.

K ■■■■■ '

27

8. Warrior

Iran or Central Asia, Turkmen or
Timurid period, 15th century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red and pink
Page: 38.7 x 23 cm.

{I51/4 X 9'/6 in.)
Drawing: 24.3 x 13.5 cm.

(9*/6x 5''/6 in.)
29.79

This drawing, removed from an
album, is enclosed by several
borders and pasted on a deep-blue
sheet decorated with gold floral
motifs. The page has been backed
with a blank piece of cardboard.

The figure represents a Mongol or
Tatar warrior, attired in a helmet,
belted tunic, short pants and
low-heeled shoes. He is fully
equipped with the weapons of his
profession: he holds a shield and
sword and carries a bow around
his neck while a hatchet hangs
over his arm; tucked into his belt
are a dagger and the scabbard of
the sword. The figure appears to
be running to the left, one foot
firmly planted on the ground
whereas the other is lifted.

The lace, hands and bare legs art
tinted pink; red dots decorate his
helmet and the scabbard; gold is
used in the metal parts of his
weapons and garments, as well as
on his helmet, collar, sash and
shoes. He wears a large earring
and gold beads adorn his head-
dress.

There exists an identical drawing
executed in the Ottoman court
during the 17th century.'" The
Turkish figure is the same size,
indicating that it was traced or
copied from the Freer drawing,
which must have been formerly a
part of the Istanbul albums.

28

9- Women with Tea Service
Iran or Central Asia, Turkmen or
Timurid period, 15th century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, blue and green
Page: 40.4 x 28 cm.

15% X 11 in.)
Drawing: 19.6 x 15.9 cm.

{IVa X 6V4 in.)
38.14

The drawing, enclosed by several
borders, is pasted on an album
leaf which has wide margins deco-
rated with gold floral designs on a
beige ground. Two samples of
calligraphy appear on the back.

The woman on the left carries a
tray with several covered bowls
while her companion holds a
strange-looking teapot. Both
woman have elaborate head-
dresses; pearls, ribbons, streamers
and tassels adorn their hair. They
are dressed in loosely belted
jackets and long skirts, wear hob-
nailed shoes and bear archer's
rings on their thumbs. Their
facial leatures suggest that they
are of Central Asian or Far Eastern
origin.

The representation of their gar-
ments with highly decorative
folds and drapery, peculiar
hairstyles and confusing tea
equipage indicate that the draw-
ing was executed by an artist re-
motely familiar with Asian
women and depicted what he
thought they looked like.

Gold is used exclusively on the
teapot, on the lids of the tea
bowls and in the long dangling
earrings (?) of the lady on the
right. Touches of pale red, blue
and green appear on the gar-
ments, hair ornaments and tray.

This drawing may have been exe-
cuted in Samarkand during the
Timurid period or in Tabriz under
the patronage of the Akkoyunlu
Turkmens. A number of similar
examples appear in the Istanbul
albums where this piece might
have originated.

10. Two Fettered Demons
Iran or Central Asia, Turkmen or
Timurid period, 15th century

Black Hne and i;old on paper;
tinted with red and blue

14.6 X 22. 1 cm. (5y4 X 8"/(t; in.)
37.25

The drawing, cut to the edge and
mounted on a latger sheet at
blank paper, is typical oi the
series in the Istanbul albums
which bear the attribution
"Mehmed Siyah Kalem" although
revealing variations in style and
subject matter. A group of these
drawings represents fantastic
beings (monsters or demons) whu
are shown singing, dancing or
playing musical instruments. The
Freer example is unusual in that
the demons are shown in shackles
while enjoying the pleasures ot
wine ant! music. ' '

There is a pathetic quality in the
representation of the creatures;
even though bound in chains,
they are attempting to amuse
themselves, accepting their late as
prisoners.

The half-naked figures are seated
on the ground. One of them holds
a blue-and-white porcelain bottle
and offers a drink in a fluted cup
to his companion; the other plays
a type of string instrument which
is frequently depicted in the
series. Below them are two animal
legs with hoots, used in making
music by the shamans ot Centr.il
Asia.

Tlie bodies ot the tigiires are exe-
cuted in tine brushwork and
washes. The demon on the right
has a skirt drawn in blue whereas
his partner's garment is in pale
brownish red. Thickly applied

gold paint with tooled decoration
appears in the armlets, bracelets
and shackles of the demons as well
as in the string instrument, wine
cup and handles of the animal
legs.

The design on the porcelain bot-
tle, depicting a freely drawn
dragon, can be traced to the Yuan
dynasty (1280-1386), when the
Mongols ruled China, and was
popular in the ensuing Ming
period. Blue-and-white Chinese
wares were very much in demand
throughout the Near East and
were imported in large quantities
and collected by the rulers. The
Istanbul albums contain a number
of paintings in which similar
blue-and-white Chinese porcelains
are depicted.

30

1 1. Galloping Horseman

Iran, Turkmen or Timurid period,
late 15th century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red
10. 1 X 15.4 cm. (4 x 6'Xh in.)
47.22

This extremely tine drawing rep-
resents a rider urging his mount
with a short whip commonly used
by Turkmen or Mongol horsemen.
The illustration is trimmed to the
edge and mounted on cardboard.

Inscribed on both sides is a later
attribution which reads: "portrait
of Muhammed (or Mehmed) Shah,
Padishah." Muhammed was a
popular name among the 15th-
century rulers, used by the
Turkmens and the Jalairids as well
as by the Khans ot the Golden
Horde who ruled south Russia.
The word padishah , or the great

shah, was employed from the
15th century onward by the
Ottomans. Since the drawing re-
sembles several other examples in-
cluded in the Istanbul albums,
this inscription was likely added
in the Ottoman court and could
refer ro a number ot Muhammeds
or Mehmeds, including the
Ottoman sultans.

The figure is attired in garments
ot the period; he wears a cap with
its split-rim turned down, a
short-sleeved jacket over a long-
sleeved shirt, pants and boots. A
bow and quiver with arrows hang
at his side while a long staff is
tucked into his belt.

Black lines define most of the
elements; pale red is used to out-
line the horse trappings, saddle
and saddlecloth as well as the
quiver, boots and whip of the
rider. Bright red strokes accen-

tuate the tiny feathers on the ar-
rows tucked into the c]uiver.

The horse is depicted m full gal-
lop, running breathlessly with its
mouth open. The hoofs on its
inner legs are turned upward re-
vealing the horseshoes and nails.
Alrhough the theme of a gallop-
ing horseman is common in
15th-century paintings, the
turned-up hoofs are unusual. This
particular view appears on several
"Mehmed Siyah Kalem" drawings
which represent contorted horses
with twisted legs.

31

Safavid Period

The Safavid dynasty (1501-1732) rose from a sufi, or mystic,
origin established in the middle of the l4th century by
Sheykh Safi al-Din. It became a major power during the reign
of Ismail (1501-24), who succeeded in bringing the whole of
Iran under his rule despite the threats by the Ottomans in the
west and the Uzbeks in the northeast. Shah Ismail conquered
Tabriz in 1502, made it his capital and occupied Shiraz the
following year. In 1510 he entered Herat and sent a
substantial group of Timurid artists back to his capital.
Tabriz, which was an important artistic center during the
Akkoyunlu rule, flourished under the patronage of Ismail's
son and heir. Shah Tahmasp (1524-76).

The early works of the Safavid capital relied on the
Akkoyunlu style of Tabriz. Shah Ismail himself was brought
up within that artistic environment, having married into the
Akkoyunlu family. After the arrival of artists from Herat, a
new and vibrant school of painting developed, blending the
best of both traditions. Shah Tahmasp had been educated in
Herat and brought to the capital his enthusiasm for the arts.
He was particularly interested in illustrated manuscripts and
supported the painting activities of the court. The artists of
his studio executed the illustrations in a monumental volume
of Firdausi's Shahname and worked on a number of other
literary texts, including the collection of poems written by
such celebrated authors as Hafiz and Nizami.^^

Herat, occupied several times by the Uzbeks, remained in
Safavid hands, and artists there continued to create exquisite
works rivaling those of Tabriz.'"^ Shiraz was also extremely
active, producing at first works in the style of the Akkoyunlu
school, then following the Safavid tradition established in
Tabriz. Single paintings and drawings became quite popular,
and many were collected in albums compiled by Shah
Tahmasp and his brother, Bahram Mirza.^'*

Tabriz was on the Safavid border and exposed to recurring
Ottoman attacks. In 15 14 Sultan Selim captured the city and
took a large group of artists to his court in Istanbul. The
ensuing sultan, Suleyman the Magnificent, entered the city
several times (in 1534, 1538 and 1548), forcing Shah
Tahmasp to move the Safavid court to the safety of Kazvin
after the last Ottoman attack.

The school of Kazvin initially continued the tradition
practiced in Tabriz. However, it soon developed a
characteristic manner of representation, depicting elaborate
landscapes with thin, tall and elegant figures. During the
second half of the l6th century, the studios of Herat and
Meshhed were also creative, producing outstanding
manuscripts. The artists of Herat were supported by Shah
Tahmasp's brother, Sam Mirza, and those in Meshhed were

under the patronage of the shah's nephew and son-in-law,
Ibrahim Mirza. It was Ibrahim Mirza who commissioned one
of the last great illustrated manuscripts, a magnificent copy
of Jami's Haft Avrang owned by the Freer Gallery of Art.^^

Following the death of Shah Tahmasp, internal and external
disturbances weakened the Safavid rule during the reigns of
Ismail II (1576-78) and Muhammed Khudabanda ( 1578-87).
The empire was consolidated and its power reinstated by Shah
Abbas (1587-1629) who moved the court in 1598 to Isfahan,
which under his patronage became a brilliant cultural center.

Shah Abbas, like his grandfather, Tahmasp, was brought up
in Herat, which retained its artistic traditions and activities
even though the capitals of the Saftivids were always in
western Iran. The shah's early education in Herat most likely
contributed to his interest in the arts. Isfahan was
embellished with spectacular jewel-like buildings and
gardens, and its painting studios enjoyed a large and varied
clientele, supported by the court, members of the aristocracy,
wealthy citizens and foreign collectors. The production of
illustrated manuscripts was secondary to single paintings and
drawings which were becoming increasingly popular.
Drawings were by far the greatest in demand, depicting
idyllic scenes as well as mundane subjects. The works were
frequently inscribed with the date and the name of the artist
and often contained lengthy statements describing the
environment in which they were executed.

After the death of Shah Abbas, the Safavid Empire began a
slow but steady decline. Abbas had a morbid fear of being
overthrown by his heirs and eliminated all his sons. His
grandson and successor, Safi I (1629-42), was brought up in
the harem due to the shah's paranoia and was virtually unfit
to rule. Yet the workshops established by Abbas remained
active regardless of the lack of stimulating and demanding
patronage. The artists continued producing illustrated
manuscripts and single paintings which toward the end of the
17th century began to follow the new Europeanizing trends.

The Safavid rule came to an end when the governor of
Afghanistan declared his independence, and his son,
Mahmud, invaded Isfahan in 1722. Various members of the
Safavid house were left as puppet rulers for another decade, but
the effective rule of the dynasty ended with the fall of Isfahan.

Iran was on the verge of collapse when a remarkable man rose
to the occasion and reestablished its territorial integrity.
Nadir Shah, formerly in the service of the Safavids, cleared
the land of foreign invaders and established his own dynasty,
the Afsharids (1736-95). After Nadir Shah's death in 1747,
his heirs were able to rule only in eastern Iran, and the
country became divided between various military chiefs. The
Zands (1750-94) held the southern regions until the rise of a

Turkmen tribe, the Kajars (1779-1924), who succeeded in
controlling the whole of Iran.

The earliest drawings executed during the Satavid period were
made in Tabriz, most likely for the imperial albums favored
by Shah Tahmasp and his brother, Bahram Mirza (no. 12).
The studios of the second capital, Kazvin, and those of the
provincial courts in Herat and Meshhed also produced
drawings which were fiishionable during the second half of
the l6th century (nos. 13-16). A number of examples bear
the signatures of the artists, including Muhammedi and
Sheykh Muhammed, both of whom executed single-page
paintings and tinted drawings (nos. 15, 15A, 16, 16A).

Muhammedi is said to have been the pupil as well as the son
of the greatest painter of the age, Sultan Muhammed of
Tabriz, who worked in the court of Shah Tahmasp. An
inscription on a copy of one of Muhammedi's paintings made
by Riza mentions that the artist was from Herat, but little
else is known about his life and activities. According to his
dated paintings, he was active between 1527 and 1584.^*^
His early style is very close to that of Sultan Muhammed and
as a young man he must have made several paintings and
drawings while still living m Herat. One of these early works
is a portrait of a youth in the Freer Gallery of Art and another
is a drawing of an angel in Boston.''* He is also mentioned as
having painted lacquer bookbindings which were coming into
fashion in the Safavid court.

Muhammedi was a master of single-page paintings and
drawings, and there are a number of examples either
attributed to him or bearing his signature. An album leaf in
Boston contains a figure of a man holding a drawing and a
pen with an inscription that states: "the work of
Muhammedi, the portrait of Muhammedi.""" His signed
paintings depict lovers in a landscape or individual portraits
of men or women, including a young prince in a brocaded
coat in the collection of the Freer Gallery of Art (no. 15A).""'
Among his signed drawings are studies of mystics and
dervishes and an outstanding representation of a pastoral
scene which bears the date 1578."" Muhammedi reached his
mature style around 1575, during the reign of Tahmasp's
brother. Shah Ismail II.

Sheykh Muhammed was the son of a calligrapher and studied
painting with the famous Dust Muhammed, one of Shah
Tahmasp's court artists. He worked in Tabriz and Kazvin
under several royal patrons until the turn of the century. His
earliest paintings are thought to be in Shah Tahmasp's
ShahuaDie executed during the 153()s and 1540s. Sheykh
Muhammed's fully developed style is seen in Ibrahim Mirza's
Haft Avnnig which was copied in Meshhed, Kazvin and Herat
between 1556 and 1565. In the last quarter of the l6th
century, the artist joined the ateliers of Shah Ismail II and

Shah Abbas. Sheykh Muhammed's only signed and dated painting,
executed in 1556-57, is in the Freer Gallery of Art (no. 16A).

The artist is said to have imitated Chinese styles and was the
first to introduce European painting traditions into Iran;
however, we have no evidence of these activities. His
signature appears on three drawings, one oi which,
representing a kneeling youth holding a parakeet, is included
in the exhibition (no. 16). The second example is almost
identical, depicting a youth with a book, while the third
represents a dervish."'' Sheykh Muhammed's paintings also
influenced Riza who copied one ot his drawings."'*

Drawings trom the school of Ishihan are far more numerous
and include many signed and dated examples, such as those
made by Mirza Muhammed al-Huseyni (no. 18), Muhammed
Muhsin (nos. 25 and 26), Riza (nos. 19, 28-33) and Muin
Musavvir (nos. 26 and 34).

Muhammed Muhsin appears to have been working in Isfahan
in the middle of the 17th century since two of his signed
drawings bear the date 1649 (no. 24)."''' A reference to this
artist mentions that he was from Tabriz and studied with the
calligrapher Mahmud Shahabi who died in 1583 in Herat, his
native town."*' Another source states that Muhammed
Muhsin "al-Arshi" was a calligrapher who worked in Isfahan
and died in 1680."*^ If these two men are one and the same,
then the artist first studied in Herat and later moved to
Isfahan. He also had an exceptionally long life. An album
page in the India Office Library contains a sheet of
calligraphy signed by Muhammed Muhsin "al-Haravi," that
is, from Herat. "^ Two drawings of dervishes are attributed to
him, one of which bears the name Muhsin. "'* The artist
appears to have been a calligrapher as well as a painter, which
was not unusual in the Safavid period.

The most prolific and influential painter of the Isfahan court
school was Riza, who signed his name either as Aka Riza or
as Riza-i Abbasi; according to his dated works, the artist was
active between 1587 and 1639-'^" He was born around 1565
in Meshhed; his father, Ali Asghar, was a painter in the
ateliers of Ibrahim Mirza and Shah Ismail II. Riza appears to
have joined the court of Shah Abbas m 1587 and immediately
set to work on a royal Shdhuau/e (ca. 1 587-97). '^^ Although
his paintings appear in t)ther illustrated manuscripts — such as
the Kisas al-Anhiya (ca. 1600), the Divan of Ali Shir Nevai
(ca. 1620) and the Khosrau va Shirin (dated 1632)''" — he is far
better known for his single-page studies. These paintings are
characteristic of the style of the school of Isfahan, generally
representing single figures lost in their own dreamworlds
(nos. 19A and 19B). His drawings, executed in delicate and
sinuous lines, depict figures in rather exaggerated poses (nos.
19, 27-33).

35

Riza abandoned his career in the royal atelier around 1605,
taking up with lowbred companions in preference to the
affected elite of the court. He returned to his profession in
1615 and produced an enormous number of single-page
drawings until his death, which occurred about 1640. His
works were copied and imitated by such a large group of
followers that the school of Isfahan became identified with
that of Riza.

Muin Musavvir was the most gifted of Riza's numerous
students and followers and possibly the last great Safavid
painter. His dated works fall between 1635 and 1707, and
during his long career he worked in the traditional manner,
avoiding the Europeanizing trend which was popular among
his contemporaries. Muin was a great draftsman and an
excellent painter, executing single-page drawings and
paintings as well as manuscript illustrations, including
several copies of the Shahname and a history of Shah Ismail.'''^
His drawings are far more numerous than his paintings and
generally depict studies of single figures (nos. 26 and 34).

The majority of the drawings from the late Safavid period
owned by the Freer Gallery of Art belong to a collection
popularly called the "Riza-i Abbasi Album." The album
consists of 60 drawings mounted on 49 sheets, seven of which
have two to four small sketches pasted together (53. 12-53-60).

The work was formerly in the collection of Friedrich Sarre
who published a monograph in 1914 which included an
extensive study on the album and facsimiles of the
drawings. '^"^ The author states that the drawinirs were bound
in a lacc]uer bindmg dating from the first half of the 18th
century and suggests that the album was compiled at that
time. Irregular strips of red and buff paper were used to
frame the drawings, which were pasted on coarse cardboard
leaves measuring 26.4 by 18.6 centimeters (10>^ by 7/^6
inches); these leaves were attached to one another in a
concertina-form, a most unusual format for Near Eastern
manuscripts. However, on one of the drawings there is a later
inscription which gives the name of the owner and the date
1297 Hijra, that is, 1879 A.D. (no. 28). Therefore, the
album was assembled in the last quarter of the 19th century
which accounts for its tmconventional manner of compilation.
The drawings must have been pasted on cardboard sheets cut
to fit the 18th-century lacc]uer bookbinding. When the
album was purchased by the Freer Gallery of Art in 1953, it
was already unboimd and the leaves separated; the binding
and four of the drawings illustrated in Sarre's book were also
missing.'''^

The collection contains a number of signed and dated
drawings and sketches, ranging from 1598 to 1643. Among
the dated examples are several bearing the names of Riza and
Muin, while the remaining appear to belong to Riza's school

and show a close affinity to the master's style. The majority
of the drawings were made during the reign of Safi I, the
successor and grandson of Shah Abbas.

Included in the exhibition are 34 sheets, four of which have a
pair of drawings pasted together (nos. 27-60; double
drawings nos. 37, 39, 47 and 54). The drawings in the
exhibition are arranged in groups of signed and dated
examples (nos. 27-34), dated pieces (nos. 35-44), those that
have written comments (nos. 45-47) and others without any
inscriptions (nos. 48-60). Seven of them bear inscriptions
giving the name of the artist as Riza, Riza-i Abbasi or Aka
Riza (nos. 27-33). With one exception (no. 32), these
drawings are dated between 1598 and 1639, covering a major
portion of the painter's life. Three other examples contain the
name of Muina, identified as Muin Musavvir, and are dated
1639-43. One of them was made by Muin himself (no. 34),
whereas the inscriptions on the other two indicate that they
were cither executed in his house or contain a reference to
him (nos. 37 and 44).

Since the drawings in the album cover a period of at least 55
years, there is quite a variation in the tone of the papers,
subject matter, manner of execution and style of writing. The
papers, uniformly polished, range from pale cream and buff
to a deeper tone which is almost tan; one scene is painted on
a colored sheet (no. 46). Some of the drawings are obviously
finished examples and contain the names of the persons who
commissioned them. They were generally ordered by
unknown personages, such as wealthy merchants and doctors
(nos. 27, 29 and 35); only one example states that it was
specifically made for the Imperial Treasury (no. 33). Several
are sketches for manuscript illustrations, such as the Layla va
Majniin and YHSuj va Znlaykha series (nos. 38 and 60), or
book decorations (nos. 57 and 58). A number of examples
have fine pierced holes following the lines, indicating that
they were used as stencils (nos. 29, 56 and 58). White lead
was employed for correction on several drawings and appears
now as a dark-gray stain on the paper (no. 47).

Black line is used on a majority of the examples although
there are a few rendered in red and black or solely in red;
rarely do the scenes reveal polychrome tints. The style of
inscriptions vary; some are almost as sketchy as the drawings
and quite difficult to read. It is surprising that the
inscriptions are so highly detailed and precise, giving the
exact day the drawings were made, in whose house and tmder
what conditions. This extraordinarily informative manner of
inscribing the drawings is a characteristic feature of the period.

Although the inscription of one example states that it was
m.ade in Meshhed (no. 27) and another in Herat (no. 45), the
entire album follows the style identified with the school of
Isfahan.

12. Ascension of Solomon
Iran, Safavid period, early I6th
century

Black line and ^'old on paper;

tinted with red, blue and green
Page: 35 x 24 cm.

(13H X 9^6 in.)
Drawing: 30.8 x 19.8 cm.

(\2V8 X 7''Kti in.)
50. 1

The drawing, mounted on heavy
paper and framed with several
gold lines, represents the celestial
journey of a crowned figure seated
on an octagonal throne. Accom-
panying him are various winged
creatures: peris (fairies or angels)
and jiiins (genies or demons), who
either play musical instruments,
bear vessels with offerings or carry
animals. The composition is
almost concentric with the ele-
ments radiating from and swirling
around the central personage.

A strip of land appears on the
lower edge of the scene with jag-
ged hills and vegetation among
which a rabbit sleeps peacefully.
Immediately above are winged
figures carrying diverse animals
and birds such as deer, leopard,
mountain goat, peacock and duck;
one of the figures bears a long-
necked bottle on a tray. In the
second register are three peris who
hold covered bowls and a plate of
fruit; behind them is a dancer
with a pair of clappers who sways
to the music of a trio which in-
cludes horn, lute and tambourine
players.

The crowned figure is in the
center of the scene, his throne car-
ried by a pair of peris. Two figures
hold a billowing canopy over his
head; surrounding the throne are
other attendants who play a flute,
carry a tan or incense burner, or
lead the way. A horned creature
flies in front of the group which is
followed by a four-armed peri
holding a lute, wine bottle, and
cup and saucer.

f

38

On the upper portion are more
winged creatures: puns bear a plate
of fruit, covered bowls or an in-
cense burner; a jinn carries the
king's horse on his shoulder; and
three other angels pour celestial
tire over the ruler. Real and fan-
tastic birds, such as a crane and a
phoenix, accompany the travelers.

This highly detailed scene is exe-
cuted in black with gold used ex-
clusively in the heavenly fire, on
the throne, musical instruments
and vessels; the throne and vessels
are encrusted with red, blue and
green gems. Soft washes of red
enhance the hills in the fore-
ground and define some of the

long ribbons tied around the
torsos of the winged females.

The princely figure is identified as
Suleyman, or King Solomon, who
travels through the heavens on his
flying throne accompanied by the
animals and beasts of his legen-
dary kingdom. The hoopie used
by Solomon to send messages to
Belkis, the Queen of Sheba, is
seen on the upper right.

This particular drawing must have
been extremely popular and served
as the model for two paintings,
one of which was made in Istan-
bul around 1600 and the other
executed in Golconda in the

1680s.'"' The Freer drawing was
formerly in an album belonging
to the Ottoman Palace, which ac-
counts for its Turkish copy.'"
However, it is difficult to trace
the origin of the Indian rendition.
Both paintings are so close to the
Freer example, in size as well as in
composition, that it is implausi-
ble to think of a second version
which would have been used by
the Golconda painter. It is more
likely that the Indian painting
was traced from the Turkish copy.

The Freer drawing is a product of
the early Tabriz school, showing a
blend of Timurid-Herat and
Akkoyunlu-Tabriz styles.

39

13. Garden of Heavenly Creatures
Iran, Safavid period, mid-l6th
century

Black line, gold and silver on
paper; tinted with red and blue

Page: 27.9 x 17.2 cm.
(11 X 6'%6 in.)

Drawing: 32.1 x 21.4 cm.
(125/8 x 81/2 m.)

50.2

Similar to the previous drawing,
this example is mounted on heavy
paper with several gold lines fram-
ing the scene. It was also formerly
in the imperial libraries of the
Ottoman sultans. '*

The scene depicts a gatden with a
group of peris entertaining their
queen who is seated in a tree
guarded by a jinn. A stream of
water springs from the rocks in
the middle of the scene and flows
through the foot of the tree, cut-
ting diagonally across the compo-
sition. This diagonal line is re-
peated by the steps leading to the
tree house and balanced by the
horizontal placement of the fig-
ures and the vertical thrust of the
plane tree.

In the foreground are a pair of
musicians playing a flute and
tambourine and a dancer. Next to
them are an amorous couple with
an attendant who offers the lovers
a cup ol wine. Beyond the stream
is a jinn leaning on a staff, guard-
ing the entrance to the tree house".
Sevetal figutes ascend the steps,
carrying bowls of fruit and other
delicacies; at the foot of the steps,
one of the peris hands a bowl of
fruit to an attendant. The queen
of these heavenly creatures sits on
the balustraded platform, leaning
against a cushion; she is picking a
fruit from a bowl offered by an at-
tendant while dnother peri, sitting
on one of the branches, plays a
lute.

40

The platform and the two gates at
the bottom and top of the stairs
are adorned with dehcate floral
and geometric motifs. Similar in-
tricate designs appear on the gar-
ments of the figures. The back-
ground is densely filled by the
luxuriously foliated plane tree,
blossoming branches, sprays of
leaves and clusters of flowers; it is
enriched by such details as birds
perched on rocks or branches and
softly falling leaves.

The paradisiacal garden is not en-
tirely devoid of unpleasantness.
On the upper right, a snake has
attacked a bird's nest and is de-
vouring one of the infants while
the mother flutters helplessly
above.

The scene is executed in crisp
Imes and washes of red and blue
which soften the landscape and
architectural elements. Gold is
used on the metallic objects such
as the vessels held by the peris and
the jewelry ot the jinn and on the
cape of the dancer. The silver
pigment applied to the stream has
oxidized, appearing now as dark
gray.

The exuberant landscape, jagged
rocks and tall elegant figures sug-
gest that the drawing belongs to
the Kazvin school which
flourished after Shah Tahmasp
moved his court to that city in
1548.

41

14. Imperial Hunt

Ir.in, Satavid period, mid-l6th
century

Black line, gold and silver on

paper; tinted with red, blue

and green
Page: 33-5 x 23.2 cm.

(13'K6 X 91/8 in.)
Drawing: 30.3 x 20.4 cm.

(II'-'Mk x 8Vi(i in.)
54,32

This tinted drawing is pasted on
an album sheet which is painted
beige with gold floral motifs
adorning the margins. On the
back there is an illuminated poem
written in luiitalik and set in tour
columns. Gold lines frame the
text and drawing on both sides ot
the folio.

The scene depicts an imperial
hunt with nine riders about to
converge at the center, galloping
after their prey from opposite
sides of the folio. The extraordi-

nary movement created by ani-
mals and men begins on the lower
portion and moves up the compo-
sition in a dynamic zigzag forma-
tion, each element counter-
balanced by another.

In the foreground is a body of
water, its shore lined with rocks
and reeds. The princely hunter on
the lower right slashes the neck ot
a lion with his sword while a
bleeding lion lies dying on the
ground. The prince is elaborately
dressed in embroidered garments
and bears a jeweled tassel and
feather in his turban. On the next
register, a hunter with a bow and
arrow shoots at a boar which is
speared by another rider. Behind
them, two hunters with swords
attack a stag and another pair of
riders chases onagers, trampling a
mountain goat. On the upper
right, a huntsman rushes to the
aid of a rider who is surprised by
two leopards; one leopard tears at

the horse and the other pounces
upon the rider.

The ferocious hunt is being ob-
served by a bear who has escaped
to the safety of a tree and follows
the activity while wrapped around
a branch. Three figures appear
among the jagged and animated
mountains in the background; one
of them indicates his bewilder-
ment by the traditional gesture of
bringing an index finger to his
lips while pointing to the figure
aiming his musket on the wild
goats or sheep perched on the
craggy rocks.

While the hunters are rushing
after their kill, foxes and rabbits
scurry around, jump into crevices
in the rocks or peer cautiously out
of their dens, alerted by the
commotion.

Most of the drawing is executed
in black lines and washes. Occa-
sional details of the landscape, a

few animals and portions of the
garments are rendered in pale red,
blue and green tints. Gold ap-
pears in the metal parts of the
weapons, horse trappings and
garments as well as on the
brocaded saddlecloth of the
prince; the eyes of the bear
perched on the tree are also
painted gold, stressing the crea-
ture's state of anxiety and fright.

On the lower left is a seal which is
too unclear to decipher. The
drawing is attributed to the Kaz-
vin court and thought to belong
to the school of Sultan Muham-
med, one of the most celebrated
artists of the age.

42

43

1 5. Dancing Sufis

Attributed to Muhammedi
Iran, Safavid period, ca. 1575

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red
Page; 45 x 30.3 cm.

(17"/6 X ll'Vis in.)
Drawing: 15.2 x 11.1cm.

(6 X 41/2 in.)
46. 15

This folio represents the charac-
teristic format of a page from a
murakka, or album, in which se-
lect examples of paintings and
drawings are combined with sam-
ples of calligraphy and illumina-
tion. Each page was carefully de-
signed, the illustrations and text
forming a harmonious and well-
balanced composition. Single-
page paintings or drawings were
very popular in the l6th century
and the compilation of albums be-
came highly fashionable in the
court. Signed works were particu-
larly desirable and a great number
of these albums include the best
works of past and present painters
and calligraphers.

This composite folio contains a
drawing of dancing sufis, or mys-
tics, by Muhammedi; a painting
of a cluster of primroses by
Murad; an unsigned text in prose,
followed by a verse of poetry with
an illuminated heading, both
written in nastalik; a poem with
five verses, written by Shah
Mahmud in a fine nastalik script;
and several strips of illuminated
bands. The margins of the folio
are tinted turquoise and adorned
with gold motifs; gold and col-
ored lines frame the illustrations,
texts and illuminations which are
enclosed by a scroll of gold
arabesques. The seal on the draw-

ing reads: "the slave of the King
of Holiness (that is, Ali, the
fourth caliph and the founder of
the Shiite sect), Abbas, in the
year 995 (1587)." The date on the
seal must refer to the year in
which the album was compiled,
since the style of the drawing in-
dicates that it was executed in
Kazvin in the 1570s (see also no.
19A). Presently, the folio is
mounted on a blank cardboard.

The poem with five verses, or 10
hemistichs, is written on an angle
and follows the format of speci-
mens of calligraphy executed for
albums. The inscription, "the
slave Shah Mahmud has written
it," appears in a cartouche at the
bottom. Shah Mahmud, a native
of Nishapur, worked in the atelier
of Shah Tahmasp and copied the
most famous manuscripts of the
century, including the celebrated
Haft Avrang ofjami in the Freer
Gallery of Art'"''' and the Khamsa
of Nizami in London.*" The cal-
ligrapher, called "Zarin Kalam, '
or "Golden Pen," excelled in both
large and small types of script and
wrote a number of poems. He
spent the latter part of his life
composing poetry and working on
calligraphy in Meshhed where he
died in 1564.'*'

The painting of the primroses
bears the inscription: "the work of
Ustad (Master) Murad." Two art-
ists with the name Murad, both of
undistinguished fame, are associ-
ated with the Safavid court:
Murad Daylami was in the atelier
of Shah Tahmasp, and Murad ibn
Ali was in the court of Shah Ab-
bas.'*^ It is more likely that this
painting was made by the second
artist.

44

The inscription on the drawing of
the dancing sufis, written in the
same hand as the one on the
painting, states: "the work of
Ustad Muhammedi Haravi," re-
ferring to Muhammedi who was
from Herat. The attribution
seems to be accurate since the
same fine style of drawing and
this same subject matter are found
in other works reUably given to
Muhammedi. The scene is exe-
cuted in delicate lines with gold
paint used exclusively in the floral
sprays scattered around the
ground and red washes reserved
for the faces of the figures.

The 10 sufis are depicted in natu-
ralistic and spontaneous poses,
dancing in a circle to the rhythm
of the tambourine played by the
kneeling figure on the upper
right. The figures are humorously
represented, each doing his best,
turning and swinging with raised
arms. The three sufis on the
top — a short stocky personage, a
bearded middle-aged man and an
elderly figure with a white
beard — are portrayed with a mar-
velous sense of humor; the intense
concentration of the first, the
awkward pose of the second and
the attempted agility ot the third
present excellent character
studies. The others in the group
are either beardless youths shown
in three-quarter view or middle-
aged men with prominent noses
and chins drawn in protile.

46

Muhammedi, whose works were
discussed earlier, was also a first-
rate painter. His signature, ren-
dered as "the work of Muhammed
Haravi," appears on the portrait
of a young Safavid prince (37.8,
no. 15 A) which once belonged to
another album. The verso ot this
folio contains a sample ot cal-
ligraphy executed by Muhammed
Riza in 1574. The same round
face with almond eyes and the ta-
pered turban with a tall baton ap-
pear on the youthful sufis. The
execution ot the prince is highly
polished, intentionally labored
and refined in contrast to the liv-
ely youths in the drawing. The
elaborately brocaded coat, adorned
with scenes of warriors capturing
prisoners, is a rare depiction of
the famous figural textiles of the
Safavid court.

I

15 A. Portrait of a \ c)ung Prince

Signed by Muhammed Haravi

Iran, Satavid period, mid-l6rh century

(37.8)

47

16A. Camel and Keeper
Signed by Sheykh Muhammed
Iran, Safavid period, dated 1556-57
(37.21)

48

16. Prince with a Parakeet

Signed by Sheykh Muhammed
Iran, Safavid period, ca. 1575

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red and green
Page: 15.7 x 9.2 cm.

{6^Ae X 35/8 in.)
Drawing: 14.7 x 8..^ cm.

(5''Kr X 31/4 in.)
37.23

The drawing, mounted on heavy
paper, has been cropped with red
and gold borders added around
the edges. The prince, set against
an empty background, is shown
kneeling, looking at the parakeet
perched on his extended right
hand. He is attired in the gar-
ments of the period with a striped
turban wrapped around a soft
feathery top and adorned with a
single plume attached by a pin.
He wears a long-sleeved shirt
under a short-sleeved outfit tied at
the waist with a sash; a striped
handkerchief, a dagger and a
penknife are tucked mto the belt.
In his left hand, the prince holds
a pen.

The application of gold is reserved
for the pin on the turban and for
the metal parts of the pen. Red
appears in the stripes of the hand-
kerchief and turban as well as on
the shirt, and is used in depicting
the precious stones of the pin and
earring. Green washes are applied
to the feathery top of the turban,
the sash and the parakeet.

The minute signature, barely vis-
ible below the tip of the penknife,
reads: "drawing by Sheykh
Muhammed." Its wording and
placement are identical to a simi-
lar drawing in the Louvre.'*^ In
both works, the subjects have
heavy eyelids, and the lines of the
upper and lower lids project be-
yqnd the outline of the face.

The same features are present in
Sheykh Muhammed's only dated
painting which represents a camel
with its keeper, enclosed by a
poem related to the subject
(37.21, no. 16A). The cartouche
on the top, written in red, gives
the date, 964 Hijra, or 1556-57
A.D.; the panel below, also exe-
cuted in red, states: "musavvir va
muharrir (painter and calligrapher,
or writer) Sheykh Muhammed."
The artist, who was the son of a
calligrapher, obviously practiced
both painting and the art of fine
writing. The poem was most

likely written by him as a com-
panion piece to his painting. It is
executed in a tine gold nastalik
script and pasted on an album
sheet with additional verses and
stripes of illumination adorning
the edges. The precise line and
harmonious color employed in
this painting also appear in the
illustrations attributed to Sheykh
Muhammed in Shah Tahmasp's
Shahnanie and Ibrahim Mirza's
Hafi Avrani:,.^-^

The theme of a figure seated in a
kneeling position, holding various
objects such as books, flowers or
wine cups, was very popular in
the Safavid period and frequently
occurs in single-page drawings
(nos. 19, 20, 32, 36 and 51).

49

17. Drinking Party

Iran, Sahivid period, late I6th or
early 17th century

Black line on paper; tinted with

red, blue and yellow
16.3 X 10 cm. (6^/16 X yVi6 in.)
40. 18

The drawing, cropped to the edge
and pasted on cardboard, is
framed by thin gold, red and
black lines. It represents a group
of 10 figures who are seated or
standing in the foreground,
gathered around a large jar, over
which one ot them is leaning. In
the background is a rich landscape
with articulated trees, shrubs and
rocks filling three-fourths of the
folio; on the upper right is a
domed brick structure with a tiled
entrance portal .

Red washes appear on the brick
facade of the structure, in the
bushes and rocks and on the long
stoles of the figures. The large jar
is decorated with blue and red
motifs while the tile panel on the
building has a blue floral scroll.
The dome of the structure is
painted yellow, suggesting a
golden shell.

The group consists of an assort-
ment ot ages and types, including
dervishes and youths: two of the
men are bareheaded while the rest
ol the figures wear a variety ot
turbans and caps. Beardless
youths intermingle with older
men who have short or long
beards; some hold wine cups,
long-necked bottles or small
rounded fruit.

50

The figure leaning over the large
jar is in a drunken stupor; his
turban has fallen to the ground,
its folds undone and dangling
from his neck. He holds an un-
identifiable object which looks
like an animal's tail.

The ceramic jar resembles Chinese
Ming dynasty wares, which were
greatly in demand during this
period. Shah Abbas had accumu-
lated a large collection of Chinese
porcelains which he donated in
161 1 to the ancestral shrine of
Sheykh Safi al-Din at Ardabil.
The example in the drawing is ex-
traordinarily large, and the red
and blue decorations represent a
rare type. It is possible that cer-

tain artistic liberties were taken in
both the size and glaze of the
immense jar, so as to exaggerate
the amount ot wine consumed by
the party.

Drinking figures, alone or in
groups, were frequently portrayed
on single-page paintings and
drawings by the Isfahan artists,
representing the most popular
pastime of the members of the
court and the public (nos. 19, 20,
25, .30-32 and 36). This group, a
mixture of layman, sufis and der-
vishes, participates in a common
activity which takes place in the
vicinity of one of the holy shrines
scattered throughout Iran.

18. Musicians and Dancers
Attributed to Mirza Muhammed

al-Huseyni
Iran, Satavid period, dated 1613

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, blue, green

and yellow
Page: 36 x 24.2 cm.

(14^8 X 91/2 in.)
Drawing: 17.3 x 9.9 cm.

(6% X 3% in.)
07. 157

The tinted drawing ot five
figures — two of them dressed in
goatskins, dancing to the music
provided by a quartet — was origi-
nally a part of an album. It is
mounted on a pale green sheet
adorned with gold marginal deco-
rations depicting flying geese,
roosters, butterflies and ducks in a
landscape. A gold floral scroll
frames the drawing with addi-
tional gold, red and green lines
encircling the border.

The back of the sheet has similar
marginal drawings with rabbits,
deer, foxes and butterflies sur-
rounding four panels ot text. Each
panel contains a couplet written
in white uastalik on brown or blue
ground. The date 1032 Hijra, or
1623 A.D., appears in the last
panel .

The drawing depicts the dancers
and musicians performing in a
landscape with a large tree and
several different types of bushes
rising above the rocks in the
background. The ground is
sprinkled with small rocks, clus-
ters of grass and floral sprays. On
the upper right, two men with
long tapered hats surmounted by
,inimal tails dance in exaggerated
poses, swinging their arms and
jumping on one foot. Below is
another dancer in the same pose,
his long sleeves dangling over his
arms. He is flanked by two fig-
ures attired in goatskins and play-
ing clappers. The four musicians
in the foreground perform with a
tambourine, panpipes and two
drums.

The scene is executed in black line
with gold applied sparingly to the
metal parts ot the hats, musical
instruments and horns of the cos-
tumes. Soft washes of red, blue,
green and yellow appear in the
landscape and on the garments.

52

An inscription, added at a later
period, states that the drawing
was made by Mirza Muhammed
al-Huseyni in 1012 Hijra, that is,
1613 A.D. The name of this art-
ist is not found on any of the
paintings or drawings of the
period, nor is it recorded in the
lists of calligraphers and painters
pertaining to the 17th century.

Dancing figures wearing animal
masks or skins appear in Islamic
art, particularly during the
Safavid period, and represent itin-
erant entertainers."*^ The composi-
tion and the grouping of figures
seen in this drawing are based on
an example in Leningrad which
bears the signature of Muham-
medi; another version of the same
scene, also with Muhammedi's
name, is in London, while a third
is in a private collection.'*''

All four drawings employ the
same group of musicians, the
dancing pair wearing tall hats and
the two men in animal skins. In
the Leningrad example, the single
dancer with dangling sleeves is
placed on the top of the folio and
another figure attired in goatskin
is added to the center of the scene;
in the London copy, the single
dancer is omitted and one of the
men clad in an animal skin is re-
versed; in the third version, there
is an additional musician as well
as another dancer. The Freer draw-
ing is closer in composition to the
Leningrad example, but the dan-
cers are organized in a more struc-
tured manner, forming a semi-
circle leading to the musicians;
the settmg is more detailed with
elaborate elements filling the
landscape.

19- Youth with a Wine Cup

Signed by Riza-i Abbasi
Iran, Safavid period, early 17th
century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with magenta, blue

and green
Page; 29.5 x 18.5 cm.

(115/8 X 71/4 m.)
Drawing: 13. 5 x 8.9 cm.

(5^/6 X 31/2 in.)
28. 10

The drawing of a kneeling youth
offering a cup of wine is pasted on
an album leaf mounted on
cardboard. The leaf, tinted beige
and decorated with gold, depicts a
landscape with pairs of predators
and their prey — such as a lion and
gazelle, fox and goat and lion and
hare. The animals appear on the
top, right and bottom portions of
the folio; the left margin has been
trimmed to the edge of the draw-
ing. The drawing is framed by a
series of gold, blue, green and
white lines around which is a
border of gold-speckled beige
paper, enclosed by additional gold
lines.

The youth wears a gold embroi-
dered magenta cap with a blue
feathery top; his sash is striped in
green, blue and gold while a gold
collar and a series of gold buttons
adorn his garment. The landscape
elements — a willowy tree and
clusters of grass and flowers — are
rendered in gold, as are the shal-
low cup in his extended hand and
the tall-necked wine bottle on the
lower left. The signature, placed
along the lower edge, reads;
"drawing by Riza-i Abbasi."

The figure is placed firmly on the
ground, kneeling on a piece of
cloth. Arrested movement of this
type is rare among the single-
figure representations by the
artist.

54

Riza's single-page album paint-
ings often portray aloof figures
who seem to possess dream-like or
other-worldly qualities. The same
controlled line, soft modeling and
drapery folds with crisp and agi-
tated edges also appear in the two
signed paintings by Riza owned
by the Freer Gallery of Art (32.9
and 54.24, nos. 19A and 19B).
The painting which portrays a
young woman holding a fan is
signed: "the work of Aka Riza"
(no. 19A). The library seal of
Shah Abbas with the date 1587,
the year of his accession to the
Safavid throne, appears on the
portrait and helps to date the
painting. This example, executed
shortly after Riza joined the court
of Shah Abbas, is probably one of
his earliest works. The other
painting represents a reclining
nude wrapped in a diaphanous
sheet; she has fallen asleep or is
daydreaming at the edge of the
water while reading a book of
verses (no. 19B). The signature,
written above her neatly placed
slippers, reads: "the work of
Riza." Both paintings, formerly
in imperial albums, are mounted
on folios adorned with illumi-
nated bands or verses of poetry.
Both the reclining nude and the
portrait of the woman holding a
fan, were made during the last two
decades of the I6th century and
predate the drawing of the kneel-
ing youth with a wine cup by sev-
eral years.

19A. Woman with a Fan

Signed by Aka Riza

Iran, Safavid period, ca. 1590

G2.9)

Riza's signatures have caused
some confusion among scholars,
since he uses "Riza," "Aka Riza"
and "Riza-i Abbasi." It was gen-
erally believed that during the
earlier part oi his career he pre-
ferred "Riza," then changed to
"Aka Riza" and finally, in homage
to his patron, added "Abbasi" to
his name. There has also been
some discussion as to whether all
three signatures actually belonged
to the same artist. However, judg-
ing from the dated examples ot
Riza's work in the Freer album, it
appears that he used different ver-
sions ot his name without any
chronological or logical sec]uence.
For instance, both "Riza-i Ab-
basi" and "Aka Riza" are used on
two examples made in 1639 (nos.
.31 and 33).

Generally Riza's paintings bear
the phrase niashaka-hu , "painted
by," and his drawings are in-
scribed rakimu-hu. "drawn (or
sketched) by." This is the case
with the tinted drawing of the
youth with a wine cup as well as
with other examples includecf in
the album (nos. 27-33). On these
drawings he frequently uses the
phrase rakm-i kainina, "drawn by
the humble servant," which pre-
cedes his name.

19B. Reclining Nude

Signed by Riza

Iran, Safavid period, ca. 1590

(54.24)

56

20. Man with a Wine Cup

Signed by an anonymous follower
ot Riza

Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with blue
Page: 36.5 x 24 cm.

{\4V8 X in.)
Drawing: 11.4 x 8 cm.

(41/2 X 3'Xh in.)
07.2

The drawing of a kneelmg man is
pasted on an album sheet which
has a poem of four lines enhanced
by delicate illumination on the
reverse. Written on an angle in a
fine nastalik, the verses are signed
by Hasan Shamlu.*^

Each side of the folio is decorated
with gold marginal drawings on a
pink ground. The reverse depicts
a hawk hunting a goose on the
top while a fox chases a rabbit be-
low; willowy trees and a hawk
adorn the sides.

The margins around the drawing
are filled with clusters of carna-
tions, tulips, hyacinths, irises and
primroses with butterflies and in-
sects hovering around them. Blue
and gold lines are drawn around a
frame of scrolling gold leaves
which enclose the drawing and
the four lines of poetry.

The drawing, executed on brown
paper, shows a bearded man kneel-
ing on the ground holding a wine
bottle and a cup with several pears
placed in front. Gold is applied to
the cup as well as to the clouds
and shrubs in the background.
The only other color in the scene
is blue which appears in the lin-
ing of the man's sleeve.

The inscription, placed above the
cup, is mterpreted as: "copied by
the slave (or follower) of Riza-i
Abbasi." The figure represented
appears to be a dervish, wearing a
12-gored cap under his turban
and a long stole wrapped around
his shoulders. The poetry on the
top and bottom ot the portrait re-
fers to a sheykh who was once
averse to the pleasures of wine but
finally succumbed and became
boisterously drunk. Album folios
were often composed with paint-
ings and poetry which expressed
similar sentiments, providing pic-
torial and verbal versions of the
same theme.

57

21. Old Man in a Landscape
Iran, Safavid period, early 17th
century

Black line on paper; tinted with
red

Page: 24.4 x 15.8 cm.

iWs X 61/4 in.)
Drawing: 11.6 x 6.8 cm.

(41/2

67.7

in.)

This drawing, surrounded by a
gold-flecked blue sheet and en-
closed by several gold, blue and
white lines, is mounted on blank
cardboard. The tigure is drawn in
sharp and swiftly executed black
lines while the landscape elements
in the background are rendered
with softer brush strokes. Touches
of red appear only on the face of
the old man, modeling his cheeks
and defining his lips.

The figure is represented in an
exaggerated position, leaning
back against a tree trunk while
extending his right hand. It is
possible that this drawing is un-
finished and the personage was
meant to hold an object in his
hand.

The technique and style of execu-
tion are very close to those of
Riza; this scene was either
sketched by him or made by one
of his close followers.

58

22. Two Youths Embracing

Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper; tinted with
red, blue, green and white

Page: 33.4 x 22.9 cm.
(131/8 X 9 in.)

Drawing: 22.9 x 13. 9 cm.
(9 x 5!/2 m.)

54.28

The back of this album leaf con-
tains an illuminated quatrain
written in nuitalik by Muhammed
Huseyin al-Tabrizi, the renowned
calligrapher who was placed in
charge of the inscriptions on gov-
ernment buildings and gates dur-
ing the reign ot Ismail II.''*' He is
said to have taught calligraphy to
Riza.

The tinted drawing is enclosed by
thin red, blue, green and gold
lines, with a wide yellow and red
border added at a latet date. It
depicts two embracing youths, a
subject with erotic implication
not uncommon for the period.
The arms of the youths are around
each other, their embrace accen-
tuated by the engulfing stoles.
The intertwined branches of the
tree in the background, the two
different types of plants and a pair
of bottles in the foreground can be
interpreted as subtle references to
the relationship of the youths.

A touch ot red is added to the lips
of the figure on the left; blue is
applied to the lining of the gar-
ments, one of the wide sashes and
the scalloped collar of the tall-
necked bottle; green appears on
the stole of the youth on the
right. The use of white — on the
headdress, shoes, stripes of the
sash and the knife — is rather un-
usual and rarely occurs on the
other drawings of the period. The
cup held by one of the figures and
the tall-necked bottle in the fore-
ground are also rendered in white,
suggesting that they are porcelain
or high-fired wares.

59

23. Prince Seated on a Rock

Iran, Safavid period, 17th century

Black line and gold on paper
Page: 42 x 28.8 cm,

(161/2 X 113/8 in.)

Drawing: 21 x 11.6 cm.

(8!/4 x4%6 m.)
68.11

One side of this album leaf repre-
sents a youthful prince seated on a
rock while the other contains a
Mughal tinted drawing depicting
lovers. The leaf is crudely de-
signed with damaged strips of
calligraphy pasted around a garish
red and yellow border.

The prince is attired in the gar-
ments of Shah Tahmasp's reign
with a tapered turban wound
around a thin and tall cap. Two
different types of feathers adorn-
ing the headdress and the richly
embroidered coat suggest that the
subject is of noble birth. The
casual manner in which the prince
sits — crossing his right leg over
the other after having removed
one shoe, his coat partially off
with only one sleeve over his
shoulder — also points to mid-
I6th century traditions, indicat-
ing that the drawing was copied
from an earlier model. It is possi-
ble that the subject represents
Shah Tahmasp himself.

The figure holds a wine bottle and
cup, while watching an enter-
tainer dressed in goatskin who
dances and plays clappers. There
is a tray of fruit in the back-
ground.

Gold is used to depict the land-
scape elements, and appears on
the coat and such metallic
portions of the figure's costume as
the buttons, belt and jewelry on
the turban. The vessels — wine
bottle, cup and tray — are also
rendered in gold.

60

24. Woman with a Large Jar
Signed by Muhammed Muhsin
Iran, Safavid period, dated 1649

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red and blue
Page: 33 x 21.7 cm.

(13 X S'Xo in.)
Drawing; 21.1 x 10. 1 cm.

(SViii X 4 in.)
12.99

The margins of this folio arc deco-
rated with arabesques containing
animal heads and cartouches sten-
ciled in red on a blue ground. The
leaf, mounted on blank card-
board, contains two gold-flecked
stripes placed on either side of the
drawing.

The illustration represents a
young woman carrying a large
single-handled jar, swaying ele-
gantly under its weight. An
elaborately knotted sash encircles
her waist while a long stole
wrapped around her torso ripples
behind. Her dress is embroidered
with gold cloud motifs. Gold is
also used on an ornament hanging
on her forehead and in the tree,
clouds, clusters of grass and blos-
soms adorning the background.
Touches of red appear in the
woman's beaded necklace, shoes
and undergarment, while blue is
added to the lining and buttons ot
her dress and to the stripes in her
sash. The jar, inspired by Chinese
porcelains, is decorated with a
blue branch around which a pair
of red-winged birds fly. The scal-
loped ring around the neck and
the fancy handle suggest that the
artist took certain liberties in rep-
resenting a Ming dynasty ware
(see also no. 17).

The inscription on the upper right
of- the composition reads: "draw-
ing by Muhammed Muhsin,"
below which is the date 1059
Hi|ra, or 1649 A.D. An identical
drawing, bearing the same date,
was recently sold in London. It
seems remarkable that the artist
executed two versions of the scene
in the same year. Drawings by
this artist are extremely rare; the
only other known example is in-
cluded in the exhibition (no. 25).

/'

I,

y / / A /////'

/ hi; \ \^mih

'1 ii

>

25. Dervish and His Disciple

Signed by Muhammed Muhsin
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black hne on paper; tinted with

red, blue and yellow
Page: 19.3 x 12 cm.

(75/8 x4"Xh in.)
Drawing: 16.8 x 9.3 cm.

(65/8 X 35/8 in.)
47.23

The second drawing bearing the
name of Muhammed Muhsin is
mounted on blank cardboard and
framed with pink and beige
panels adorned with gold motifs.
The finely drawn scene represents
a bearded dervish seated at the
foot of a tree, smoking a water
pipe held by a youthful disciple.
A body of water ripples in the
foreground, its shore lined with
rocks and vegetation. The luxuri-
ously foliated tree gracefully ex-
tends to the upper portion of the
folio with decorative clouds and
birds filling the background.

Washes of red appear in the tree
trunk, the disciple's cap, the
water pipe, and on the sheet
below the dervish; blue is used on
the youth's garment and in the
dervish's hat; yellow appears on
the disciple's stole and scarf,
around his master's hat and in the
leaves of the tree.

The inscription, placed in the
center of the drawing, next to the
tree, reads "Muhammed Muhsin."
Although there is some difference
in the style of writing of this sig-
nature as compared with that on
tJie previous example, the execu-
tion of the clouds and birds and of
the folds and ripples in the stoles
worn by the figures in both works
support the .ittribution to
Muhammed Muhsin.

^'1 \

62

26. Monkey Riding a Lion

Signed by Muin Musavvir

Iran, Sahivid period, dated 1672

Black line on paper; tinted with

red and yellow
Page: 22.5 x 16.2 cm.

(8Vs X GVi in.)
Drawing: 13.5 x 7 cm.

(5'/a X 23/4 in.)
66.13

Muin Musawir, the most talented
follower of Riza, was as prolific a
painter as his master. His draw-
ings reveal an excellent control ol
line and an interest in original
subject matter This example,
which represents a trained mon-
key riding a tame lion, is
mounted on a blank cardboard
with unattractive red and blue
borders added at a later ciate.

The monkey wears a pointed yel-
low cap and carries a banner and a
shield tinted red. Red also appears
on the tongue ot the lion strolling
in the landscape. The lengthy in-
scription placed on an angle across
the top of the drawing reads: "on
Wednesday, the 4th of the month
of Shavval, in the propitious year
1082 (February 3, 1672), this was
drawn for an album, Muin
Musawir (that is, Muin, the
painter) drew it, may God forgive
him, may it be auspicious." The
wording and precise datmg are
consistent with the inscriptions
found on contemporary drawings
(see nos. 27-46).

-if-

/

/

f

V 7

This drawing was executed during
the middle ot Muin's career
which, according to known dated
examples, spanned the years be-
tween 1635 and 1707. One of his
earliest works, dated 1638, is also
included in the exhibition
(no. 34).

This example, rendered in an ex-
tremely free and lively manner, is
one of his best drawings. It de-
picts a unique subject in which
trained animals were used by en-
tertainers, falling into the same
genre depicted in numbers 18
and 23.

27. Man Scratching His Head

From the RiZii-i Ahkisi Album
Signed by Riza

Iran, Safavid period, dated 1598

Black hne on paper

11.7 X 7 cm. (45/8 X 2% in.)

53.12

One ot Riza's earliest drawings
represents a man who has removed
his large turban and is scratching
his head in a preoccupied manner.
The figure, portrayed with earthy
naturalism and humor, is attired
in a long garment held at the
waist by a wide sash.

The long inscription states that it
was made: "in Meshhed, at end of
Friday, 10th of Muharrem, 1007
(August 14, 1598) for Mirza
Khojegi, in his house, by Riza."
Single-page drawings commis-
sioned by wealthy citizens often
have similar lengthy comments
inscribed by the artists, giving
the precise date and place of
execution.

This example was made under the
most auspicious circumstances: in
the city of Meshhed, venerated for
its holy shrines; during Muhar-
rem, the most sacred month of
the year; and on Friday, the day of
rest and worship for the Muslims.
The patron, Mirza Khojegi, was
probably a highly devout person,
and the figure most likely repre-
sents one of the Meshhed
pilgrims.

>

64

28. Puzzle Drawing of Horses

From the Riza-i Abhasi Album

Signed by Riza-i Abbasi

Iran, Saflivid period, dated 1616

Black line on paper

12 X 15.4 cm. (AVa X 6'/ti in.)

53.23

Puzzle sketches of two horses
joined so as to represent two pairs
were popular during the 17th
century. The inscription at the
bottom of the sheet is written in a
style which differs from the
handwriting found on Riza's other
drawings. It reads: "9th of Shav-
val, 1025 (October 20, 1616), by
Riza-i Abbasi."

Two later inscriptions added to
the right margin can be partially
deciphered and contain the name
of a former owner, Mirza Abu'l-
Kasim, and the date 1297 Hijra,
or 1879 A.D. This information is
quite significant, since it indicates
that the ablum could not have
been compiled before that date.

,3

29. Man with a Spindle

From the Riza-i Ahbasi Album

Signed by Riza-i Abbasi

Iran, Safavid period, dated 1633

Black line on paper; tinted with

red, mauve and green
n.6 X 6.2 cm. (AVif. x 2'/ih in.)
5'3.25

The tinted drawing represents a
man wearing a fur-brimmed hat
and baggy pants, spinning thread
from a piece of wool wrapped
around his arm. His hat and pants
are tinted green, the wool and
spool of thread are painted red,
and the fur brim on his headdress
is rendered in mauve.

The inscription on the right half
of the sheet states that the draw-
ing was made; "on Saturday, 1 1th
ofRajab, 1042 (January 22,
1633), tor a renowned physician
named Shamsa, 'the Galen of his
time,' by Riza-i Abbasi."

The outlines of the figure are per-
forated, suggesting that it was
used as a stencil. It is highly un-
likely that a finished drawing,
specifically commissioned by a
physician, would have been used
as a stencil. It is possible that the
perforations were done at a later
date, after the dtawing had
changed hands.

30. Shah Abbas and a Cupbearer

From the Riza-i Ahhan Alhuni

Signed by Riza-i Abbasi

Iran, Safavid period, dated 1638

Black line on paper; tinted with
red

12.4 X 9 cm. (4% x 3^/6 in.)
53.27

A distinguished figute with a
long drooping mustache sits in a
kneeling position next to a tree;
in front of him is a piece of fabric
with fruit, tall-necked bottles and
jars. A youthful attendant pours
wine from a bottle into a small
cup, ready to offer it to the seated
personage. The scene is executed
in black line with red applied
only to the turban of the main
figure. The inscription states that
the drawing was made on:
"Wednesday, 10th of Safar, 1048
(June 23, 1638), by Riza-i
Abbasi."

The figure with a feather attached
to his turban resembles Shah Ab-
bas. However, the death of the
shah predates the inscription on
the drawing by nine years. Either
the inscription was added at a
later period, or this sketch was
made after the death of Shah Ab-
bas, to honor his memory.

66

31. Youth Filling Wine Bottles

From the Riza-i Abhasi Album

Signed by Riza-i Abbasi

Iran, Satavid period, dated 1639

Black line on paper

13.5 X 10.6 cm. (5^/6 x 4''Ks m.)

5.V28

The drawing depicting a youth
tilling a bottle from a large wine
jar contains two inscriptions. On
the upper right is a statement
which reads: "drawing by the
humble Riza-i Abbasi"; the other,
on the bottom, states that it was:
"made on the night leading to the
8th of Ramazan, 1048 (January
12-13, 1639)."

The scene was rapidly sketched
and depicts a variety of jars and
bottles together with a bowl of
fruit placed at the foot of a tree;
rocks and vegetation cover the
ground while decorative clouds
appear in the sky. The saki, or
cupbearer, rests the single-handled
large jar on his knee, pouring its
contents into a funnel placed on
the lip of one of the bottles. The
figure wears a large turban with
crisp folds and two curly locks fall
on either side of his face. He is
characteristic ot the type of youth
frequently represented in Riza's
drawings.

The jar has a scalloped ring
around the neck and is decorated
with a branch and two birds,
similar to the one seen in number
24.

^■^ '

67

32. Man with a Large Turban

From the Riza-i Ahhasi Album
Signed by Riza-i Abbasi
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black and red hnes on paper
16 X 8.7 cm. li in.)

5.V29

A beardless figure with a large
turban sits in a kneeling position,
surrounded by sketchy landscape
elements — includmg rocks, clus-
ters of flowering shrubs and scal-
loped clouds. He has a wine cup
in one hand and holds a fruit in
the other.

Black line is used on the figure
and the inscription, while the set-
ting is rendered in brownish red.
The inscription, almost hidden
amidst the shrubs and rocks on
the right, states that the drawing
was made by: "the humble Riza-i
Abbasi."

68

33- Camp Scene

From the Riza-i Ahhaii Album

Signed by Aka Riza

Iran, Satavid period, dated 1639

Black line on paper

12.8 X 7.8 cm. CbVi^ x iVi6 in.)

53.34

This detailed depiction ot a
nomadic camp shows a tent with a
woman spinning wool in the tore-
ground; a donkey with a camel
and a man with a child are par-
tially visible behind the tent. An
older figure wearing a tur-lined
coat and hat converses with a rider
in the background while another
man carries a large bowl next to
the tree on the upper left.

The inscription across the top ol
the folio states that the drawing
was made by Aka Riza tor the
treasury of his "Highness, " which
must refer to Shah Safi I who
ruled between 1629 and 1642.
The second inscription, on the
upper left, gives the date:
"Wednesday, 5th of Shavval,
1048 (February 9, 1639)."

This scene is the only one in the
album with an inscription specifi-
cally stating that it was made tor
the court.

34. Portrait of a Youth

From the Riza-/ Ahhuit Alht/m

Signed by Muina

Iran, Satavid period, dated l6.-^8

Black Hne on p
red

1 1.6 X 8.4 cm.

iper:

tinted with

(4"X(i X yV\t\ in.)

This portrait, executed on Friday,
the 20th of Ramazan, 1047 (Feb-
ruary 5, 1638), in the house of a
nobleman whose name could not
be deciphered, is the only one in
the album by Muin Musavvir,
who has signed the drawing as
"Muina. " It is one of the earliest
works ol the artist whose name
appears on two other drawings
from the same collection (nos. 37
and 44).

Muin was the most talented of
Riza's students. He exectited a
number of manuscript illustra-
tions as well as single-page draw-
ings and paintings during his
long career which spanned the
period from the 1630s to the first
decade of the 18th century.

The portrait is drawn in black line
with red tints applied to the sub-
ject's lips, cap and striped under-
shirt; a red line also accentuates
the contour ot his torso.

70

35. Singing Bird

From the Riza-i Ahhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, dated 1619

Black line on paper

8.7 X 14.7 cm. (3'Xii x S'-Xk in.)

53.24

The inscription covering the left
half ot the drawing states that it
was made on: "Friday, 2nd of
Zu'l-Kada, 1028 (October 1,
1619), in the house ot 'the Galen
of his time,' the physician Saifa,
by his order. ..." The remaining
words could not be read.

The wording is similar to that
found on the drawing of a man
spinning thread, also made for a
physician called "the Galen of his
time" (no. 29). Obviously, medi-
cal practitioners of the period
were wealthy enough to afford the
works ot popular artists.

This example depicts a small bird
perched on rocks from which
sprays ot weeds grow. The bird's
open beak suggests the artist in-
tended to illustrate a bird in the
midst of song. Similar long-tailed
birds with parted beaks appear on
several other drawings from the
same album (nos. 45, 56, 57 and
58).

71

36. Youth with a Wine Bottle

From the Rtzij-i Ahhusi Album
Iran, Safavid period, dated 1638

Black line on paper

16.3 X 9.4 cm. (6V\ti X 3"/iK in.)

53.26

A youth holding a tall-necked
wine bottle extends a small cup
while kneeling on the ground; a
spray of branches decorates the
background. The youth wears a
soft feathery hat and has a flower
tucked into his wide sash. The
exaggerated drapery on the edges
of his cuffs and hem, the articu-
lated folds of his sash and the
cloth beneath his knees are charac-
teristic of the brushwork of the Is-
fahan school .

The inscription on the left has
been partially deciphered and
states that this drawing was made
on Friday, the ninth of Muhar-
rem, 1048 (May, 1638), in the
orchard of a personage whose
name could not be read. The date
is confusing, since Friday was the
seventh day of Muharram. Either
the inscription was added at a
later time, or the artist confused
the date, which is a common
human error.

72

57. Seated Man (top)

Reclining Man (bottom)
From the Riza-i Ahluiu Album
Itan, Sat.wid period, dated 1639

Black line on paper
Top: 11.8 X 6.9 cm.

(45/8 X 2/4 in.)

Bottom: 6.2 x 11.9 cm.
(2'/.; X 4"/k m.)

5_V30

The two drawmgs, executed on
varying tones of paper by two dif-
ferent hands, are mounted on the
same folio. The example on the
top depicts a bearded man in a
landscape with sheets of paper, a
pair of bowls and his spectacles
lying on the ground. It is pasted
sideways on the page.

The drawing on the lower half of
the folio is tar more refined and
represents a bareheaded,
barefooted man reclining against a
tree stump. His hair and beard are
untrimmed and his clothes are
slightly unkempt. He holds a
cane in his hand and is gazing
wearily into blank space. The in-
scription above the figure states
that the drawing was made on:
"Friday, 15th of Satar, 1049
(June 17, 1639), in the domain of
my brother's shelter, Aka
Muina." The wording of the in-
scription suggests that the draw-
ing was made in the house of
Muin Musawir.

It}

.... .. /

38. Sketch for Layla va Majnun

From thf Riza-i Ahhdsi Album
Iran, Sahivid pcruxl, dated 1639

Bl.ick lint- on paper

1/1. 1 X 7.7 cm. (5'K6 X 3'/6 in.)

53.33

The album contains several
sketches made tor manuscript
illustrations, amon^ which is this
example depicting an episode
from Nizami's love story of Layla
and Ma] nun. The scene shows the
emaciated Majnun conversing
with his uncle while surrounded
by the wild and tame animals
which befriended him in the wil-
derness. The incomplete drawing
of two rabbits on the lower left
suggests that the work was not
finished. There are several
purplish stains on the paper.

The inscription on the Lipper left
reads: "on Thursday, on the 6th of
Shavval, in the year 1048 (Febru-
ary 10, 1639), this was made."

S. NT

74

39. Mughal Official (left)

Seated Man (right)
From the Riza-i Ahkisi Album
Iran, Satavid period, dated 1641

Black and red lines on paper;

tinted with green and white
Left: 9.9 X 6.7 cm.

(3'-'/6 X 25/8 in.)
Right; 9.7 X 7. 1 cm.

(3'^/6x2'-%6 m.)
53. 14

The drawing on the left represents
a Mughal official standing with
his arms extended. The figure,
drawn in black, wears the tradi-
tional garments of the Indian
court. The inscription states that
the drawing was made on Tues-
day, 12th of Shavval, 1050 (Janu-
ary, 1641). Either the day of the
week or the date is incorrect,
since Tuesday fell on the ninth or
16th of Shawal in 1050 Hijra.
The same inconsistency occurs on
two other inscriptions (nos. 36
and 40). This personage possibly
represents Khan Alam, who was
sent by Jahangir to the court of
Shah Abbas in 1618-19.

The other drawing is executed in
red with green washes used in the
turban and in the lining ot the
coat and pants; the handkerchief
lying across the figure's lap is
painted white. The roguish-
looking man is shown seated with
his wrists crossed, almost as if
bound and imprisoned.

75

40. Old Man Holding a Staff

From the Riza-! Ahkiu Album
Iran, Satavid period, dated 1641

Black line on paper
10.8 X 7.3 cm. (41/4 x 27
5 3.. 39

in.)

According to the inscription, this
drawing was made on Tuesday,
the 12th of Shavval, 1050 (Janu-
ary, 1641), after an Indian work.
As in the previous inscription, the
statement contains an inconsis-
tency between the day of the week
and the date of the month, Tues-
day being the ninth or 16th of
Shavval.

It is difficult to imagine the "In-
dian" model that was used for this
portrait, since the figure type, the
costume and the style of execution
are characteristic of the mid-
17th-century school of Isfahan.

76

41. Lxjvers

From the Riza-i Ahbasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, dated 1642

Black line on paper

13.2 X 6.8 cm. (5-Kti X 2"/{h in.)

53.41

One of the finest drawings in the
album represents a handsome
couple, executed in soft but con-
trolled lines. The man has a long
drooping mustache and wears the
turban of the age; his consort
wears a small cap tied at the back
and a thin ring on her nostril.
The harmonious relationship of
the figures reflect their emotional
attachment.

The extremely sketchy inscription
above the figures is partially read-
able and states that the drawing
was made "in the night of Thurs-
day, 1 1th of Muharrem, 1052
(April V-1(J, 1642), in a lane
(?) . . ."; the identification ot the
location could not be established.

42. Polo Player

From the Rna-i Ahkisi Album
Iran, Sat.ivid period, d.ucd 1642

Black and red lines on paper;
tinted with purple, blue and
green

15.7 X 10.3 cm. X 4'/6 m.)
53.44

There are several tinted drawings
in the album which indicate that
they were finished products. This
scene represents a polo player ren-
dered in fiiU color, galloping on a
lively horse with craggy rocks,
tree stumps and bushes rising on
the horizon. A group of rocks
with foliated plants appears in the
foreground while rippled clouds
decorate the sky. A feeling of
depth is created by the position of
the horse and rider; they are
shown from the back, turning
into the picture in a spiral
movement.

The young rider wears a fur-
brimmed cap and a green outfit
lined with blue. Black and red
lines are used interchangeably: the
latter are employed to draw the
landscape elements in the back-
ground as well as the outlines of
the horse.

The inscription above the rocks
merely states that the drawing
was made in the middle of Sha-
ban, 1052 (November, 1642).

78

43. Wolf Hunter

From the Riza-i Ahhusi Album
Iran, Sahwid period, dated 1642

Black and red lines on paper
8.7 X 16.6 cm. (33^6 x 6'Xs m.)
53.45

Similar to the previous drawing,
this scene depicts a galloping
rider in a landscape. The figure
moves horizontally across the pic-
ture frame, shooting at two rather
unperturbed wolves partially hid-
den behind the rocks. The rider
wears a fur-brimmed hat and
twists into the picture, his torso
shown from the back. An embroi-
dered quiver hangs from his side
while two arrows are stuck in his
belt.

The drawing is executed in black
brush strokes with red lines used
exclusively on the horse.

In contrast to the other inscrip-
tions found in the album, this
date is written out and given in
digits: "on Friday, 27th of Sha-
ban, thousand and fifty-two,
1052 (November 22, 1642)."

79

44. Shepherd in the Mountains

From the Riza-i Ahkisi Album
Ir.in, Safavicl period, dated 1643

Black line on paper; tinted with

polychrome colors
6 X 10.5 cm. (2y8 X 41/H in.)
53.48

The miiULSCule scene depicts a
weaty shepherd seated on a rock,
resting against a rugged moun-
tain; his dog lies at the foot of a
tree while several goats and sheep
peer over a hill. The artist lias
drawn the forms with great deli-
cacy and made extensive use of
colored washes in the landscape
and on the figure. The hues are
quite extensive, inducting various
tones of red, blue, green, mauve,
brown and gray.

The inscription has been partially
deciphered and reads: "on Satur-
day, I6th of Rabi II, on that day
said (?) Muina . . . and thus this
drawing was made in the year
1053 . " The date given corre-
sponds to July 4, 1643. The
casual and narrative manner in
which the date is rendered is
characteristic of 17th-century
inscriptions.

80

45. Old Man with a Cane
From the Riza-i Abhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper

13.5 X 5.6 cm. (5^/h X 2'Kfi in.)

53.16

This portrait of an elderly man
wearing a voluminous turban and
a long coat is an excellent charac-
ter study. The face is highly ex-
pressive with twinkling eyes and a
benevolent smile. The figure
stands in front of a high hill with
rocks, plants and a solitary bird
added to the background.

Accordmg to the inscription on
the lower left, the drawing was
made in Herat on the 10th of
Safar; the year of execution is
omitted.

■ ; ' f

81

46. Two Hunters with a Falcon
From the Riza-i Ahhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Red Ime on bluish-green paper;

tmted with bkie and yellow
13.4 X 21.7 cm. (9A(, x SVin m.)
53.46

A dramatic movement is created
by the two riders who gallop to-
wards the stteam, their horses and
fierce falcon arousing a group of
cranes. The sweeping movement
of men, horses and birds is coun-
teracted by an articulated tree
which curves gracefully over the
scene, creating a revolving and
self-contained composition.

One ot the hunters is a middle-
aged man with a mustache and a
short beard; he wears a split-
brimmed hat and carries a quiver
filled with arrows. The other is a
younger figure who wears a feath-
ered cap and holds the stting of a
flying decoy. The ferocious hawk
swoops down on its prey; five of
the cranes have been alerted and
hurriedly take flight while two
others still paddle in the water.

The scene is full of details accen-
tuating the movement, such as
trailmg clouds and softly bent
branches which follow the direc-
tion of the riders. In spite of a
multitude of elements, the scene
is spaciously and carefully
composed.

The use of tinted paper is rather
unusual although red Imes were
used on other examples in the
album (nos. 48 and 57).

Smiilar to the legend on the pte-
vious drawing, this inscription
gives only the day and omits the
year; "Monday, 10th of Shaban."

82

47. Man with Spectacles (left)

Shafi al-Abbasi (right)
From the Riza-i Ahhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid-!7th
century

Black line on paper; tinted with

red; white lead applied tor

corrections
Left: 10.8 x 8.3 cm.

(41/4 X 3^/6 in.)
Right: 10.4 X 6 cm.

(41/8 X 23/8 in.)
53.17

The drawing on the left is a re-
markable study of a slightly over-
weight elderly man who wears
spectacles and holds a pad under
his arm. The sketch was corrected
with white lead which has discol-
ored and appears as dark gray.
This technical feature is also
found on a number of other draw-
ings included in the album. The
corrected and original lines of cet-
tain parts of the figure are still
visible, especially in the hands
and legs.

The accompanying drawing repre-
sents a seated youth, resting his
drawing pad on his knee; working
with a fine brush, he is painting a
flower. Red is applied to the fur-
brimmed hat of the young artist
as well as to the petals ot his
flower.

The inscription on the sheet with
the old man identifies the young
artist as "Shafi al-Abbasi."
Muhammed Shafi Abbasi was
Riza's son and excelled in the
painting of flowets.

it has been suggested that the
drawing ot the old man is a selt-
portrait of Riza who also executed
the portrait of his son.

83

48. Old Man Leaning on a Staff

From the Riza-t Ahhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Red line on paper

11.6 X 7.9 cm. (4'K« X .^1/8 in.)

5.V40

This unfinished drawing portrays
a bearded man in a landscape, his
hands held high as if leaning on a
staff which has been omitted.

The fine brushwork in the repre-
sentation of the figure and the
hills in the background suggest
that the artist was a close follower
of Riza. His indebtedness to his
teacher's brushwork is particularly
noticeable in the agitated strokes
around the edges of the stole and
the turban.

84

49. Dervish with a Cat

From the Rrza-i Abhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black hne on paper

9.2 X 5.1 cm. (3% X 2 m.)

53.31

This drawing, which depicts a
dervish seated in front of a tree
with a large cat perched on his
back, charactetizes the production
of the school of Isfahan . The
bearded figure wears a rounded
cap under his turban and a long-
sleeved garment, the cutis of
which extend over his hands. Two
bowls and several pieces of fruit
appear in the foreground.

The dervish bends over under the
weight of the cat; his movement
is counterbalanced by the tree
trunk which extends in the oppo-
site direction and is repeated by
the barren branches. The rounded
mass ot the Hgure is contrasted by
the sketchy and linear execution
of the background.

50. Hunchback with a Bowl
From the Riza-i Abbasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
centu ry

Black line on paper

10.8 x 6.7 (41/4 x 25/8 in.)

53.32

The drawing portrays a bearded
hunchback who struggles with a
large bowl, straining to lift it. By
placing the image against an
empty background, the artist ac-
centuated the pathos of the de-
formed figure who has reconciled
himself to hardship and has ac-
cepted his tate.

Riza and his followers frequently
executed studies of humble
workmen and poor people, reflect-
ing a social strata which differed
considerably from the upper
classes.

51. Young Man Holding Flowers

From the Rizu-i Ahlnisi Album
Iran, Sahivid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper

15.1x8.5 cm. (5'''>ifi x 3^8 in.)

53.22

This example represents an ele-
gant courtier, wearing an elabo-
rate turban adorned with feathers
and attired in a coat embroidered
with animals and landscape
motifs. The figure kneels on the
ground and holds a spray ot flow-
ers. A tapered penknife hangs
from his sash into which a hand-
kerchief is tucked.

This type ot pose was almost a
formula used by artists in portray-
ing the young dandies of the
court. Similar single-page draw-
ings and paintings were executed
in the I6th century and continued
to be produced up to the end of
the Safavid period (nos. 16, 19,
20 and 32).

86

52. Cloth Merchant
From the Riza-i Ahhau Alhi/m
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black Ime on paper

17.1 X 11.5 cm. (6V4 X 4'!

5.^.43

i(i in.)

In addition to representing
workmen, shepherds, wandering
dervishes and courtly figures, the
drawings of the Isfahan school also
portray the wealthy middle
classes. This crisply drawn exam-
ple depicts a bearded merchant
kneeling on a carpet, holding a
length of cloth. Other pieces of
fabric lie on the ground together
with the tools of the merchant's
trade — a pair of scissors, a pen
case and inkwell, several sheets of
paper and some reed pens.

The varying thickness of line
lends a feeling of weight and vol-
ume to the figure; rapidly exe-
cuted strokes define the drapery
and present a contrast between the
volumes and voids in the compo-
sition. The brush strokes on the
turban, shawl, cuffs and samples
of cloth are particularly well ren-
dered, revealing the hand of a
highly competent artist.

A

/

53. Old Man Riding a Zebu

From the Rtza-i Ahlhis: Album
Iran, Sahivid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper

12.2 X 9.9 cm. x y/» in.)

53.13

One ot the most outstanding
drawings in the album represents
a bearded man riding a zebu. The
figure IS executed in soft and deli-
cate strokes which present only
the essential parts of the form.
Similar rapidly applied strokes de-
tine the animal and the landscape
in the background.

The bulky animal striding at a
slow pace and the elderly figure
bent with age are portrayed with
sensitivity as well as naturalism.
The scene projects timelessness
and harmony among man, beast
and nature.

/

88

54. Woman with Flowers (left)
Woman with a Scarf (right)

From the Riza-i Ahhasi Album
Iran, Satavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper

Left: 8x7.1 cm. (Ws x 2''Xb in.)

Rii,'ht: 6. 1x5.6 cm.

(2'Xh X 2'K« in.)
5.^.58

The two studies ot women are
very close in style and were pos-
sibly executed by the same hand.
The sketch on the left represents a
young woman holding flowers;
her flowing tresses are partially
covered with a cap which has a
peaked front and ribbons at the
back; her dress has a low collar
exposing an undershirt and several
beaded necklaces.

In the companion drawing the
head of the woman is covered
with a cap worn over a scarf with
locks of hair framing her face; a
pm adorns the cap. A flower is
tucked into the headdresses of
both ladies.

The figures represent the ideal
female beauty of the age, with a
round lace, small puckered lips
and almond-shaped eyes framed
by heavy eyebrows which join to-
gether at the bridge of the
straight nose.

55. Old Man and Youth

From the Riza-i Ahhasi Alhuiii
Iran, Sahivid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper

12.2 X 12.6 cm. (4''Kk x 5 in.)

5.=i.42

Among the works ot the period
are several drawings with erotic
implications and earthy humor of
the type which were favored by
Riza. This sketch represents a
lecherous old man making an in-
decent and highly suggestive ges-
ture to a youth. The ground be-
tween the personages is filled with
rapidly executed rocks, clusters ol
leaves, flowers and truit.

The incomplete head ot a man
which appears in the middle of
the scene must be a later addition;
his wide-eyed and startled expres-
sion is possibly meant to be a
comment on the assignation that
is about to take place.

- 1 /

yo

56. Rider with Decapitated Enemy

From the Riza-i Ahbast Album
Iran, Safiivid period, mid- 17th
century

Black line on paper

9.6 X 15.8 cm. (3^/6 x 61/4 m.)

53.47

This example, with fine perfora-
tions following the outlines of the
drawing, was used as a stencil.
The drawing depicts a mounted
warrior leading a horse over which
the body of his slain enemy is
thrown. The warrior is in full ar-
mor; he wears an elaborate helmet
decorated with a plume and ban-
ner, carries his shield and weapons
on his back and holds a long spear
on top of which is the severed
head of the enemy.

The hills and vegetation in the
background imply that the scene
takes place in a mountainous and
wooded area. The two pairs of
oversized birds on the left seem
out of place and must have been
added later. This type of bird is
depicted on several other folios
of the album (nos. 35, 45, 57
and 58).

57. Landscape with Animals

From tilt R/Zci-i Ahbau Alhiini
Iran, Safavid period, mid- 17th
century

Black and red hnes on paper
18 4 X 8.3 cm. (714 X in.)
5.^.35

The densely packed scene depicts
a variety of wild animals and birds
peacefully coexisting in nature. In
the foreground, a couple ot wild
goats drink from the stream in
which ducks and fish swim. Be-
hind them are a pair ot toxes and a
family of lions with the female
suckling one cub while playing
with the other. A number ot birds
are perched in the branches of the
two trees on the lower right and
upper left with more swooping
down trom the sky.

The animals are drawn in black
and the landscape elements are
rendered in red. The birds on the
lower and upper right portion ap-
pear to have been corrected using
red over black lines. The drawing
may have been a sketch for a
painting, similar to the next
example.

92

58. Landscape with Animals

From the Riza-i Abhasi Album
Iran, Safavid period, mid-17th
century

Black and red lines on paper
18.8 X 9.4 cm. (7% x 3"/6 in.)
53.36

This drawing, which also repre-
sents animals in a landscape, has
been pierced and was used in
stenciling. In contrast to the pre-
vious example, the scene contains
fewer animals shown in combat.
A fox in the foreground has
caught a terrified crane by its legs
while its mate dives down to at-
tack the intruder. The movements
of the cranes — one trying to as-
cend whereas the other
descends — are repeated by the
clouds in the sky and the leaves of
the tree. The antagonistic be-
havior of the prey and predator
has even affected the birds on the
right which appear to be
quarreling.

With the exception of one branch,
which is drawn in red, the entire
scene is executed in black line.

V-

1| -M

93

59. Shepherd with His Flock

From the Rtza-i Abbasi Album
Iran, Satavid period, mid- 17th
century

Red line on paper

12.2 X 18.4 cm. (A'Vi^ x 71/4 in.)

5.V49

The drawmg recalls the theme
represented on a previous example
which was executed with poly-
chrome tints (no. 44). This scene,
drawn in red, depicts a shepherd
seated on a rock while his flock
grazes along the banks of a stream
which springs from the mountains
on the upper right and flows

diagonally across the folio. A
dense strip of vegetation grows
along the banks of the stream and
a foliated tree appears on the left.
The animals ate rendered with
naturalism, several ewes suckling
or tenderly licking their lambs.
The male members of the flock
are shown with latge horns and
include a ram and goat.

The weary shepherd leans on his
staff, enjoying the peace and tran-
quility of the setting. An imptes-
sion of extetnal solitude and
harmony permeates the scene, re-
sembling the drawing of the old
man riding a zebu (no. 53).

94

60. Sketch for Ytisuf va Zulaykha

From the Rizii-i Abhasi Album
Iran, Safiivid period, mid- 17th
century

Black hne on paper

19.8 X 10.4 cm. (7'->i6 x AVi. m.)

53.37

The sketch depicts two episodes
from the story of Yusuf and
Zulaykha. On the top is youthful
Yusuf, or Joseph, bound in
chains, kneeling on a carpet with
a flaming halo engulfing his head.
Below him are two other pris-
oners, also bound in chains at-
tached to a ring placed around
their necks; these two figures have
additional shackles around their
ankles. A candlestick with a burn-
ing candle placed next to Yusuf
indicates the scene takes place in-
doors and at night.

The episode represented on the
lower portion of the drawmg oc-
curs several years later and
portrays Yusuf as a middle-aged
man. He is sitting in front of a
gate, holding a sword while his
quiver, bow and shield are placed
in the background. The old
woman approaching him is
Zulaykha who tried so hard to
seduce Yusuf in his earlier days.
Two other women witness this
reunion.

The drawing is perforated and
must have been used to transfer
the design to a manuscript
illustratit)n.

i

Drawings from India

Drawings executed in India between the l6th and 18th
centuries reveal several independent schools in the Deccan
and Rajastan in addition to the art of the Mughal court.
Mughal painting, influenced by the Safavid traditions during
its lormative years, soon formed a synthesis ot foreign and
native elements, creating an indigenous style which had an
impact on the development of both Deccani and Rajput
schools.

Similar to the tradition in Iran, Mughal drawings are found
in the marginal decorations of imperial manuscripts as well as
on single sheets incorporated into albums. The most
spectacular examples of marginal drawings appear in the
albums compiled for Jahangir which combine European
themes with local figures and scenes. Due to the fascination
with Christianity on the part of the emperors and the
colonization of Goa by the Portuguese in the beginning of the
l6th century, Western subjects were frequently depicted in
the Mughal court.

The Mughal emperors were equally fascinated with
historiography; the early rulers, including Babur, Jahangir
and Shah Jahan, wrote their own memoirs, while others, like
Akbar, commissioned court biographers to document their
lives. Many of these biographies were illustrated and as a
result of this preoccupation with contemporary history,
portraiture became the most popular form of art. Mughal
albums contain a great number of portraits, many of which
were executed during the lifetime of the subject. The
provincial courts followed the traditions of the capital,
producing studies of single figures or courtly scenes to be
included in albums.

Portraiture was also popular among the Muslim sultans of the
Deccan and the Rajput princes of Rajastan and Punjab. The
court studios of the Deccan produced album drawings
depicting single figures and ceremonial or festive events as
well as Christian anci Hindu subjects.

The Rajput artists were primarily involved in representing
religious themes, particularly the romance of Krishna, the
most revered of the Hindu gods.

'r V i

'A-

* ■ • ^ ' 1

97

Mughal School

Islam was introduced to India in the beginning of the eighth
century with the conquest ot the lower Indus Valley by the
Arabs. During the ensuing centuries, several Muslim
dynasties controlled various regions of the land, establishing
courts in Delhi, Bengal, Kashmir, Gujerat and the Deccan.
The Rajput princes of Hindu faith were autonomous in
northwestern India, governing in Rajastan and Punjab. These
states remained independent imtil the rise of the Mughal
dynasty (1526-1858) which succeeded in uniting the great
subcontinent of India under one regime.

Babur ( 1526-30), the founder of the dynasty, was an outsider
like the other Muslim rulers of India and was born in
Ferghana, now in Soviet Turkestan. He descended from
Timur on his father's side and was related to Genghiz Khan
through his mother. In 1504 Babur swept through
Afghanistan, capturing Kabul and Ghazna; within the
following two decades he was the master of northern India.
He defeated the Muslim sultan of Delhi and the Hindu raja
of Gwalior in 1526, laying the foundation of the Mughal
Empire. The fascinating birth of the new state is narrated in
his memoirs, the Vakiat-i Bahiiri which was originally
written in Turkish, his native tongue, and later translated
into Persian as the Bdhi/rucinie.

The newly established dynasty's problems began soon after
Babur's death. The reign of Humayun (1530-56), was
constantly jeopardized by his ambitious brothers and the
Afghans who seized Bengal and forced the emperor into exile.
Humayun fled to Iran in 1544 and was welcomed by Shah
Tahmasp. The emperor remained in the Safavid court for 10
years, undertaking periodic campaigns to regain his lands
with the aid of the Safavids. In 1554 he recaptured Agra and
Delhi, defeating his treacherous brothers and the troublesome
Afi'hans.

Humayun's residence in Shah Tahmasp's capital had a
considerable impact on the development of Mughal art. The
emperor was exposed to the works of the Safavid artists and
developed a great admiration for the art of painting. He
invited to India two renowned artists from Tabriz, Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad, who became highly influential
during the formative years of the Mughal school of painting.

During the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), the golden age of
India, the empire was reestablished and Mughal art reached
its apogee. Akbar was a genius in administrative matters and
succeeded in keeping his empire intact by employing Rajput
princes in the government. He also married a Hindu princess

and formed a strong family bond between the Rajputs and
the Mughals. Akbar even advocated a new religion, the
Divine Faith, which encompassed all beliefs, and attempted
to keep his empire undivided.

The emperor was intellectually inquisitive and extremely
liberal, welcoming all talented men to his court. In 1563 he
built Fatehpur Sikri, the City of Victory, where Indians of all
backgrounds — ^Jain, Hindu, Muslim, Zoroastrian and
Christian — flocked to his court and enjoyed discussions which
lasted throughout the night. Akbar had Hindu religious
texts, such as the Mahabharata and Ramayaria, translated into
Persian, the court language, and compiled a vast library
which included manuscripts on all topics.

The emperor had a special liking for illustrated books and
established a painting studio comprised of more than 100
artists under the direction of Mir Sayyid and Abd al-Samad.''"
One of the earliest illustrated manuscripts of his reign, the
Tutinanin (Tales of a Parrot), executed around 1560, reveals
the eclectic background of the artists with Hindu and
Muslim painters from Rajastan, Deccan and Central India
working closely together.'''^

Akbar was particularly interested in history and
commissioned a number of illustrated historical works,
including the monumental Hamzaname, the history of Amir
Hamza, the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad;'^" and
Baburname and Akbarnaiiie, biographies of the two founders of
the Mughal Empire.''''^ Due to Akbar's fascination with
historiography, Mughal painting excelled in the
documentation of contemporary events and personages. The
most popular theme was portraiture in which the subject was
represented with an almost photographic likeness. The court
artists also produced albums with single-page paintings and
drawings depicting genre scenes, animal studies and portraits
(no. 6lV

The emperor's reign was not without family problems. His
son. Prince Saiim, later named Jahangir (Conqueror of the
World), was impatient to rule and in 1600 marched to the
capital from Allahabad, where he was serving as the governor.
Although a showdown was prevented and Akbar forgave the
prince, father and son were never fully reconciled.

Jahangir ( 1605-27), who ascended the throne after the death
of his father, continued Akbar's interest in painting but had a
completely different taste. He was a true connoisseur and
preferred soft and delicate paintings in contrast to the
vigorous and dramatic style supported by his father. Jahangir
favored single-page paintings which were compiled into

murakkas, or imperial albums. The contents of these albums
represent the emperor's taste and interest, showing a
predominance of Iranian, Mughal and Deccani paintings as
well as European prints which were frequently copied by the
court artists.

Two of Jahangir's most celebrated albums are in Tehran and
Berlin with a number of detached folios owned by diverse
European and American collections. The Tehran volume,
known as the Murakka-i Giihhan (Gulshan Album) contains
92 lolios and is in the Imperial Library of the Gulistan
Palace. According to the dated examples, it was compiled
between 1599, when Jahangir was still a prince governing
Allahabad, and 1609, slightly after his accession.^"* The
second volume, owned by the Staatsbibliothek in West
Berlin, has 25 folios and is datable between 1608 and
1618."

The albums were compiled in a carefully organized format:
each folio contained an illustration on one side and a sample
of calligraphy on the other; when the folios were collated,
two pages of illustrations faced one another and were followed
by two pages of calligraphy; the wide margins around the
paintings were decorated with arabesc]ues, whereas those
around the text had figural drawings. The figures in these
drawings were rendered in color or tints, placed against a
landscape executed in gold. Some of the drawings contain the
signatures of the best painters of the period, as well as
portraits of artists at work and themes copied from European
prints.'^'' The Freer Gallery of Art owns four folios from the
earlier Jahangir album which are included in the exhibition
(nos. 62-65).

The painters of Jahangir's studio produced a great number of
single-page paintings and drawings which were made for
other less sumptuous albums (nos. 66-69). One of. the
drawings bears an attribution to the most renowned artist of
the court, Abu'l-Hasan, who was given the name of Nadir
al-Zaman (Wonder of the Age) by Jahangir (no. 68).
Abu'l-Hasan was the son of Aka Riza, a well-known painter
who worked in the court and executed somie of the drawings
in the Gulshan album. Abu'l-Hasan was the favorite artist
of Jahangir and portrayed his patron in several album
paintings."''^ He continued working in the studio after the
death of Jahangir and was employed under Shah Jahan.
Although other drawings attributed to Abu'l-Hasan are not
known, there is no reason to doubt that he also worked in
this genre, imitating his father's technique.

Jahangir's son Shah Jahan (1628-58) had spent his early years
in Akbar's court and inherited his family's enthusiasm for the

arts. Like his father, he was the son of a Rajput princess and
highly devoted to his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, for whom the Taj
Mahal was built. Shah Jahan continued to support the
activities of the artists and preferred single-page illustrations
made for albums (no. 7 1).

Similar to the fate of his predecessors, Shah Jahan was
challenged by his son, Aurangzeb, who had him imprisoned
at Agra where he died in 1666. The new ruler, called
Alamgir I (1658-1707), undertook campaigns to the south
leading to the conquest of the Muslim sultanates of the
Deccan in 1686-87. He had the poor judgment to reverse
Akbar's attitude towards the Rajputs, arousing their enmity.
Alamgir's policies weakened the empire, and soon after his
death the Rajput princes as well as the Muslim rulers started
fighting against the Mughals.

The Mughal Empire began a slow and painful decline; the
state was ruled by weak and incompetent emperors and the
outlying provinces gradually slipped away. The imperial
studios diminished and the artists sought employment in the
provincial courts (no. 72-74). In 1738-39 Nadir Shah, the
founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran, invaded Delhi and
took back the treasures of the emperors (no. 75). The Mughal
Empire came to an end in 1858 when the last emperor was
exiled to Burma by the British who had extended their power
into India.

The traditions established by Akbar, both in administrative
and cultural spheres, were so strong that the empire and its
arts took a long time to die. The legends of the Mughals are
very much alive today, and contemporary paintings still
contain vestiges of the past.

61. Babur with Attendants

India, Mughal school, late I6th
century

Black line, gold and silver on
paper; tinted with red, pink,
blue, green and white

19. 1 X 12.2 cm. (71/2 X 4' Kii in.)

54.27

The drawing, which is cropped to
the edge and mounted on heavy
paper, represents a ruler seated on
a canopied platform, attended by
his court. The main personage is
identifieci as Babur, the founder of
the Mughal Empire, bearing a
close resemblance to the emperor's
representations in the Baburnanu:
illustrations. A youthful attendant
stands behind the emperor who
leans against a richly embroidered
cushion while conversing with a
bearded man holding a sheet of
poetry. Seated in front of the plat-
form are a pair of musicians and
several courtiers with attendants.
In the foreground is a pool with a
pair of ducks, surrounded by vari-
ous types of trees and vegetation;
other trees appear in the back-
ground with a large plane tree set
against the rocky mountains.

The secondary elements — the
landscape features, birds, animals
and details ot the garments — are
executed in color and gold. The
carpets and cushion around the
emperor are luxuriously decorated
with vibrant colors accentuated by
gold motifs. Silver appears in the
pool and in the two channels con-
nected to it.

The composition recalls the
scheme for outdoor entertainment
scenes which were frequently de-
picted in the paintings made in
Herat and continued to be pro-
duced in the Tabriz studios. The
influence of Safavid painting was
quite strong during Akbar's reign
when the court atelier was under
the direction ot the masters from

4

102

Tabriz. The same type ot setting
is also seen in contemporary paint-
ings executed in the Mughal
court, particularly in the Akhar-
name illustrations.

Although the composition is
taken from Safavid art, the
portrait-like representation of the
figures is typically Mughal. The
documenation of the lives and ac-
tivities of the emperors was a
major trend in the court with a
number of manuscripts devoted to
the reigns of Akbar and Babur.
Babur had a passion for plants and
gardens, which is implied by the
setting ot the drawing.

62. Five Women in a Landscape

From the Jcihungir Album
India, Mughal school, ca.
1600-1610

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, blue, green

and white
Page: 42.3 x 26.5 cm.

(165/8 X lO'/e in.)
Text (including borders): 26.3 x

15.8 cm. (lO-Vs x 61/4 in.)
52.2

The verso ot the sheet represents a
Mongol chieftain resting in the
countryside, attended by his
courtiers. The side on display con-
tains four panels of nastalik cal-
ligraphy, two of which are written
on an angle and signed by Ali or
All al-Katib. This calligrapher,
who is not very well known, is
mentioned as having come to
India from Meshhed and dying in
Gujerat m 1528-29.^"

The margin.il drawings shtiw the
influence of European prints
which were popular during the
reign of Jahangir and frequently
copied by the court artists. The
five women, placed in a landscape
executed in gold, appear to relate
to Christian themes; however,
since they are taken out of con-
text, it is difficult to determine
their exact iconographical signifi-
cance. The figures are in one way
or another involved with books,
praying before an open volume,
reading or presenting bound
manuscripts.

Their hairstyles and garments are
Western inspired; they wear
belted tunics, long skirts and bil-
lowing capes, tinted with varying
tones of golden reds, blues and
greens.

The two women on the top of the
folio flank a table covered with a
red cloth, on which are a pair of
golden rosewater bottles and
candlesticks surrounding an open
book. The female on the right
holds up a painting representing a
haloed saint while her companion
prostrates hersell in a praying
position opposite. The figure on
the left margin stands erect, with
an open book in her hand. The
pair below sit on either side of a
cherub-like infant, one extending
a book while the other opens her
arms to receive the crawling
child.

104

63. Six Artists Preparing Books
From the Juhangir Album
India, Mughal school, ca.
1600- 16 10

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, pink, blue,

green and white
Page: 42.5 x 26.6 cm.

(16% X 101/2 in.)
Text (including borders): 26.8 x

15.8 cm. (10"/fi X 614 in.)
54. 1 16

On the verso of this tolio is a
painting representing a prince on
horseback who is being handed a
1.1 rink from a youth seated on a
tree platform. The recto contains
a sample of calligraphy obliquely
written in nastalik and signed by
Mir Ali, a famous 16th-century
calligrapher whose work is fre-
cjuently included in the Jahangir
albums (nos. 64 and 65). Mir Ali
was from Herat and worked in his
native city until 1528-29 when it
was captured by the Uzbeks who
took him together with several
other artists to their court in
Bukhara. Like his namesake from
Tabriz (nos. 1-7), the calligrapher
excelled in the nastalik script and
wrote a great number of samples
for albums until his de.ith in
1558.""

The marginal drawings represent
six artists preparing books, each
involved in a different action. The
figures are placed in a landscape
with the hills, trees and flowers
painted in gold against a beige
ground. Their garments and
equipment are highlighted with
polychrome washes which also
have golden tones.

The figure on the uppet tight is a
papermaker, energetically polish-
ing a sheet with a heavy bi.ir-
nisher Opposite him is a book-
binder seated in front of a low
table, stamping the cover ot a
manuscript; the tools of his trade
are scattered around the table
while .several book covers lie on
the ground. Below is another art-
ist who files the edges of a bound
book which is held by a wooden
clamp; a couple of volumes are on
the ground whereas another one,
presumably finished, is placed on

106

a low chest. The man immedi-
ately below is making a wooden
bookstand, working with a saw,
surrounded by his equipment con-
sisting of various carving tools
and blocks. On the lower left, an
artist smelts gold, blowing with a
long rod the fire lit in an open
container; a bar of gold ready to
be melted is placed next to him
together with several tools and a
large golden pot. The last figure
represents a calligrapher who is
working on a low table; he is
writing the text in a bound vol-
ume, dipping his brush into a
blue-and-white inkwell.

The drawing represents various
stages in the production of a book
from papermaking to the final
step of copying the text. The
methods employed by the artists
and the specific tools used for dif-
ferent activities are graphically
documented, providing an invalu-
able source for the technology and
the arts of the age.

Both the Tehran and Berlin
albums contain similar figures in
the margins, signed by Aka Riza
and Govardhan.*"'

64. European Figures and Scenes
From the jahangir Album
India, Mughal school, ca.
1600-1610

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, green and

yellow
Page: 42.5 x 26.5 cm.

( 163/4 X lO'Xe in.)
Text (including borders): 26.6 x

15.6 cm. (101/2 X 61/8 m.)
56. 12

A painting depicting a landscape
with chained elephant, attended
by its mahout and a servant, ap-
pears on the recto of the folio
while the verso contains three nai-
talik panels. The larger panel is a
quatrain written by Mir Ali, set
against a background adorned
with flowers, blossoming trees
and birds. The same exquisite
decoration appears behmd the
smaller panels; the longer strip on
the left also bears the name of Mir
Ali (nos. 63 and 65). Four beauti-
fully drawn birds are placed above
the text.

The figure on the top ot the mar-
gin portrays the God-Father float-
ing over the universe. The panel
on the upper right, depicting a
female and nude child holding
tablets, is identified by its in-
scription, "Geometria." The
Christian saint with sheets of
paper who appears below is
thought to be St. Anthony. The
boat on the lower right represents
the Ship of Salvation with the
Christ Child. The group on the
lower left shows the Virgin hold-
ing the Christ Child on her right
arm while infant St. John stands
next to her left leg.

The figures are set against a gold
landscape with rocks, trees and
vegetation covering the entire sur-
face; a domed shrine appears be-
hind the ship which sails on a
golden sea.

The marginal drawings are charac-
teristic of the period and represent
an eclectic grouping of 16th-
century religious and mythologi-
cal themes copied from European
prints. Two cartouches below the
ship on the lower right contain
"1580" and "Rome," giving the
date and source of the original
version.

108

65. Six Men in a Landscape
From the Jahcingir Album
India, Mughal school, ca.
1600-1610

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, pink, blue,

green and white
Page: 42 x 26. 5 cm.

(161/2 X lOVi in.)
Text (including borders): 27.5 x

19 cm. (10'->i« X 71/2 in.)
63.4

The verso of the album sheet con-
tains a painting representing
Jamshid writing on a rock with a
notation that gives the date as
1588 and includes the name of
the artist, Abd al-Samad Shirin
Kalam. Abd al-Samad, invited to
the Mughal court by Humayun in
1556, was put in charge of the
imperial painting studios during
Akbar's reign and continued
working in the capital until the
turn of the century.

The marginal decoration of the
recto contains considerably more
color and represents six figures in
a landscape with birds and insects
hovering around the trees and
flowers. The nastalik texts in the
center of the folio are adorned
with similar motifs, executed in
color. The obliquely written panel
IS signed by Mir Ali whose works
were included in two other folios
(nos. 63 and 64).

The figures in the margins appear
to be occupied with astrological
calculations and represent courtly
types. On the upper left is a
young prince attired in a translu-
cent white robe, standing on a
stool and praying with his arms
extended. The older figure behind
him repeats the gesture while a
halt-naked ascetic, sitting on the
tar left, observes the pair Below
him is a courtly figure, who sits
on a chair and reads a book. On
the lower portion of the margin
an astrologer holds up an as-
trolabe; an open book, a roll ot
paper and writing utensils are
placed on the sheet spread in
front. The astrologer is most
likely calculating the horoscope of
the figure seated opposite, who is
attired in fashionable garments of
the court and bears a sword.

1 10

This tolio was prepared with ex-
treme care, combining the best
talents of Jahangir's court as ob-
served in the delicate execution of
the figures and landscape decorat-
ing the margins, the beautiful il-
lumination with flowers and birds
harmoniously balanced by the fine
script.

66. Pilgrim with an Ascetic
India, Mughal school, early 17th
century

Black line on paper; tinted with

red, blue and green
Page: 25 x 15.8 cm.

(9^8 X 61/4 in.)
Drawing: 10.4 x 9-3 cm.

{4Vs X 3% in.)
29.76

This example depicts a landscape
with two figures, one of whom is
a half-naked ascetic. The drawing,
also mounted on cardboard with a
marginal decoration placed around
it, was adjusted to fit the opening
by the addition of two panels of
marbled paper above and below,
using several carelessly executed
borders to camouflage the seams.
The marginal decorations, exe-
cuted in gold, are pasted sideways
and depict a pair of roosters and
deer in a landscape.

The drawing represents a pilgrim
holding an open book, discussing
its contents with the ascetic who
is realistically portrayed as a wiry,
emaciated man. Their seemingly
contradictory lives which achieve
the same spiritual end is sym-
bolized by the two trees in the
center with a flowering shrub in-
tertwined around a cypress tree.

The landscape and portions of the
protagonists' garments are tinted
in color while the faces are exe-
cuted in soft brush strokes.

112

67. Sultan Parviz with an Ascetic

India, Mughal school, early 17th
century

Black line, gold and silver on

paper; tinted with red, pink,

green, yellow and white
Page: 30 x 18.8 cm.

(ll"/6 X IVs in.)
Drawing: 15 x 8.6 cm.

(5% X 25/8 in.)
29.3

The tinted drawing is pasted on a
sheet which depicts a landscape
with figures and is backed with
cardboard. Strips of gold and
silver are carelessly placed around
the drawing, attempting to frame
the scene and to fit it into the
blank area between the marginal
decorations.

The scene in the margin, executed
in gold and silver on a pink
ground, represents a brook which
flows around and under the draw-
ing, its banks covered with blos-
soming trees and clusters of flow-
ers. On the right an ascetic, wear-
ing only a stole and a loincloth,
converses with a man holding a
book. The sheet is older than the
drawing as the latter was adjusted
to fit into the allotted space with
an extra strip added to the top.
The marginal decoration is beauti-
fully executed although the oxida-
tion of the silver has somewhat
lessened its rich coloring.

According to the inscription, the
tinted drawing represents Sultan
Parviz who was one of the sons of
Jahangir. The young prince is at-
tired in the characteristic gar-
ments of the age: he wears a flat
turban, a tight bodice and pants
and long skirt tied with flowing
embroidered sash; a string of
pearls and a jeweled necklace hang
around his neck while a dagger is
tucked into his belt. He converses
with a holy man who holds a ro-
sary in one hand, a pouch and a
stick in the other; the ascetic is
naked except for his loincloth and
long hair which falls in streaming
locks to his waist. The figures are
standing by a stream, below a
large plane tree partially cut by
the frame. Soft washes appear in
the garments and landscape with
touches of gold accentuating the
jewelry of the prince.

This example was executed during
the reign of Jahangir and it appears
that a suitable margin was sought
to enhance the drawing.

113

68. Youth with a Book

Attributed to Nadir al-Zaman
India, Mughal school, early I7th
century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, pink, blue

and yellow
Page: 15 x 10 cm.

(5% X 3''Kt; in.)
Drawing: 12.5 x 7.5 cm.

(478 X 2% in.)
07. 161

The drawmg presents a sensitive
portrait of a young man engrossed
in his book; it is mounted on
cardboard and Iramed with a
border ot gold leaves on a scrol-
ling blue vine. The inscription,
added almost a century and a half
later, states that this is the work
of Nadir al-Zaman, the court
painter of Emperor Jahangir, and
gives the year 1768. The attribu-
tion could very well be valid as
the fine execution of line and
elaborate working ot the details
can be found in the other works ot
Abu'l-Hasan, who was given the
name Nadir al-Zaman by his pa-
tron, Jahangir

The portrait is possibly one of the
earliest works ot the artist who
was trained by his father, Aka
Riza, also employed in Jahangir's
court studio. The artistic conven-
tion of depicting courtly figures
with one leg crossed over the
other and the hand holding a
handkerchief resting on the knee
was established in the Safavid
court and continued to be em-
ployed by the Mughal artists. The
high stool, one shoe lying on the
ground and the slightly bent head
are conventions also found in
Safavid paintings (no. 23).

Gold is used in the metallic
portions of the garments, such as
the embroidery on the turban,
belt and handkerchief as well as in
the stamped cover of the book and
in the scabbard of the sword. Red
is employed to accentuate parts of
the outfit and to suggest the pre-
cious gems on the scabbard. Faint
washes ot pink, blue and yellow
appear on the turban, undershirt
and book, providing a soft and
delicate coloring in keeping with
the youthfulness of the subject.

114

69. Landscape with Animals
India, Mughal school, early 17th
century

Black line on paper

25.7 X 15.4 cm. (lOVs x 6'/ih in.)

07.618

This example — badly damaged,
stained and repaired — was possi-
bly a sample page for animal and
plant studies. The animals are
scattered around the sheet which
represents several vignettes inter-
mingled with fine drawings ot
flowering plants. In the lower
portion are a pair of cranes, a goat
trying to feed on the leaves of a
tree on which a peacock is perched
and a doe attending her young.
Above are birds resting on a fruit
tree, flowers, other birds and a
leopard stalking a pair of moun-
tain goats. On the top of the folio
is a lion killing a stag while the
mate runs away.

These studies were later incorpo-
rated into manuscripts, used
either in the paintings, marginal
decorations or on lacquer book-
bindings. They also served as
models for carpets, textiles and
other arts which relied on the de-
signs determined by the court
artists.

115

70. Animal Kingdom

India, Mut,'h.il school, early 17th
century

Black line on paper; tinted with
pink, blue, i^reen and yellow

Page: 34. 1 x 21.9 cm.
(1.3% X 85/8 in.)

Drawing: 23.4 x 1 1.8 cm.
(9-/<K X 45/8 in.) .

45.29

This excjuisite drawing represents
the peaceable animal kingdom
with a prolusion of creatures skill-
tuUy blended into the composi-
tion, each depicted in its most
characteristic pose. Mughal artists
excelled in studies of animals and,
with the exception of portraiture,
this genre truly represents their
acute observation and refined tal-
ents. There are close to 100 birds
and beasts depicted in this small
drawing, and yet each animal ap-
pears as an individual study.

The drawing is mounted on heavy
paper; it has several gold, black
and blue lines enclosing a band of
gold floral designs on a pink
ground, cut into strips to form a
border. The marginal decoration,
depicting cranes and ducks in a
landscape, is executed in black
and gold lines on cream paper,
matching the theme of the centtal
drawing.

r

I 16

The drawing, tinted in the palest
tones, represents the animals as
they appear in nature with the
creatures of the sky on the top,
the inhabitants of land in the
center and those who dwell in the
seas at the bottom. The animals
are shown within their natural
habitat with the fish, crocodile,
crabs and seals in the water; the
reptiles, snakes and a fantastic
dragon appear on the shore. The
land animals include elephants.

tigers, lions, pheasants, foxes,
horses, rhinoceroses, camels, deer,
goats, sheep, monkeys, bears and
cats which gradually lead the eye
up the folio, toward the tree in
the background."" Diverse birds
perch on the tree and rocks or fly
into the scene; included among
them are ducks, sparrows and a
superb phoenix. The artist has
combined both domestic and wild
creatures, as well as real and
imaginary creatures, in a single
scene.

This drawing, similar to the
examples discussed previously
(nos. 66-69), does not belong to
the famous imperial collections of
Jahangir. However, it reveals the
high technical and aesthetic de-
velopments of the painters whose
works were compiled into less
sumptuous but equally exciting
albums.

117

71. Hunting Scene
India, Mughal school, mid- 17th
century

Black line, i;old and silver on

p.iper; tinted with red

and green
Page: h .1 \ 18 cm.

(10!/8 X 7 "A in.)
Drawing: 16.4 x 14.3 cm.

(6'/,i X 55/8 in.)
07.204

The drawing, which includes its
original gold frame, is mounted
on cardboard with additional
borders added at a later date. The
silver applied to the background
has oxidized, leaving unattractive
dark stains; the portion of water
in the foreground was cut out at a
later period and replaced by a
silver strip, which has also
oxidized.

The scene depicts a princely hunt
with a young rider shooting ar-
rows at a powerful lion which
reels back from the impact. Foxes
and hares, frightened by the at-
tack, scamper in either direction;
the attendant of the hunter, his
turban unwound in the excite-
ment, tries to run out of the way.

A palatial structure appears
amidst the mountains and trees in
the background with two workers
strolling toward it. The serenity
of the setting, accentuated by a
pair of foxes peacefully resting on
the rocks, contrasts with the vio-
lent drama of the hunt unfolding
in the foreground.

An impression of depth is created
by the progression of planes and
the diminishing size of elements,
employing perspective in a most
successful manner. Faint washes of
red and green are used in the
landscape while gold highlights
the weapons of the hunter and the
trappings of his mount.

118

72. Woman Carrying a Basket
India, Mughal school, early 18th
century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red
Page: 37 x 23-3 cm.

(145/8 X 91/8 in.)
Drawing: 13.2 x 23.3 cm.

{9Ae X ZVm in.)
07.211

This example represents the pro-
vincial Mughal style which ap-
peared after the empire began to
lose its authority and could not
support the artists, forcing them
to seek employment in the prov-
inces. It depicts a young woman
carrying a large basket on her
head and attired in traditional
Mughal garments with a long
flowing scarf, short-sleeved bodice
and long skirt. Gold accentuates
the brocaded portions of her outfit
(such as the edges of the scarf and
bodice and the horizontal bands in
the skirt) and represents her
jewelry (the armlets, bracelets and
necklace) as well as her gilded
shoes. Touches of red appear in
the skirt and shoes and highlight
the inlaid gems of her jewelry.

The drawing has been mounted
on a blank sheet with green and
gold marbled paper pasted around
it. The marbled paper has been
sprayed with gold which has spil-
led onto the drawing.

73. Two Women with Attendants
India, Mughal schexil, mid- 18th
century

Black line, gold and silver on

paper; tinted with red, blue,

green and white
Page: 40.6 x 29.3 cm.

(16 X llVu; in.)
Drawing: 23.2 x 17.8 cm.

iWs X 7 in.)
07.213

The drawing portrays two young
ladies seated on a terrace overlook-
ing a body of water beyond which
is a strip of land with a large
complex. The ladies are attended
by two servants who hold
peacock-tail fans and are enter-
tained by a quartet of musicians
and singers who clap their hands.
Joining their group are three
other women and an attendant
who is preparing potent and aro-
matic concoctions from the con-
tents of bottles and jars spread in
front ot her.

The drawing, pasted on blank
paper, is enclosed by a gold-
speckled red sheet and has a blue
border decorated with gold floral
motifs. The landscape elements
ate fully colored with green trees
filling the background; the pond,
barely visible behind the trees,
was originally painted silver and
now is oxidized. Certain features,
such as the two fountains — one on
the terrace where the ladies sit
and the other behind them — are
unfinished with only the outlines
ot the streams of water sketched

The two ladies sit on a carpet,
leaning against large cushions;
they are smoking water pipes
while discussing the contents of a
book. Placed on the carpet are
other volumes; between the fig-
ures is a group of cups and bowls
on a mat which is barely
sketched.

The setting most likely depicts
one of the provincial Mughal
courts with a large fortified palace
and its suburbs represented on the
shore beyond the water.

120

121

74. Woman with Attendants
India, Mughal school, early 18th
century

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red and white
Page: 21.5 x 14.9 cm.

(8'/e X 5'/8 in.)
Drawing: 15.5 x 9 2 cm.

(6^8 X m.)
07.607

This drawing depicts a lady seated
in the courtyard of a palace, ac-
companied by five attendants. It
is mounted on an album sheet
with a 14-line text on the back;
the margins around the drawing
are painted blue and speckled
with gold.

A group of three women appears
in the foreground; one reclines
against a cushion, another listens
to music while the third plays a
tambourine. Above them is the
main personage, flanked by two
attendants, one of whom offers
her a drink in a small cup. Long-
necked bottles, bowls of fruit,
covered boxes and trays with
small footed bowls containing del-
icacies are scattered around the
courtyard. A domed pavilion with
carved panels depicting bowls and
bottles rises in the background
with a group of trees seen above
the walls of the enclosure.

Gold is used to accentuate the de-
tails of the garments and jewelry;
it is also applied to the metal ves-
sels. Red appears on the hands
and feet of the women, suggesting
that they were painted with
henna; white is used to represent
the pearl jewelry. Two of the
women, on the upper left and
lower right, have lighter complex-
ions, their skins painted in soft
washes of white.

The theme of idle women amus-
ing themselves within the con-
fines of their palaces seems to have
been quite popular in the provin-
cial courts, attempting to recreate
the luxurious environment of the
Mughal capital.

122

123

75. Portrait of Nadir Shah

India, Mughal school, mid- 18th
century

Black line on paper; tinted with

red, mauve, green, yellow,

brown and white
Page; 37.9 x 23.9

(l4'5/6 X 9'/6 in.)
Drawing: 19.7 x 10.4 cm.

(7% x4'Xb m.)
07.256

The portrait, mounted on a blank
cardboard, is decorated with
coarsely executed marbled paper
which has been added around the
drawing at a later date. The orig-
inal sheet has been slightly
trimmed and now is framed by
gold, red and green lines.

The portrait is executed in black
with only the face, headdress and
fur collar depicted in color. The
figure is shown in profile, seated
against a thick cushion holding a
sword across his knees. An in-
scription identifying the subject
appears below and states that it is
the representation of Nadir Shah.

The unusual headdress, possibly
Nadir Shah's personal choice for
the Afsharid rulers, is a tall yel-
low cap embroidered with green
leaves and red blossoms; a pearl
garland decorates the crown which
is softly gathered at the top and
mounted with a feather attached
by a ruby pin; the upturned
split-rim is painted mauve.

Nadir Shah is represented with an
unfaltering stern expression, true
to the reputation of this remarka-
ble man who saved Iran from for-
eign domination, expanded its
boundaries and invaded India in
1738-39. The strong profile of
the subject is accentuated by the
soft-brown fur collar of his coat
and pale-green shirt. This is most
likely a contemporary portrait
executed shortly after Nadir
Shah's Indian campaign.

124

Nadir Shah, born in 1688, be-
lonj;ed to the Turkmen tribe ol
the Afshars. He entered the ser-
vices of Shah Tahmasp II and
fought valiantly against the
Afghans in the east and the
Ottomans in the west, defending
the remnants of the Safavid state.
Alter being proclaimed king ol

Iran in 1736, he immediately set
out to capture Kandahar and then
marched onto Delhi. In the deci-
sive battle of 1739, Nadir Shah
was the victor. He reinstated the
Mughal emperor, Muhammed
Shah, in return tor tiie provinces
north ot the Indus plus a phenom-
ena! sum ot money and treasures.

including the renowned Koh-i
Nur diamond and the tabled
Peacock Throne. The amount
levied was so large that the
Iranians were exempted from taxes
for three years. Nadir Shah was
assassinated in 1747 in an upris-
ing instigated by a group ot
Atshar and Kajar chiefs.

Deccani School

The sultans of the Deccan, the high plateau in the southern
portion of India, were late arrivals like the Mughals. Among
the first Muslims to rule this region were the Bahmanids
(1347-1527) whose capital at Bidar became a major center of
learning. The Bahmanids set up diplomatic and cultural
exchanges with the Ottomans, employing Turks, Persians
and Arabs in their courts.

When the effective rule of the Bahmanids disintegrated at the
end of the 15th century, a major portion of the Deccan
became divided between five dynasties. The Barid-Shahis,
who replaced the Bahmanids in Bidar, fell to the Adil-Shahis
of Bijapur in 1619; the Imad-Shahis of Berar (1485-1572)
were eventually absorbed by the Nizam-Shahis; the
Adil-Shahis of Bijapur (1490-1686), who were related to the
Ottoman sultans, were particularly interested in the
development of the arts and invited scholars and painters
from Turkey and Iran to their courts; the Nizam-Shahis
(1491-1633) ruled in Ahmednagar and vicinity; and the
Kutb-Shahis (1512-1686), who controlled Golconda, were
the descendants of the Karakoyunlu Turkmens.

Despite the continuous rivalries and endless wars among these
states, Deccani painting flourished between the middle of the
l6th century until the Mughal conquest of 1686-87, the
most prolific studios being in Bijapur, Ahmednagar and
Golconda. The artists created remarkable works which reveal
a mixture of local traditions, Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal
court styles, and to some extent the influence of Western
painting. Portraiture was a predominant genre although
occasional Ragamala series and Christian themes were also
produced (nos. 16-11).

76. Woman Holding a Vina

India, Deccani school, ca. 1670

Black line on paper

16.6 X 11.3 cm. (6"/r.i x in.)

46.27

The drawing, which has been
stained and repaired around the
edges, represents a seated woman
holding a vina, the traditional
string instrument of India. She
has stopped playing momentarily
and smells a flower while watch-
ing the cautiously approaching
deer which has been attracted by
the music.

Clusters ot flowers cover the
ground, and three difterent types
of trees grow in the background.
The largest, framing the seated
woman, has blossom-like leaves;
several birds appear amidst the
leaves while two squirrels run up
the trunk. A castle rises behind
the hills on the upper right.

The composition indicates that
the scene illustrates the Todi Ra-
gini from a Ragamala series. The
Ragamala, literally translated as a
Garland of Musical Modes, is a
codification of Hindu music
which is expressed with verses and
pictorial representation. It sym-
bolizes the aesthetics of Hindu
music and contains a great
number of variations although
traditionally there are six funda-
mental ragas, or "melody
moulds," each of which contains
five raginis, or modes. The Todi
Ragini is represented by a woman
playing the vina, attractmg deer.

The drawing, rendered only in
soft black lines, is extremely re-
fined with delicate strokes defin-
ing the figure, animals and land-
scape elements. The artist has
successfully captured the senti-
ment expressed by the musical
mode, representing a pictorial
version of the theme.

128

77. Virgin and Child

India, Deccani school.

1625

Black line and gold on paper;

tinted with red, pink and white
Page: 36 x 23 cm.

(14-X6 X 9yi6 in. )
Drawing; 16 x 11.1 cm.

(6->i6 X iVs in.)
07.155

The tinted drawing representing
the Virgin and Child has been
mounted on blank cardboard with
several red and blue borders used
to frame the scene. The Virgin
Mary is shown seated beneath a
tree with the Christ Child who
holds up a book. They are sur-
rounded by bunches of leaves and
flowers and richly foliated trees
with streams of branches drooping
down the soft hills.

The execution of the figures is
highly stylized with crisply drawn
drapery forming decorative folds.
The Virgm wears a long flowing
scarf tinted pink; her dress is
lined in red and slightly open at
front, revealing a white under-
shirt; elaborate gold jewelry
adorns her neck and ears. The fig-
ures were obviously inspired by
European examples but executed
in a local style and technique.
Their facial types also suggest a
native tradition.

The soft brush strokes in the land-
scape with delicately drawn leaves
and branches contrast with the
rigidity ot line seen in the figures.
Obviously the artist was more at
ease executing the background
and labored over the figures.

Deccani artists were cjuite familiar
with Christian themes; since the
Portuguese had established a col-
ony in Goa in 15 10, Jesuit mis-
sionaries and European travelers
were constant visitors. This draw-
ing is attributed to the school of
Bijapur which was in close contact
with Portuguese settlements.

129

Rajput School

The Rajputs, the Hindu rulers of India, were renowned for
their brave and chivalrous conduct as well as for their strong
tribal ties which prevented them from uniting against the
foreign invaders. The Rajput princes established a number of
states in Rajastan and the Punjab Hills which paid tribute to
the Mughals at the height of their empire, between the early
17th and the mid- 18th century. After the slackening of
Mughal authority, the Rajputs became more or less
autonomous until the arrival of the British in the early part of
the 19th century.

Rajput painting in the Punjab Hills developed after the 17th
century, most likely stimulated by the close contact with the
Mughal court. The painting studios flourished during the
following two centuries and produced remarkable portraits
and series of religious paintings with an overwhelming
preference for the Krishna cycle.*'"' The court painters of
Kangra were particularly active during the second half of the
18th century and developed an indigenous style which
reached its height under the patronage of Sansar Chand
( 1775- 1823). The raja and the members of his family
commissioned a great number of portraits, single-page
paintings and voluminous series narrating the life and
teaching of Krishna and his romance with Radha.

One fascinating series was devoted to the mystical romance of
Princess Damayanti who falls in love with Nala, the young
king of Nishadha, originally written around the middle of
the 12th century by Sriharsha. The poem relates the meeting
of the two protagonists, their wedding, misfortunes and
ultimate happiness, stressing the lifelong devotion of the
lovers whom the gods had destined should be together.

The story was particularly significant to Sansar Chand, who
fought valiantly against the Afghan invasion and ruled
supreme in the Kangra Valley for two decades; he himself had
a passionate love affair with the beautiful Nokhu whom he
abducted and later married. The hero and heroine of the
RoiihDice of Nala and Damayanti were probably associated with
the patron and his wife and the setting of the story inspired
by the raja's palaces.

Several sets of the Romance of Nala and Damayanti were
executed between 1790 and 1810, each set conceived as a
series of some 100 paintings. Some of these sets were
completed while others contain only portions of the story; the
illustrations in a couple of the sets are merely sketched and
left unfinished.

One of the incomplete and unfinished sets was made around
1790 or 1800 and contains about 47 illustrations owned by
various American collections, including the Freer Gallery of
Art (nos. 78-82).^^ The scenes illustrate the second part of
the Romance of Nala and Damayanti and are executed in a
technique which is particular to this series. The illustrations
are sketched in sanguine, or a broad red line, over which a
second black line was drawn; a semitransparent white ground
was applied over these lines, covering the entire sheet,
serving as a primer and facilitating corrections; then fine
brush strokes completed the drawing which was now ready
for the final coloring rendered in gouache, or opaque
watercolor; color was first applied to the background and
then to the figures.

The illustrations are on rectangular sheets of paper
approximately 29-2 by 40 centimeters (1 Wi by 15M inches)
with a border of 3-5 centimeters ( 1 ys inches) left blank on
four sides; the dimensions of the drawings average 22.2 by
33.5 centimeters (8% by 13/^6 inches). This format and size
are common to all the existing sets.

The Freer sketches are executed in fine black lines on a white
ground with only the preliminary tints applied to the
background. The figures are rendered with great charm,
gliding through the scenes with serenity and grace. Although
a firm outline is used, there is an ease of motion with the
elements flowing into one another. The Nala-Damayanti
scenes represent the grand style ot the Rajput school in the
Kangra Valley.

78. Toilet of Damayanti

From the Romance of Nala and

Damayanti
India, Rajput school, ca.

1790-1800

Black line over white ground on

paper; tinted with red, mauve,

green and yellow
Page: 29.2 x 40 cm.

(111/2 X 15^4 in.)
Drawing: 22.3 x 33.7 cm.

(83/4 X 13V4 m.)
30.85

The depiction of several consecu-
tive episodes in the drawing is
characteristic of the Nala-
Damayanti illustrations. The
scene takes place in Damayanti's
palace prior to her marriage; it
shows the princess being washed
and groomed and departing for
the wedding pavilion. The beauti-
ful Damayanti, half nude with her
long black hair loose, is seated on
a stool in the center of the court-
yard; some of her maidens bathe
her while others hold up a curtain
for privacy.

Two ot the maidens hold ewers,
one pouring a ewer's contents over
Damayanti's head; another pair
tills the containers from large jars
while two others hold a towel and
a mirror. Placed on the ground in
front of Damayanti are various
bathing utensils such as jars, ba-
sins and bowls.

The next vignette depicts
Damayanti being groomed and
admired by her maidens in the
pavilion which appears on the
upper lett. The attendants cluster
around her: some paint her
toenails and fingernails; others
hold up a mirror, carry cosmetics
on trays, select jewelry from a
chest and shield her with a scarf;
an elderly woman carries an in-
cense burner. Two musicians out-
side play the vina and drum; an
attendant walks by with a covered
tray.

In the kitchen on the upper right,
the cooks are preparing for the
wedding feast, cooking rice in a
large kettle, kneading dough and
bringing in supplies. The wed-
ding pavilion appears behind the
screen in the background, its open
roof decorated with birds.

132

133

78, Tuilet of Daniayant
From tht- RMwin-e of N^/L

n of several
five episodes in the drawing
characteristic of rhc I^Jala-

scenc cakes place in Damayanti's
palate prior tn her marriajje; it
shows the princess bciny washed
and yroomed and departing for
the wedding; pavilion. The beaut
ful Damayanci, half nude with hi
long black hair loose,
a stool in the center of thi
yard; some of her maidens bachi
her while others hold up
for privacy.

Two of the maidens hold
one pouring

Damayanti's head; another pair
fills the containers from large jars
while two others hold a towel and
a mirror. Placed on the ground m
front of Damayant
bathing utensils such as jars, ba
sms and bowls.

The next vignette depiccs
Damayanci being gi
admired by her
pavilion which
upper left. The

ind fingernails; others
hold up a mirror, carry
on trays, select jewelry from
chest and shield her with a si
aneldetly ^

side play the vina a
attendant walks by

In the kitchen on the upper right
the cooks are preparing for the
wedding feast, cooking rice in a
e kettle, kneading dough uol
bringing in supplies. The wed-
ding pavilion appears behind the

in the background,
rtwf decorared with birds.

The departure of Damayanti is
depicted on the lower right. A
jBaiden appears at the door, hand-
ing'to the priest an ewer to be
usfed during the ceremonies.
£>amayanti, her head bowed in
modesty, is attended by several
friends on her way to the wedding
pavilion.

Black lines have been used to go
over or to correct the original
sketch, which is barely visible
under the semitransparent ^hite
ground. The preliminary wastes
have been applied to certain '
portions of the scene, such as the
courtyard, curtains, a few vessels
and Damayanti's robe.

134

79. Marriage of Damayanti

From the Rnmance of Nala and

Damayanti
India, Rajput school, ca.

1790-1800

Black line over white ground on
paper; tinted with red, mauve,
green and yellow

22.1 X 16.3 cm. (S^'/s x GVs. m.)

23. 1 1

The illustration, damaged and
trimmed along the edges, has
been cut in half and includes only
the left portion of the scene. The
drawing represents the wedding
ceremonies of Nala and
Damayanti, who are seated in the
marriage pavilion which was seen
in the previous episode. In front
of the couple is the priest
Gautama who ties their hands
with a cord, symbolizing the mar-
riage knot. The elderly figure
bearing a crown next to the priest
is Kmg Bhima, the bride's lather.
He brings to his new son-in-law
several gifts, including the
miraculous sword of Durga, a
dagger and a covered box on a
tray which most likely contains
the wish-fulfilling wreath of gems
originally given to him by Siva.

The maidens around the central
figures carry garlands, trays, bot-
tles and flaming torches. The
woman bending over the bride is
probably Kala, Damayanti's faith-
ful companion. Spread in front ot
the bridal couple are various
ceremonial vessels, such as bowls,
basins and vases.

In the foreground, outside the en-
closure, are attendants and torch-
bearers who accompany an
elephant laden with baggage and
a chariot drawn by a pair ot
horses, also given to Nala by
King Bhima.

This illustration has also been cor-
rected and the original lines under
the semitransparent white ground
are still visible; preliminary
colors have been added to the
background.

X

; j I

i -SV

0

135

80. Departure for Nisadha

From tlif Romana' of Nala and

Dania yanti
India, R.ijput school, ca.
1790- 1800

Black line over white ground on
paper; tinted with red, mauve,
green, yellow and white

Page: 29.2 x 40 cm.
( 1 IVz X 15-H in.)

Drawing: 22.2 x 3.1.5 cm.
(8^4 x I3'Kii in.)

23. 10

This episode takes place after the
wedding of the hero and heroine
and represents Damayanti depart-
ing from her father's house to go
with her husband to his kingdom
of Nisadha. Damayanti, riding in
her palanquin, is leaving the
courtyard accompanied by King
Bhima and Prince Dama, both of
whom bear crowns. Also joining
the retinue are scores of Dama-
yanti's maidens, some holding fly
whisks and the others mourning
her departure. A group of musi-
cians heads the procession, which
moves through the screen rolled
back by the attendants and leaves
through the palace gate,

Nala IS seated in the balcony on
the upper left, conversing with a
man while being fanned with a fly
whisk. Other maidens watch the
procession from the cantilevered"
windows ot the palace.

The narration ot the departure
continues in the fields outside the
palace. Nala, sitting in the
chariot given by his father-in-law,
is moving along with his entou-
rage and baggage, preceded by
rtagbearers and musicians. Beyond
the hill is Damayanti's palanquin
and her train, which includes
servants bearing large boxes on
their heads or carrying huge cas-
kets by poles, her mounted at-
tendants and elephants, as well as
her wedding bed and throne.

The highly crowded scene con-
tains more preliminary colors than
the previous drawings with the
sky, hills and details of the bag-
gage executed in pale tones.

136

80. Departure for Nisadha

From the Romaun of Nali

D.mayaiiti
India. Rajput school, csi.

1790-1800

Black lint- over white ground o
pjptr; tinted with red, mau'
^reen, yellow and v

P.i,.e:

1.)

Drawing; 22.2 x 33.5 cm.
X in.)

23.10

This episode cakes place after the
wedding of the hero and heroine
and represents Damayanti depart-
ing from her father's house jo go
with her husband to his kingdom
of Nisadha. Damayanti, riding in
her palanquin, is leaving the
courtyard accompanied by fling
Bhima and Prince Dama. both ol
whom bear crowns. Also joining
the retinue are scores of Dama-
yanti's maidens, some holding fly
whisks and the others moutning
het depatturc. A group of musi-
cians heads the procession, which
moves through the screen rolled
back by the attendants and leavi-s
through the palace gate.

Nala is seated in the balcony on
the upper left, conversing with a
man while being fanned with a fly
whisk. Other maidens watch the
procession from the cancilevered"
Windows of the palace.

n of the departure
1 the fields outside the
palace. Nala, sitting in the
chariot given by his father-in-law,
is moving along with his entou-
rage and baggage, preceded by
flagbearers and musicians. Beyond
the hill is Damayanti's palanquin
and her ttain. which includes
setvants bearing large boxes on
their heads or carrying huge cas-
kets by poles, her mounted at-
tendants and elephants, as well as
her wedding bed and throne.

The highly crowded scene con-
tains more preliminary colors than
the ptevious dtawings with the
sky, hills and details of the bag-
gage executed in pale tones.

81. Damayanti with the Lotus

From the Ri)//uimt: of Nala and

Damayanti
India, Rajput school, ca.

1790-1800

Black line and silver over white
ground on paper; tinted with
mauve, blue, green, yellow
and beige

Page; 29.2 x 39.8 cm.
(11V2 X 15"/k in.)

Drawing: 22.2 x 33.4 cm.
(SVa X 13 1/8 in.)

23.13

Alter Nala and Damayanti settle
in Nisadha, they spend their days
in blissful happiness, proving
their unwavering devotion to each
other. The scenes representing the
gteat love that exists between the
lovers are set within the tranquil-
ity ot their palace, its serene at-
mosphere enhanced by the elegant
figures and their lyric postures.

In this episode Nala is jesting
with Damayanti and Kala. He has
given Damayanti a lotus which
she considers more valuable than
anything else in the world since it
was from her beloved. The couple
are seated in an arcaded pavilion
in front of which is a fountain
with three ducks walking around.
Several maidens stroll in the
courtyard, conversing or carrying
trays into the two structures on
either side. Rows of trees border
the fountain and appear behind
the high walls of the enclosure.

In the center ot the scene are Nala
and Damayanti, seated on a
couch. Nala rests his arms on the
two cushions on his lap while
conversing with Damayanti who
bends her head in modesty, hold-
ing the lotus in her hand as Kala
stands beside her. Scatteted
around the floor are a low table
with small bottles, a spittoon for
betels, a jar and a covered bowl.

The setting was likely inspired by
the palaces of Sansar Chand, the
patron of the work, and represents
the luxurious structures of the
Kangra Valley. These palaces with
high walls — enclosing a complex
of arcaded pavilions placed around
the courtyards adorned with gar-
dens, fountains and pools — reflect
the architectural traditions estab-
lished by the Mughals in the I6th
and 17th centuries.

ll

•i - 1

j • 1

138

81. Damayanti with the Lotus

From the Romance ofNala and

Biack line and silvet over white
ground on paper; tinted with
mauve, blue, green, yellow
and beige

Page: 29-2 x 39.8 cm.

I5"/6 in.)

Drawing: 22.2 x 33-4 cm.
(81/4 X 13!^ in.)

23.13

After Nala and Damayanri settlt
in Niiadha, they spend their days
in blissful happiness, proving
their unwavering devotion to each
other. The scenes representing the
great love that exists between the
lovers are set within the tranquil-
ity of their palace, its serene ar-
mosphere enhanced by the elegant
figures and their lyric postures.

In this episode Nala is jesting
with Damayanri and Kala. He hiis
given Damayanri a lotus which
she considers more valuable than
anything else in the world since ir
was from her beloved. The couple
are seated in an arcaded pavilion
in from of which is a fountain
with three ducks walking around .
Several maidens srroll in the
courtyard, conversing or carrying

3 the
side. Ri

sof ti

the founta
the high ^

I and appear behind
lis of the enclosure.

In the center of the scene are Nala
and Damayanri, seared on a
couch. Nala rests his arms on the
two cushions on his lap while
conversing with Damayanri who
bends her head in modesty, hold-
ing the lotus in her hand as Kala
stands beside her. Scattered
around the floor are a low table
with small bottles, a spittoon for
betels, a jar and a covered bowl

The setting was likely inspired b\
the palaces of Sansar Chand, (he
patron of the work, and rcptesenis
the luxurious structures of the
Kangra Valley, These palaces with
high walls — enclosing a complex
of arcaded pavilions placed around
the courtyards adorned with gar-
dens, fountains and pools — reflect
the architectural traditions estab-
lished by the Mughals in the 16th
and 17ih centurics-

138

139

82. Lovers Watching Sunset
From the Romance of Nala and

Damayanti
India, Rajput school, ca.

1790-1800

Black line anci silver over white
ground on paper; tinted with
red, pink, green, yeUow and
black

Page: 29.2 x 39-8 cm.

(111/2 X 15 'Mb m.)
Drawing: 22.2 x 3.^.4 cm.

(8-=>4 X 131/8 in.)
23. 12

One of the most charming scenes
in the Romance of Nala and
Damayantt represents the lovers
watching the sunset from their
palace; Damayanti is mourning
the fate of the cakravaka birds
which separate from one another
before darkness sets in. The
couple is seated in an arcaded
wing, leaning against a large pil-
low; they point to the birds which
walk around the rocky shore
across the water. Cushions, trays
and howls lie on the ground be-
side the figures.

Outside the pavilion are two
maidens seated at the edge of a
pool, dipping their feet into the
water. Three other women appeat
in the doorway and arcades ol the
structure.

The background ut the scene —
sky, trees and hills — is painted in
pale tones; touches of color also
appear in the skin of the women,
while the water is rendered in
silver.

The sentiment expressed by
Damayanti — mourning the sep-
aration of lovers — symbolizes the
theme of eternal love and devotion
which permeates the poem.

"V - - ■ — ■ -

■■A

140

141

I

I

I

82. Lovers Warching Sunset
From the R,mun,-e of N.;/./ u>i^

Black line and silver over white
ground on paper; tinted with
red. pink, green, yellow and
black

Page: 29.2 x 39.8 cm.

(11!^ X 15"Xe in.)
Drawing; 22.2 x 33.4 cm.

(8?i X liV6 in.)
23. 12

One of the most charming scent s
in the Romance of Nala and
Djniayatiii represents the^overs
watching the sunsec from their
palace; Damayanti is mourning
the fate of the cakravaka birds
which separate from one another
before darkness sets in. The
couple is seated in an arcaded
wing, leaning against a large pil-
low; they point to the birds which
walk around the rocky shore
across the water. Cushions, trays
and bowls lie on the ground be-
side the figures.

Outside the pavilion are two
maidens seated at the edge of a
pool, dipping their feet into the
water. Three other women appear
in the doorway and arcades of the

The background of the scene-
sky, trees and hills — is painted ic
pale tones; touches of color also
appear in the skin of the women,
while rhe water is rendered in
silver.

The senrimcnt expressed by
Damayanti — mourning the sep-
aration of lo\ ■ ■■

theme of
which

It- and del

I

i

I

Notes

1. The manuscripts was first published in

F. R. Martin, hViniatuns from the Pmoil ofTimur
in a Ms. of the Poems of Sultan Ahmad Jalair,
Vienna, 1926. In this publication Martin
describes how he obtained the work in Istanbul.
A thorough study of the Dh'an, its painter and
date appears in Deborah E. Klimburg-Salter,
"A Sufi Theme in Persian Painting: the Divan
of Sultan Ahmad Galair in the Freer Gallery of
Art, Washington, D.C.," Kunst des Orients, vol.
XI, nos. 1-2 (1976-77), pp. 4.^-84.

2. Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Museum,
H. 215.3 andH. 2160. Another almost
contemporary album is in Berlin,
Staatsbibliothek, Diez A Fol. 70-73. The
latter, with full references to the two Istanbul
albums, is published in M. ^. Ip^iroglu,
Saray-Alhen, Wiebaden, 1964.

3. M. ^. \p'i\rog\u, Siyah Qalem . Graz, 1976.

4. Tabriz was occupied by the Kipchaks in
1385, by the Timurids in 1386 and by the
Karakoyunlus in 1387 and 14()6; Baghdad was
taken by Timur in 1393 and 1401 and by the
Karakoyunlus in 1403.

5. Illustrated manuscripts executed in the court
ot Sultan Ahmed are:

(a) Khamsa of Nizami (London, British Library,
Or. 13297)

1386 and 1388, Baghdad, copied by
Mahmud ibn Muhammed

(b) Ajutb al-N\akhlukdt of al-Kazvini (Paris,
Bibliotheque Nationale, suppl. pets. 332)
1392, Baghdad (?), copied by Ahmed of
Herat

(c) KaiiLi va Dimna (Pans, Bibliothec]ue
Nationale, suppl. pers. 913)

1392, Baghdad (>), copied by al-Hafiz
Ibrahim

(d) Three Poems of Khvaju Kirmani (London,
British Library, Add. 181 13)

1396, Baghdad, copied by Mir Ali of
Tabriz, painted by Junayd

(e) Kitah al-Bitlhan (Oxford, Bodleian Library,
Or. 133)

Written in Arabic

1399, Baghdad (r"), copied and painted by
Abd al-Hasan ibn All ibn al-Hasan of
Baghdad

(0 Divan of Sultan Ahmad (Washington,
D.C., Freer Gallery of Art, 32.29-32.37)
ca. 1400, Baghdad (?), copied by (att.): Mir
Ali of Tabriz
(g) Khosrau va Shirin of Nizami (Washington,
D.C., Freer Gallery of Art, 3 1.29-31.37)
Before 1410, Tabriz, copied by Ali ibn
Hasan al-Sultani
See Also Dorothea Duda, "Die Buchmalerei der
Galairden," part L, Der Islam, vol. 48 (1971),
pp. 28-192; part II, ihid.. vol. 49 (1972),
pp. 153-220

6. When the Divan entered the Freer Gallery,
the folios with the drawings were removed from

the manuscripts before it was paginated. In
Martin's publication, it is mentioned that the
illustrations began on folio 17. Following the
sequence of the reproductions in Martin's book,
the accession numbers of the Freer Gallery and
the text, we were able to determine the order
and location of the drawings within the
manuscript.

7. London, British Library, Add. 18113
(Charles Rieu, Catalogue of the Persian
Manuscripts in the British Museum, London,
1966, vol. II, pp. 620-622; Norah M. Titley,
Miniatures from Persian Manuscripts . London,
1977, no. 251).

8. Abd al-Hayy was trained by Shams al-Din
and taught the sultan to paint. After Timur
conquered Baghdad, he took Abd al-Hayy
together with other Jalairid artists to his court
in Samarkand where the painter died. Abd
al-Hayy is said to have become extremely
religious toward the end of his life and
destroyed his paintings. Several paintings and
drawings, either signed by him or copied by a
later Timurid artist named Muhammed
al-Hayyam, appear in the Istanbul and Berlin
albums (Klimburg-Salter, "A Sufi Theme ").
Timur is also said to have taken Mir Ali of
Tabriz to Samarkand (Rieu, Catalogue of Persian
Manuscripts , p. 622).

9. Folios 3 1 lb, 3 12a, 323b, 328b, 329a and
336a. On two of these folios, a line or two of
poetry appears on the top or bottom, although
there are no marginal lines (fols. 3 1 lb and
336a). There are also several other folios which
are one-third empty (fols. 282b, 3 17a and
328a). Another completely empty folio without
the original marginal lines is now entirely filled
with the works of Sadi (fol. 282a).

10. Edwin Binney, 3rd, Turkish Minature
Paintings and Manuscripts from the Collection of
Edwin Binney, ird. New York and Los Angeles,
1973, no. 29.

11. Ip^iroglu, Siyah Qalem, pi. 55. An almost
identical pair without shackles is reproduced in
ihid. , pi . 44 .

12. Stuatt Gary Welch, A King's Book of Kings:
the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasp, New York,
1972, and Persian Painting: Five Royal Safavid
Manuscripts of the Sixteenth Century, New York,
1976.

13. For two of the manuscripts made in Herat,
see ihid., pp. 55-61, and Peter J. Chelkowski
and Priscilla P. Soucek, Mirror of the Invisible
World: Tales from the Khamseh of Nizami, New
York, 1975. There is also the Divan of Hafiz,
executed in Herat in 1523, owned by the Freer
Gallery of Art (32.45-32.54).

14. Two of the albums compiled by Shah
Tahmasp and Bahram Mirza are in Istanbul,
Topkapi Palace Museum, H. 2161 and

H. 2154,

15. The manuscript (46. 12) contains 28
illustrations (S. C. Welch, Persian Painting.
pp. 98-127).

16. For studies of the art of Ishihan under Shah
Abbas, see Ivan Stchoukine, Les Peintures des
Manuscrits de Shah Ahhas ler d la Pin des Safaris.
Paris, 1964, and Renata Holod (ed ). Studies on
Isfahan: Proceedings of the Isfahan Colhu]uium ,
Iranian Studies, vol. VII (1974), 2 vols. See also
the following two publications by Anthony
Welch: Shah Abbas and the Arts of Isfahan, New
York, 1973, and Artists for the Shah: Late
Sixteenth-Century Painting at the Imperial Court of
Iran. New Haven and London, 1976.

17. Friedrich Sarre and Eugene Mittwoch,
Zeichnunzen von Rizii Abb,isi , Munich, 1915,
Abb. 4b.

18. A. U. Pope (ed.), A Survey of Persian Art,
London and New York, 1964-65, vol. V,

p. 1883.

19. Freer Gallery of Art, 33. 7. Boston,
Museum of Fine Arts, no. 14.368 (Ananda K.
Coomaraswamy , Les Miniatures Orientales de la
Collection Goloubew au Museum of Fine Arts de
Boston. Paris and Brussels, 1929, no. 50,

pi. XXVII).

20. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, nos.
14.583-14.591 iibid., no. 43, pi. XXIII).

2 1. The paintings owned by Boston, Museum
of Fine Arts, are published in ibid., nos. AA-Al ,
pis. XXII, XXIV-XXVI.

22. The dated drawing is in Paris, Louvre,
no. 7111 (L' I slam dans les Collections Rationales ,
Edition de Musees Nationaux, Paris, 1977,
no. 657). Muhammedi's drawings representing
mystics and dervishes are in London, India
Office Library, J. 28. 4 (B. W. Robinson,
Persian Paintings in the India Office Library,
London, 1976, no. 152, pi. V); Boston,
Museum of Fine Arts, no. 14.649
(Coomaraswamy, Les Miniatures Orientales,

no. 48, pi. XXVI); Leningrad, Hermitage
(F. R. Martin, The Miniature Painting and
Painters of Persia . India and Turkey, London,

1968, pi. 102); and in London, British
Museum, formerly in a private collection
(Thomas Arnold, Painting in Islam. New York,

1965, pi. XLVII).

23. The drawing with the kneeling youth is in
Paris, Louvre, no. K 3427 (LLslam, no. 659);
the dervish is in Dublin, Chester Beatty
Library, no. 242 (Anthony Welch, "Painting
and Patronage under Shah Abbas I," Studies on
Isfahan, pp. 458-507, fig. 2). Two other signed^
single-page parntings are in Istanbul, Topkapi"^
Palace Museum, H. 2166, fol. 24b and

H. 2156, fol. 45a (ibid., pp. 460-463, fig.

24. Also in Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Museum,
H. 2166, fol. 18a {ibid., fig. 3).

25. A drawing identical to no. 24 in the

143

exhibition w.is published in P & D Colna^hi &
Co., Ltd., Persian and hiiiy^hal Art. London,
1976, no. 51.

26. CI. Huart, Las Calli^rapht:i tt /«
M/niaturistt's cA L'Onent Muuilman. Paris, 1908,
p. 229.

27. Philipp Walter Schultz, Die
Perstsche-hlamtscbt: Miniaturniakni , Leipzig ,
1914, vol. I, pp. 195 and 20.^.

28. Robinson, Pauan Panitnii^. no. 894.

29. Stchoukine, Lo Panl//ris Je Mam/.unts Je
Shah Ahhas. p. 61. The drawing with the
signature is in Boston, Museum of Fine Arts,
no. 14.638 (Coomaraswamy, Lo Miniatures
Orientales. no. 87, pi. XLIX), and the
attributed example is in London, British
Library (Titley, Miniature from Persian
ManiiMr!pt\. no. 404-75).

30. Aka Riza was first identified with Riza-i
Abbasi by Stchoukine in Le\ Peintitres Je\
Maniisirits de Shah Ahbas. pp. 85- 133.

31. Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, no. 277
(A.J. Arberry, B. W. Robinson, E. Blochet
and J. V. S. Wilkinson, The Chester Beatty
Library: a Catalopte uf Persian Manuscripts and
Miniatures. Dublin, 1962, vol. Ill, pp. 49-50).

32. The Kisas al-Anhtya is in Paris,
Bibliotheque Nationale, suppl. pers. 1313 (A.
Welch, "Painting and Patronage"); the Dii'an
was formerly in the Rothschild Collection
(Colnaghi, Persian and Mughal Art, no. 43); and
the Khosrau va Shirin is in London, Victoria and
Albert Museum (A. Welch, "Painting and
Patronage").

33. Ibid., pp. 62-72. One: x.\\t Shahnames is
in two volumes: vol. I, dated 1634, is in
Geneva, Prince Sadruddin Agha Khan
Collection (A. Welch, Shah Abbas and the Arts
oj Isfahan, no. 57); vol. II, dated 1656, is in
Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, no. 270
(ibid. ). There is a second dispersed Shahname.
dated 1648 (;/</(/. . no. 56; Colnaghi, Persian
and Mughal Art. no. 55). A third copy of the
same work, dated 1617, was illustrated by
Muin ca. 1650-60 (Schultz, Die Persische-
Islainische Miniaturmalerei . vol. II, pi. 169). The
history of Shah Ismail, ca. 1650, is in London,
British Library, Or. 3248 (Titley, Miniatures
from Persian Manuscripts, no. 82). There are also
several other Shahnames attributed to Muin; for
instance, the two copies in London, India Ottice
lAhiAty (Koh'mson, Persian Paintings, nos. 1083
and 1152). For more than 30 works assigned to
this artist, see Ernst Kiihnel, "Der Maler
Muin," Pantheon, vol. 29, no. 5 (1942),

pp. 108-114.

34. Sarre and Mittwoch, Zeichnungen von Riza
AbbaM.

35. Ibid., pis. 3B, 24, 25 and 39.

36. The Turkish painting (31 x 19.7 cm.) is in
the Binney Collection (Binney, Turkish
Miniature Paintings, no. 22). For the copy made
in India (311 x 18.6 cm.), see Sotheby's Fine
Oriental Miniatures, Manuscripts and Qajar
Paintings, London, Tuesday, 4th April, 1978,
no. 246.

37. The drawing was obtamed from the Yildiz
Palace by Sarre (Martin, Miniature Paintings and
Painters, p. 33).

38. Ibid.

39. Each of the five books of this work has a
colophon with the name of the scribe and the
date and place ot execution. Shah Mahmud's
signature appears in the colophon of the fifth
book, the Subhat al-Ahrar (46. 12, fol. 46a),
which states that Shah Mahmud al-Nishapuri
finished the work on October 6, 1556, in
Meshhed (C. S. Welch, Persian Painting.

pp. 98-127).

40. Ibid. Titley, Miniatures fnini Persian
Manuscripts . pp. 71-97. Shah Mahmud worked
on this manuscript between 1539 and 1543.

41. V. }A.\noxiV.y , Calligraphers and Painters: A
Treatise by Qadi Ahmad. Son of Mir-Munshi ,
Washington, D.C., 1959, pp. 135-138. The
.luthor ot the treatise was Shah Mahmud's
student and gives a detailed account ot his
master's life.

42. Ivan Stchoukine, Les Peintures des
Manuscrits Safaris de 1502 d 1587, Paris, 1959,
p. 43, and Les Peintures des Manuscrits de Shah
Abbas, p. 73.

43. The figure here is drawn in the same pose
but holds a book and pen. The size ot this
drawing is very close to that of the Freer
example: 15.5 x 8.3 cm. (L'lslam. no. 659).

44. S. C. Welch, A King's Book of Kings, fol.
34 Iv on pp. 165-167, and Persian Painting,
pis. 39, 41, 46-48.

45. Richard Ettinghausen, "The Dance with
Zoomorphic Masks and Other Forms ot
Entertainment Seen in Islamic Art," Arabic and
Islamic Studies in Honor (f Hamilton A . R. Gibb.
ed. George Makdisi, Leiden, 1965,

pp. 211-224.

46. Martin, Miniature Painting and Painters.
pi. 102; Arnold, Painting in Islam, pi. XLVII.
The unsigned version, dating from the early
17th century, is published in Richard
Ettinghausen, "Stylistic Tendencies at the Time
ot Shah Abbas," Studies on Isfahan,

pp. 593-628, fig. 6.

47. The only reference to this calligrapher
appears in Georges Marte.iu .uid Henri Vever,
Miniatures Persanes, Pans, 19 13 , "Signatures des
Calligraphers, " no. 36.

48. His sign.itLire appears on an album page in

Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, no. 14.562
(Coomaraswamy, Les Miniatures Orientales,
no. 37a, pi. XIX).

49. The drawing was sold in 1976 (Colnaghi,
Persian and Mughal Art. no. 51).

50. For recent publications on Mughal
drawings and paintings with full references to
related sources, see Stuart Cary Welch, Indian
Drawings and Painted Sketches. New York, 1976,
.md Imperial Mughal Painting. New York, 1978;
Mik) Cleveland Beach, The Grand Mogul:
Imperial Painting in India 1 600- 1 660.
WiUiamstown, Mass., 1978.

51. Pramod Chandra, The Tuti-nama of the
Clet'eland Museum of Art . Graz, 1976.

52. The project was conceived in 14 volumes,
each with 100 paintings. It is thought to have
been begun in 1550 by Humayun and been
completed in 1580 by Akbar. The majority of
the existing illustrations are in Vienna and
published in facsimile in Hamza-nama, vol. I,
Graz, 1974.

53. Four illustrated copies of the Baburname
were made in the 1590s, all of which are
incomplete and dispersed (Ellen Stevens Smart,
Paintings from the Baburnama: a Study of Sixteenth
Century Mughal Historical Manuscript
Illustrations, University of London, 1977,
doctoral dissertation). Three illustrated copies
of the Akharname were made during the lifetime
of the subject (Deborah Brown Levine, The
Victoria and Albert Museum Akbar-nama: a Study
m History, Myth and Image. University ot
Michigan, 1974, doctoral dissertation
published by University Microfilms, Ann
Arbor, Michigan).

54. For rhe marginal drawings of this volume
signed by Aka Riza and Daulat, see Yedda A.
Godard, "Les Marges de Murakka Gulshan,"
Athar-elran, vol. 1 (1936), pp. 11-33.

55. Ernst Kuhnel and Hermann Goetz, Indische
Buchmalereien aus dem Jahangir Album des
Staatsbihliothek zu Berlin. Berlin, 1924.

56. Milo Cleveland Beach, "The Gulshan
Album and Its European Sources, " Bulletin of
the Museum of Fine Arts. Boston, vol. LXIII,
no. 332 (1965), pp. 63-90.

57. Godard, 'Tes Marges du Murakka
Gulshan, " tigs. 1-8.

58. The Freer Gallery of Art owns three
paintings depicting Jahangir signed by this
artist: 46.28, 48.28 (dated \Gh) and 45.9
(Richard Ettinghausen, Paintings of the Sultans
and Emperors of India in American Collections .
New Delhi, 1961, pis. 11 and 12).

59. Huart, Les Calligraphes. p. 225. The name
of this artist appears both in the Tehran and
Berlin Jahangir albums. It is also found in the
colophon of the Khanisa of Nizami, dated 1509,

144

in Dublin, Chtster Beatty Library, no. 182
(Stchoukine, Les Peintures ties Manusmts Safaris .
no. 47); on an album leaf in London, India
Office Library, J. 28.5 (Robinson, Persian
Paintings, no. 222); and on a folio from an
Ottoman album in the Freer Gallery ot Art,
33.6 (Esin Atil, Turkish Art iif the Ottoman
Period. Washm^uton, D.C., 1973, no. 5). The
style of All is almost identical to that of the
celebrated Mir Ali of Herat and both
calligraphers often use "al-Katib" and/or
"al-Sultani" after their name. It has been
suggested that the two names bek)ng to the
same artist.

60. Minorsky, Calligrapher<, and Painters,

pp. 126-13 1. Many of his works are mcluded in
the Tehran and Berlin Jahangir albums. The
Freer Gallery of Art owns several other Mughal
album leaves which contam Mir All's signed
examples: 07.258, 39.49, 39.50 and 48.28
(dated 1533-.34).

61. For the works of Aka Rua, see Godard,
"Les Marges du Murakka Gulshan," tigs. 1-8.
Govardhan's drawing is reproduced in Kuhnel
and Goetz, Indische Buihnialereien , pi. 38.

62. For a detailed study ot the karg, or
rhinoceros, see Richard Ettinghausen, Studies in
Muslim Iconography: I. The Unicorn,
Washington, D.C., 1950.

63 . The most comprehensive study ot this
school is in W. G. Archer, Indian Painling\ from
the Punjab Hills , London, 1973, 2 vols.

64. Ihid.. vol. I, pp. 244-310; vol. II,
pp. 194-234.

65. This set is discussed m Alvan C. Eastman,
The Nala-Damayanti Draiiingi. Boston, 1959.

Appendix

Accession Numbers in Numerical Order

Name of calligrapher

All

Hasan Shainlu
Mir All (of Herat)
Mir All (of Tabriz)
Muhammed Huseyin al-Tahrizi
Muhammed Riza
Shah Mahmud

Name of painter

Abd al-Samad
Abu 1 -Hasan

Mirza Muhammed ai-Huseyni

Muhanimedi

Muhammed Muhsin

Muin Musavvir

Murad

Riza 19, 19A,

Sheykh Muhammed

Dated drawings

1598
1613
1616
1619
1633
1638

1639 3 1

1641

1642

1643

1649

1672

Cat. no.

Acc. no.

Cat. no.

Acc. no.

Cat. no.

62

07.2

20

53. 13

53

21

07. 155

77

53. 14

39

63, 64, 65
1-7

07. 157
07. 161

18
68

53. 16
53. 17

45

47

07.204

71

53.22

51

15A
12

07 .211
07.21=1

72
73

53.23
53.24

28

35

07.256

75

53.25

29

07.607

74

53.26

36

65
68
18

15, 15A
24, 25
26, 34

15

19B, 27-33

16, 16A

07.618

69

53.27

30

12.99

24

53.28

3 1

23. 10

80

53.29

32

23. 11

79

53.30

37

23. 12
23. 13

82
81

53.3 1
53.32

49
50

28. 10

19

53.33

38

29.3

29.76

29.79

67
66
8

53.34
53.35
53.36

33
57
58

Cat. no.

30.85

78

53.37

60

32.9

19A

53.39

40

27

M.M)

1

53.40

48

18

32. M

2

53.41

41

28

32. =12

3

53.42

55

35

32.33

4

53.43

52

29

30, 34, 36
33, 37, 38

32.34
32.35
32. =17

5
6

7

53.44
53.45
53.46

42
43
46

39, 40
41, 42, 43

37.8
37.21

15A
16A

53.47
53.48

56

44

44

37.23

16

53.49

59

24

37.25

10

53.57

34

26

38. 14

9

53.58

54

40. 18

17

54.24

19B

45.29

70

54.27

61

46.15

15

54.28

22

46.27

76

54.32

14

47.22

1 1

54. 116

63

47.23

25

56. 12

64

50. 1

12

63.4

65

50.2

13

66. 13

26

52.2

62

67.7

21

5.V 12

27

68. 11

23

147