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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177

ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN BRITISH GUIANA

By CLIFFORD EVANS and BETTY J. MEGGERS

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1960

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Bureau or AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, Washington, D.C., June 25, 1959. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “Archeological Investigations in British Guiana,” by Clifford Evans and Betty J. Meggers, and to recommend that it be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Very respectfully yours, Frank H. H. Roperrs, JR, Director. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. pa

: >¥ se aN H JUL 10 198 \

Teepaee Jp \. SBRART A

CONTENTS

Page

apOIOA CT Oe ee ee ae ee RS Lee a eee eae cca es XIX NEVER OD CTO Nie ae hs ale ie ee a ee ee ee 1 Background of the British Guiana archeological survey_------------ 1 [tineranyeand tel dsconditionss- se — eo o= — see eee ee eee ee 2 IRbresentationiOmuneiGataeasns sos 8 see Seca ee ae eo eS 9 (CnrmOoGRAPHICAT, DESCRIPTIONS = So otic 5 a see ee ee Ce 14 hep Northwestrlowlandsi. 22. S25 5.2922 ey eee oe 17 SIS Many Jbl mCEMe etic ean Se ee oe a ee Re A 18 Mb PECL P MseQ utes [oe te eos ae on ee ee ies 19 aS eu AES Aye eee ee ee es fe ee ie eee 19 CONC IUISI OT eee eee a ee ata es ek uD Se ee eh 20 PehCrnAMIC HITHIC HORIZON Mane. os2- 95 loe) 22 SB 5 a 21 SItestan Ge aT tiLac uses ee Sew = ooo ae py EO oe 21 Barimashiv.ere NOrtiwesh Districts =- seo aes oe ee 21

Cuyunar River; Mazarunt District... 22nee oe 2 ooo. eases all ireneiiver, Hupuntinig Districts 225 5..o25 ok es 22

Paikasa, Creek, Rupununi. District. .=.4.. 2. 5 oso et 22 Tabatinga River, Itupununk District <2 ooo Les ; 22 Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations_--.--_---_------ 23 eee) NORTHWEST LOWEHANDS 2s 94 0F 23ers 25 fbherAlakarbnaseue sel se. Bae sais te se es 8 as ore SE 25 Description of sifes.and excavations...c.¢-+_==..2 4 .--=-==-=- 25 IN=6hittlepwentaballimwit soa ey Le Se eee De oS 25

IN= So Ad alcas (reel. yet a a ee eg Ap 27

IN=9 > Algkavisland==J5220 20258 528 8 22 de 29

IN 102s Sandu@reekss 2 a2 a8 a tee oo eee apes 31

INI Hosororo:@reek 5.3 5 boon 8 Ss 32

N-16: Akawabi Creek Shell Midden____..__.-_---_------ 33

Data from other investigations__.....----- ie a es oe 2 ae 34 Barambinanbarabina) Mid denss ese = eee oe eee 34 Miscellaneous Northwest District shell middens_-—-_---___-- 35 WaramrurwShell Middens= 22+. .22 2542140632 -.e2 oe os 35

Cabseaburr biel Madden... 22 5...2.5..2.* 229s. 2p 2.5.2 37

Akawanit Shells Wound) 335. 22e ree 3 es lee Le 37

Sinks oVOunG ee eee eee eek eae i a ee ee! he 37 irdccamMiddenie ss 2522 2. esse ee aes eee ee ee 38

AMAL Vain Ob MIA terET IG Ta) 22 Sic hoe te 2. eye ee yee 38 Gbjectaef bone and: teeth. <=. os228 02 be ee ee 5 38

yi el SO ee PI SO oy SERS, ea ie ee 38

Bavich iv ae 20 es cate eee Le ee EA eS 38

Drillédishark’s tooth.os. e244 oo eo nee ton 38

IV CONTENTS

THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS—Continued The Alaka Phase—Continued

Analysis of materials—Continued Page Stone artifactitypess joo S20 de ee eee 38 Percusston-madeicore) toolss2= 2224-22 see ee 40 Choppers ty etageues anh ee 40 @hopper-hammerstones..— 242 5)2222 255 eee eee 40 Hammerstones:) 2 bo 2 ae eee 40

ifafted hammerstones2 22422) S22 eo ae 40

I QeRe Sie bette a eee oe 43

ar pe (COre picks 452 secu te ye 74 sa ao ee 43 Percussion-made' flake ‘tools 2222222) 2222225222502 43

Bla ea cite oct rs Sie caper) § 281k mee Oe eee 43

Bible pyre less boc yee Fb ON OE AS PR 43

Scrapers) eho ss ele sore cal ee ee 47 Percussion-made tools with some abrasion____-_-______- 50

Celtes tis fase RS A ee 50

Wir air eisai oe oh hie le Se oe ee 50

| ee [2's Salad gpg NES fa peg pg yi Parga Si Syd AA el 50

Rubbing stones2e aise ee ee ee ae 50

Polished tools 2s iijiy hs Sih it ogo oh a a SE re ae 50

Ce cae rs ee na oak sae denen eae eT a 50

Chisels ior gouges ts oe Ale eke I A ee 50

1a ao A A Ms Lk PR RE St NE Se Be 8 53

Vie Carte ne sniaisiceantin ht At Sees ee ets ae Td Ae ee es ee ee 53 Miscellaneous polished tools...__---------------- 53

Pottery;type deseriptions! Soo 22 ec whe ee ee eee 53 SPN (6 Nl Oa ge cpesbts gy bh owe Saal lige Ee le RS aE te nee 55 VVATVALT ye LAT TT eee ene Hee! AA Ie BA LSE A 5) ee bp Unclassified Cariapé-tempered Plain__----.___-------- 57 Unclassified Clay-tempered Plain__------------------ 57 Mackissifiedsecorsbeds 227 soe te ee ee eee 58

Trade sherds from the Mabaruma Phase__-_-_-_____-_-- 58

1 BY ites ghigdre a gt Lift $e hs pepe Mle ata le gla OR ape rh AES ENO 58 The site sequence and its implications.._._.._..-_------------- 59 Diagnostic features of the Alaka Phase___-___._-__.___-------- 63 ‘The Mabaroma\ Phases sono oe ee eae ree eee 65 Description of sites and excavations_.-.._-------------------- 65 Ns1: -Mabaruma: Headquarters’ 22 22022 ee Oe 65 IN-As-iMoeriabo Pointy 223s hoo. oe See ee ee 67 IN=A DS PEVOSOLOLO MELaL Us 2 eee a Nar LNs het aI Eager aah ean pea 68

INF Siero bod etait: fate ei BP Efe eae cen Oe 71 IN=14: }Hobodeia Schooliss 242204 Bo ae eee 71 N-15: Hotokwai (Hotakwaia, Hotakwai)-..-------------- 72 N=16: Akawabi- Creek: 222. oo. ee eee 73 NaI: Waunal <n ee eee 75 IN=18:) Hobo Eile oe oot ho a 76 N=-19:-Kumaka Creekouss saute se ee ae eee oe eee 76 N-20: Koberimo Hill (Kobarima, Koberino, Kobarino) ---- 77 N=21:. Koberimo Hilltop Site’ Now 2le82s2082—- 2 fe Se 78 N-22: Koberimo Hilltop Site No. 2..-----_-------------- 78

N=23" Barambingy -Hrill 2 ie he es ee a 79

CONTENTS

THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS—Continued The Mabaruma Phase—Continued

Date from-oether investigations-<=.=<-=.207 Soiel 23 Ae as) | Wauninaa(Wanaing) Palle <= =-=2 ys eee ee a5 panaican tallies ee co ea cee eee eee ee oe ek

Aen piarabl teens ee ee Se eee ee ewe tere MiaruniwaeHillics to - ap hee eee eee AOS! Analvnicmshaia terial: =< =) 2-cese ten needs SON oe Stone aginact nypes-4s2 2 240 e VES see Beek

Delis nponshetss.c esse cts cent neko eee oe

Ghappers-s= 522 4=4o-2n< acon mee ee NOM 2 8 oe Hlakesbladesior: knives=--== = 0ts IRAN he kek

Polishingstones== +24 =. BEL ES Ree od oe Mlakestandenaturalrockget00Uss 2 Meee) ek Pottery typo aeneriptionss: a. 240)» DON OMe ee ek Akawabi Incised and Modeled______________________- Arulca incised: -2-8s+-2-22~ Ti a OS Ue ete Hee cee iElosororoe lain’ BEA As 32 POOR ORBEA 2 Hotokwail/Plainioss=<22 22-25 ee Se UN BOI 8 ok Kaituma Incised and Punctate.-..-_ 22-2... - Koberimovelains==<222sncec ct eee BRAIN. ee ee Mabaruma incised a 2e 22 212 S202 BO ee ee SA IMabaruma Plains 2222204) Sie 2 Brine he) Sie ueiee WinclassifiedéP lange 2255 2S Gms 19 OU se) SVE ees Unclassified. Red Painted.---=c<<-<222. 200 IR IAS Unclassified White Slipped______------------_------- Unelassified: Decorated: 262 210) Bets Jo Pa U Tee Brushed+¢-2ee<2<22 eet ee WORN a Pek INGisGGs a se5 eee nee I EE IAL ped Modelo dics =. seem oun ee ce MUI MEE 8 Punctates: 2]. +— Lieb Ga BU Wis BOLI O ATS Behe Trade sherds of Koriabo Phase origin---____-_--_--_-_- iPottenycantifacts==s==— 2-2 == 52> Ree ae ee SU TPO tT OS tS tan te ee

The site sequence and its implications.____-.----------------- Diagnostic features of the Mabaruma Phase_____-_--_--------- iiedseriaborPhases6<-<s-s2-20 scntee pe SO CEE BOO Description-of. sites and excavations-.- 25. 2 £2. Si2s2_.__..--.- N—2 iS OMB DO 22 = Hse eee ce OSU pO

IN—3? Mrs: Robert's Landing---=-=220 9.4 {Ue Was

IN-52, Bamboo Hill-~==-=<22.-208e4 VSO Ua ss N-¢#2-Warapoco: Mission: Site. .02°_. 285) Walk -_-

Data from: other investigations: ~=./. 8. 2222 2200..2._...--.---

VI CONTENTS

THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS—Continued

The Koriabo Phase—Continued Page Analysis of materials... 22253 eet tas ee ee eee 128 Stone arvitact Uypese ass ne Meew ee al Te ie wee mera 128

7 Wy ae i Be i Ts tL a epg RS REEL T pies NO WBE aby oe a 128

=) NSE AE» FAG EA Belge) a ame SPEE EPA OS ops 08 WSR siete 128

Chisel. cactus eke ae a ad ekg 129 Choppers-caiueoh ei 2h eek eee oa eee 129

Blake blades and :kniyes. oo Soe Sse eee 129

Miss ee ee iets Os aa 2 a le 129

EW ACS a7 va EA J MR BEI a I Ck Bet UN TENT EIU 130 Polishing stoneso.) js Shae. eee ee ee 130 Flakes-and natural rocks... oeeeke. ie es 130

Pottery typeidescriptions. 0. 2. oe ee ee 130 Barimia (Penn: so eR a ac gg 130 Korisbovincised= a. 2) Jura a2 Luo Pe 2 Ce aa eee 132

Wome) Plains otis Ses 0 Ca gn 134

ECOLIAD ORO CLAP Gee eye ast Son Ne gegen 136 Unelassified "Decorated. 2 .5b4- 222 ee oe eee 137 Winclassified| Pleyinne 25 oe ky bes 0 a ee 138 Unclassified White, Slipped: 2. 2¢.2¢ 442. th 0 = oe 138 Wiarapoco. Plain o2 22h. Ee ee ee 138

Trade sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin____._---_---- 139 Potteryiartitacten Joe aL ie 141

Bot masts co lee tse 6 Bee Sa Os ee 142

Worked sherd) . - 28 205 Uae Ane ae pe 142

The site sequence and its implications..._......-------------- 142 Diagnostic features of the Koriabo Phase____._.....___.--.----- 144 Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations__..______-_----- 145 A AR ARY REVERS 0 eal Pe ee Re a ee 154 he Absry (Plngse 2 rt Co el rk RR we 154 Description of sites and excavationss-s45 4s se ee eee 154 Bal IGGL RSIANG 2. coe ete too oR hea oe 154

1B PAF 1D i eheal Cos Sha BEN as bb a ealhe mnMenpalae panes, RoI Te Bi eI UR AUS pe 156

15 Oe UPS IC MN NL ee to ea a ee UE 22s 157

DD Ata erOMvOuHeL) IM Vest Sa elOM ses: ae = eee ieee ee eee 158 Amailiysis' of material. cine) Le ile. eee Cheol aia ae ea 159 Stonesartitact types-225 224202 oe ee 160

#113 ial Ape MARR GEE ney epee OUR URL ere ie REP pean) a3 fa) 160

Axpaxar Celtao. <2. 2a!" ec 2 AE Na eh ere 160

13201 ¢ [NG a A ace SE REO) NU EST Reet 161 Hammerstones. 2-022 Sen eee he 161

Mipam06 2. oo) ire ie Bt ee I i ene 161

Metate gad dtu 2 ete Re uo Ee Dake 163 Rubbing stones... Seu oe OL 2S Se ee 163

Chips and cores. 24. 3egse Se Ae” ee eee 164

Pottery type deseniptions.. 22-2. 2-5. 1 Uke uli se ie ee ee 164 Abary Plaines). eae eS ee es Sai eee 164 Taurakull Plaine 232202 22 ee a eee ee 165

Tiger Island Plain. se Sue 2 tape 2d el ER bl Bal ee 168 Dnelassified! Plain 2! ttyl Wha) ey ue a eee 170 Unclassified Decorated) aces cesuce es ole seem U7

Red paimited coors ee toh ap es ee a yr gi

Unclassified incisediae. 245 use eee ee lye

CONTENTS

Ture Apary RiveR—Continued The Abary Phase—Continued Analysis of material—Continued Pottery type descriptions—Continued Mabaruma Phase decorated types_--- Mabaruma Phase plain types___-_--- Rotterygartifactss oo ae = Sekai: a The site sequence and its implications_______- Diagnostic features of the Abary Phase___-__-- Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations THE Uprer Essequispo Rain Forest___.-----.-- gaate ‘Die, Parums Phase 2 itt} Saute aot or doedks Description of sites and excavations__._____-_- Habitation sitesa2 245545252. - . Sadpeyere ss Pole Kanasher. 3 A als

E-6: Masakukinyere___....__..-_-- Bo72 -Manakakashin ) isis. a.u id B99 Kalumyex mestesateera) whe bose B10: Mawika-t6-. 022.2 2 .ssels

E-19: Cholyolyoliwat6___...._.___- B20 Weelyacti. — os K-22: Totoyoguyaotonté__.._-_-_-- E-23: Kassikaityu Mouth__________ E-24; Nahnataluté..... stateless E-25: Chafariwayun__2i2.L2-2242-_ H=28:, Yukumnalulum:22-. 2. K-29: Wana Wana______.._2-c2l22 B-30: Erefoimo: 2238) sasttpaneds o Slash-and-burn field clearings___..______- E-8: Kulupal Yewku__-.._-.-_-_-- E-14: Yewara-té

B-27:-Worokym-tultts2. eles Additional field clearings_....______- Petroglyphs eta) eat nite? of Ban Data from other investigations Analysis of material

Stone objects

OLC a) 312) eee a en aR ra). cr.) at Se Griddle or metate fragments(?).............---.----- Rubbing stones OQuartzienyataladht (ak fu VF vite Ye uaa etn? ately - Quartz, pebblesvestel hen serntleurn ehinls worl ley e cen

VII

VIII CONTENTS

Ture Urpprrr Essequiso RaIn Forrst—Continued The Taruma Phase—Continued Analysis of material—Continued

Stone objects—Continued Page RORTM Ae RT RR SIS Sn es 212

Raw. materials. 247k ue wae Pee see 213

Pottery type descriptions ._ 22. 2a Pee ee 213 Kalunye Plam. 2 tants: BEE ek See Se ee ais Kanashen:Incised2 caus “ult Pye. ese eee = 216 Kassikaityu Punctates oh. Sie Se a ae 218 Manakakashin) Redo 2600. Bak Datos rE Bae 219 Manakakashin Red-on-White---____-_-------------- 221

Mawika Plam.-)wise aera ik Satie le Rel 224

Onoro Staniped.2 3 ee ee 225

Yoons. Pisin. 20000 Ree As SE ee 227 Potteryiactifact types.) eee Sew is ee 230

d £2) FER i=, gp ee eee} SS AS 1 ad gn WEI ee Ne 230

Spindle whorls os Be Oe See ee 233 Whistles 222 2252250 lt a eee 233

Objects. of’ Huropean, origin. JF sesesne ied. ee ee 235 The site sequence and its implications____-____--------------- 235 Ethnographic. evidence..2 2 ee ae ae ee ee eee 242 Agriculture. 2o.42 5220552 Oe ee a at Ph 243 Settlement pattern 22.00 (up Eee nie ae heh. eo eee 243 House 250 oe ee Pe eee eee 243 Pottery... 5-2 oo S| ee ee 243 Weatererattc0 2002 oo eee Oe iy OE ae oe 244 Disposal of the dead. Uo - See ON ies. Pea eee 244 Dress and ornament... See Re See eee 245 Diagnostic features of the Taruma Phase_--_--_--_------------ 245 "EHO LW Val. Wal See et Ne te eS She oo Sees 247 Description of sites and excavations___._.____----------------- 247 Bo: Prefoimo: = anes ve laotiagy See eee 247 P11 2 Kukws, Mututol 2. ae a See eee 249 Dats, from other investigations = 22-7292 52 IAC. ses a22 eee 249 Analyaisofiumaterial 22) a0 yng a es See ery oo eee 249 Stoneiartifact bypess 215. 3 wa ee See 2 eee 250 Pottery,.type descriptions.2.4.. One an See eee 250 Hrefoimo) Incised. 2 \esio ok Oe ey el es 250 Hrefoimo: Painted (0) ipo Tan See Ee ees 251 Hrefoimo, Plain 005) i ay) Stee 2 Se or ee 254

Pottery, artitact: types... iD Sania ae oe ee 256

Pot reste: ee JA eS eee 256

Spindle whorls. 22.5. Tae ees Be oe eee 256 Objects;of European origine iis: bact Mn aee 2 Soe 256 The site sequence and its implications.___....._..---/+------- 258 Ethnographic evidencée_.__.__. 2 sae ees Se eee 260 Agriculture 20 ou ee eee re ee ee 260 Settlement pattern: 2S a Se ee es 260 Ppp oe eS hl Se ee 261 Population 22220 oS oe ees a CS ee 261 Pottéry..... Pe ee ee ee ee 261 Disposal. of ‘the dead... Aa eee eee 262 Diagnostic features of the Wai Wai Phase_------------------- 262

Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations---------------- 262

CONTENTS Ix

Page

EMO UCUMUNE (OAV ANNALS. ooo soho tock nee coon eee oeee ees 271 feie Epa Stn ASe oe ee oe ee ee ea 271 Description of sites and excavations_-_------------------------ 271 Habpitablon sites sete se aoe eee ee eee ee ae ee eee se aie s 271 fee OCU MCG VinHpere eo ene nee ees ae (Bee Rosalie Src tg Or o£ ens pal nage et ees a Qe R-5: Marakanata Waterhole, Village 1______-------- 272 R-6: Marakanata Waterhole, Village 2______-------- 272 isk ayamulkite ee eevee oe et ee ake cece 273 Ress Qusdinin, Wildes Iceoc tet etch tees ee eee ss 273 R-Oc Ountata lias 22222 ttt ttre ee a ose ee 274 SSS LC ekgal Sas aes es eC Mind sl at ce Re ates le tae ep nen 274 RoliePiratspl solange 2. Sees soe eee ate eee 274 Res meAriniseme mice ns ee ern steer ers Mea oe ee = 275 R-tor Ruponuni Landing yoo. cot. - =< 275 Ry) Upper Marakars Village. <4 wn eee 275 R19.) Lower isarakate Villape 3 iene 275 ROO SMUsebetan ee ae eee ee ee ee ie 276 R22 Wieawie-taUnCavew-.2teeeeme tees Ve OS 277 in—25>. Wie-wie-tau, Villape, Loo ne ete tS 278 R=94te Wie-wie-tau,: Villate:22.>— 22-8 s See tosaee 278 R=25:> Wie-wie-tau, Village 3.2.22-252--.--..------=- 278 R=267 Wie-wie-tau,; Village 42.280 ee = ao =. 278 R27 Mantiowas (Villapeiow Ss nee BS 279 hve Naibi-wau, Villige 2: Soe ee a eae 279 R290. Mabilewau, Villaeeiseus 2 - Senos. oo eo oe 279 Race Maibiewall, Viliee o2* ooo eos See oee 280 Regt Maubi-wany Vilave soe) oes oe 280 B32 Maubiawau, village O-°_* ~~ - 3 so22 22S 2 oS 280 IR=ootWielaln OLGl sere & hese tiene ee oe ee eae 280 Rss Mormiswausblerd=s=-=2ee2l5- oes eeee ea eee= 281 Ries DISMMOUTIURINE D2 eo Reet at Sc ee ig 281 Pao AWE Wee OR nce ome ton 2 Ss 284 (OTE 2 PELE SH eNO GT RS «fants Raven led eh alae fl tested Sey ge AR 284 Ral eIVOCOMMOCONS Helter a= neem te ate See 284 RUS ROCKIE Olt Ss en ee ee ee eae tera eae 285 Rolo. iarssa pal rales eee ee eee sa ae 287 R=-16: Upper Karakara Cemetery. .--/ = 2-2 === =<. -- 287 R-18: Lower Karakara Cemetery_.....--------------- 288 ota bei, puelver t)-co fe Seo ee ee ee 290 Beas SOel-bau, Seer oon cis oo oe Ree Coe e ee 293 Rote Perr Wall ne eo ee oon acct 293 R=sGs WOrMISWwaUc lend «so Ss ee fet ew eee eee 297 COroriiiinl Bibenoe ee ee een oe etn tae ee ee i ae 297 Re2leSMarkaunwaldaec sss n= ase sae oe eee en 297 Ros) Matie-en-thU nee ees eee ee ee eee 297

Ate from Guler INVesiipanons.—. 8. o-oo tae coe neo 298 Pabivablonisites see eo ee ee eee eee eee eae 298 RAO Arias eo re eke ee Ne mye Seer ee se 298 \SLELTT SR Sh pc 2 pegaapee apt iedatiatid ne of bile cs nlee tchanaepepi e 298 CATA aT hence Gali ong tg te fendi aches) hens Aa aha Ai 298

UNGU TERRA CO a a 2s eS: Be 2 oot ee el Ss oe ees 299 Ceremanminh sipeseser iit 22s ae eal So ee ci ell 300

x CONTENTS

Tue Rupununr SAvANNA—Continued

The Rupununi Phase—Continued Page

Anpilysis.ot materiales 2000 ee 2 eee 300

Stonelartifiact’ by pesesa sass ea te ee ee ee eee 301

SPRSEN RNY 2a ta wn cet se ia 301

DO Ce eee eee een a ee eS oon te Sea oe a 301

Bow]s..oeeeis onde doenthe ieee ete etek eee eee 302

(COMPS Bact a oa ae ae ae ae Seat ee 303

Hlammerstonmes 222-2522 2— oe oe ee eer 303

18 ay): ee an Es a ER a YR SE ee eee 303

Man0sid sconces oh ap eee a sam ete ae aS ere are 304

MBbAtRS He 22255 nico at ie ta 304

Shanispolisher’ 20 2 oe eh oe heel ee ee 304

Cores and. flakes... 2.2. - 2263-25 ease se eo 304

Natural stones... 14). woe ee ee eee ieee 306

Pottery type descriptions — --.- 6. 422 ee ee aoe 306

WamulsuPlain os oce/2h oe ett le Eek ee a 306

Ripa Plann o-oo eee eek ee 309

Unclassified Cariapé-tempered_._.....--------------- 310

Unclassified) Decorated=. 2229 oot be 8S Eee 311

PRCISION Soe ae a et coe ee oe 311

WiMGG Abst Se ee eee Ste es eee 311

Appliques.:- 2023 s2- se snc tees ape eo eee eee 311

Punctatessc2 he cen aoe bet ee ee 311

White slipio.\ e.25o-. steno ot dees oe ee 311

Red fila: aa ceo og ga ae ee Sle

Trade pobterys.< josie eta ee ee 312

Taruma,Phase types. 22.22.25 4c ee oe ee 312

Koriabo, Phase typesen.00 45-22 -——e eso oe eee 312

PGtlGEy AT UllaCtes. 22ers 312

Potsreste. oie cule ese ek is We ee ae Se See 312

Higurines. 05! 0 oka a oe ek ee 312

Dipko.) 2 pees oe ad tS ee 314

Blatupoushers. 22022 052 oft ee eee 314

Rubbing tool - nea So ee Se ce 314

Bone artifacts! <22c22 0) = eben ee pce ee 314

Objects:of European origins .,<- 20 jo ee es ee 314

The site sequence and its implications_-_--------------------- 317

Ethnographic evidence. 2 =. ee ee eee 323

Subsistence. 2 3). - 2 eh oe Se ee eae eee 323

Settlement pattern..-.- oe ye oe eee ee eee 323

Houses. wc okeck elec eae ee ea See ees 323

Potber yee tata oes CE ee at oe ee 324

Spindle; whocle- 225 oe ee ee 325

Disposal of jhe dead... 222 ee ee ee 325

Diagnostic features of the Rupununi Phase__..---------------- 325

Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations_---------------- 326 Tus CurtuRAL SEQUENCE IN BriTIsH GUIANA: GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND

VEN irs Coy Us ap 69 f= eee espa on pe aN UN ee ee ee tee sto eae sc ss 333

airenatTurs, Crrep.. 22.) es Se ee ee ee ee eee 348

fot feb fod ped bed RwODH ©

15. 16.

OOAD MP hy

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES (All plates follow page 418)

. Travel by foot on the Rupununi savanna. . Travel by horseback on the Rupununi savanna.

. Travel by Fordson truck and Land Rover on the Rupununi savanna. Old and new forms of transportation.

. Hxpedition housing.

. Facilities on the upper Hssequibo.

. Travel by watercraft.

. Projectile points of the preceramic, lithic horizon.

. Views of the Northwest lowlands.

. Choppers: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase.

. Blades: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase.

. Picks: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase.

. Type sherds of Wanaina Plain, Alaka Phase.

. M-1: Mabaruma Headquarters, a habitation site of the Mabaruma

Phase.

Habitation sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 1: low relief, Mabaruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 2: high relief,

Mabaruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 3: Barrancoid

adornos, Mabaruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid

adornos, Mabaruma Phase.

. Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled of the Mabaruma Phase re-

covered from sites of the Koriabo Phase.

. Type sherds of Aruka Incised, Mabaruma Phase. . Aruka Incised bowl from M-1. . Sherds of Mabaruma Phase decorated types recovered from sites of the

Koriabo Phase.

. Type sherds of Hosororo Plain, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Hotokwai Plain, Mabaruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase.

27. Type sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Koberimo Plain, Mabaruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Mabaruma Incised, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Mabaruma Plain, Mabaruma Phase. 31. 32, 33.

N-7: Warapoco Mission, a habitation site of the Koriabo Phase. Type sherds of Barima Plain, Koriabo Phase. Type sherds of Koriabo Incised, Koriabo Phase.

34. Type sherds of Koriabo Plain and Warapoco Plain, Koriabo Phase.

35 36

. Type sherds of Koriabo Scraped, Koriabo Phase. . Sherds of Koriabo Phase decorated types recovered from sites of other Phases.

xI

Ooon

CONTENTS

. Sherds with Koriabo Phase types of decoration and form from the

Charlesburg site, Dutch Guiana.

. Habitation sites of the Abary Phase.

. Decorated sherds from Abary Phase sites.

. General views of the upper Essequibo River.

. Type sherds of Kanashen Incised, Taruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Kanashen Incised, Taruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Kassikaityu Punctate, Taruma Phase.

. Pottery types of the Taruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase. . Type sherds of Onoro Stamped, Taruma Phase.

. Type sherds of Yocho Plain, Taruma Phase.

. Habitation sites of the Wai Wai Phase.

. Pottery vessels of the Wai Wai Phase.

. Pot rests of the Wai Wai Phase, showing the manner in which they

are used to support a vessel over a cooking fire.

. Wai Wai pottery making. . Wai Wai pottery making.

Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Ceremonial sites of the Rupununi Phase.

. Stone axes of the Rupununi Phase in the collections of the British

Guiana Museum, Georgetown.

. Stone hoes of the Rupununi Phase.

. Type sherds of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain, Rupununi Phase. . Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase cemetery sites.

. Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase

cemetery sites.

. Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase

sites.

. Griddles from the Rupununi Phase. . Shaft polishers from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase.

TEXT FIGURES

. Map of British Guiana showing general itinerary during archeological

IN VEStI SATO ME a bi es a i i he

. Map of British Guiana showing principal geographical features____.-- . Worked stones from the nonceramic site of R-4: Tabatinga, on the

Rupunuinl savy oe ae aa ele a

. Map of the Northwest District, showing the location of archeological

. Objects of bone and teeth from Alaka Phase sites__.....----------- . Choppers: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase__-_-.------ . Hammerstones: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase-----_-

Page

CONTENTS

. Hafted hammerstones: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase__ Mbteranr ube, Alsat: Pbase. 22. oo es eT ED ae Bs poe . Blades: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase____________- . Large, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase___________-_- . Large, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase________---_-- . Small, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase___________--- . Percussion-made flake scrapers of the Alaka Phase__________._____- . Percussion-made pestles of the Alaka Phase showing surfaces worn by

SrINGIN Ges es Be SEE AS | wily) ace) Mee eeieienete Te. walt

. Alaka Phase stone tools showing polishing__.._....._...-.---------- . Mano and metate fragment from N-11, a site of the Alaka Phase_-__- . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Sand Creek Plain and

Waraina) Pisin pAlaks Phase jos. faaern ye cool hsh jeaog es

. Sketch map showing the location of N-11: Hosororo Creek, a shell

midden of the Alaka Phase, and N-12: Hosororo Hill, a habitation siteion thedMabsruma Phasero..s484edslor slot Jo sdul dele

. Detailed map of the Aruka River area, showing the distribution of

hills in this part of the Northwest District__....._.._._..__-_------

. Sketch map of N-15: Hotokwai, a habitation site of the Mabaruma

. Sketch map of N-16: Akawabi Creek, showing the location of the

Alaka, Phase shell midden and the subsequent Mabaruma Phase Na bIGa MOE Stes 22 eM 8h ber peer) nee AS yee! ory tilt

. Stone tools from the Mabaruma Phase__..__._._._....---------.--- . Grinding tools from the Mabaruma Phase___.-____________-__------ . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Akawabi Incised and

Modeled, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 4)..__.___.__---_---- Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 3: Barrancoid adornos, Maba- Berne pe paa ros) satin fost Selene lh bude boosie) lee ul Ate at

. Anthropomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4:

non+barrancoid,: Mabaruma) Phases.) (22a 52te2eb en eens. 22

. Anthropomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4:

non-Barrancoid, Mabaruma Phase._....._._.____.-__-.--------

. Zoomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-

Barrancoid,; Mabaruma Phases ous entess_ seit vue Aad Sous

- Zoomorphie adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-

Barrancoid, Mabarunia) Phase 2. oss 2) omit alot Jouzam_sete

. Zoomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-

Barrancoid)Mabarums Phases ))/2u2@ losses Poe jo eee oe cage Bird adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barran- omg. Mabaruma PHAR. oo eee ee lt SE

. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Aruka Incised,

Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 6)_....-..------------------

. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hosororo

Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 8)__...._._____---------

. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hotokwai

Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 9)____.._______--------- Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 10)_._.____-----_-_--

XIV CONTENTS

Page

42. Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Motif 1: incised lines ending in punctates, Mabaruma Phase... .----.--- sekt adele sab Be ees 106 43. Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase_____.._..-.------ 107

44, Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Koberimo Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 12)_----_---_---------- 110

45. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mabaruma Incised, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 13).......-.--.---_--------- 111

46. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mabaruma Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 14)__-.-_--_--_-_------ 113 47. Pottery artifacts of the. Mabaruma Phase_-.---25-J.--bi-se82035_2a2 118

48. Seriation of Mabaruma Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table 3) 244_ besaisvecibes the Se ees 118

49, Temporal distribution of vessel shapes and decorative motifs of

Mabaruma Phase decorated pottery types, and base forms of Mabaruma Phase plain pottery types-..-..-------------2----22 120 50. Sketch map of N-2: Koriabo, a habitation site of the Koriabo Phase-- 125 BL... Kerisbo Phase stone! tools) 5. seer Sek ee Nee ele Te soe eee 129

52. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Barima Plain, Koriabo Phase;(Appendix, table I) iets te eat) ae to So eae eee 131

53. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Koriabo Phase decorated pottery types (Appendix, tables 17 and 19)---_--------- 133

54. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Koriabo Plain, Koriabo Phase (Appendix, table 18)_.--.-.-. = 5. sel ULeeSe 135

55. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Warapoco Plain, Koriabo Phase. (Appendix, table 20).-0.1.5_---2_ eee 140

56. Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled of the Mabaruma Phase recovered from sites of the Koriabo Phase_._-_...--------------- 141

57. Seriation of Koriabo Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table 16)2.2-22482 su. suse oes see 142

58. Coast of British Guiana, showing the areal distribution of the archeo-

logical Phases and the location of sites recorded by other investi- gators. 2 Veeitet Tose a silt ofl Beas Delia le) Bite Bae ee eee 146

59. Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled from sites between the North- west District‘and the Abary Riverje.co ihe 2oncdh ee eee 149

60. Rim profiles of sand-tempered (fop) and cariapé tempered (bottom)

sherds from the Charlesburg site near Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana,

collected by Peter Goethals and deposited in the Peabody Museum, Yale Universityiolsy iol Se De ek Tae ee es ane, aes 151

61. Map of the Abary River region, showing the vegetation pattern and the location of the archeological sites of the Abary Phase._.--_---- 155

62. Sketch map of B-1: Tiger Island, a habitation site of the Abary Phase’. 22200 4 Panes Pua ire ee ne Sete 156

63. Sketch maps of B-3: Taurakuli, a habitation site of the Abary Phase._ 157 64. Decorated disk said to come from a burial site on the Abary River

(after W.E.. Roth, MSipl 33-0) 22 2 eee ee eee ee 160 65. Stonerartifacts of the Abaryi/Phasesie lel sehen se Dae 2 eee ae 161 66. Stone artifacts of the Abary: Phase. 2452 iso ao24) 2 tees eee 162 67. Stone and pottery artifacts of the Abary Phase_-.-...-------------- 163

68. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Abary Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table.26) 2 lzcesetwesce liek selene ee Se 165

CONTENTS

. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Taurakuli

Plain A bary, Phase (Appendix, table. 27):.._..-=2------5-2=-~--2-

. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Tiger Island

Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table 28) .=+-==..-=--=-----.-

. Sherds of Unclassified Incised from the Abary Phase__.--_---------- . Sherds of Unclassified Modeled from sites of the Abary Phase_.-.---- . Sherds with Unclassified Modeled decoration from sites of the Abary

. Adornos of Abary Phase manufacture showing influence of Akawabi

Incised and Modeled decorative style of the Mabaruma Phase-----

. Sherds with Aruka Incised decoration from sites of the Abary Phase. . Sherds with Mabaruma Phase types of decoration from sites of the

1ST Al OC ea ee ae | ee a eee

. Seriation of Abary Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type

freauioncyy (Appendix, stable. 25): 65. oo -Sa— anna ne ones

. Wattle-and-daub fragments from sites of the Abary Phase__.-_------ . Map of the upper Essequibo River showing the approximate location

of archeological sites included in the survey___.-----------------

. Sketch map of E-3: Yoché, showing the Taruma Phase fabintion

area and limit of the former field clearing..-.........-----.------

. Sketch map of E~7: Manakakashin, a habitation site of the Taruma

. Sketch map of E-9: Kalunye, a habitation site of the Taruma Phase--_ . Sketch map of E-13: Tari Tari Tulu, showing the Taruma Phase

habitation area and the limit of the former field clearing----------

. Sketch map of E-16: Watawatarit6, showing the two Taruma Phase

habitation sites and the limit of the former field clearing--_-...------

. Sketch map of E-19: Cholyolyoliwat6, showing the Taruma Phase

habitation site and the limit of the former field clearing---_--------

a Petroglyphs on, tne. Wassikeityi River :..52.2-2—=5-.---=-—--===5 TSLOneariiacts othe (Laruma, Phase... 21 25 oe et he oe ne . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kalunye

Plain, Taruma Phase (Appendix, table 31)_-......-.--.--------.-

. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kanashen Incised,

hartnia boase: (APpenGix, AIG oo) 22 8. oooh bee a ee

. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kassikaityu Punctate,

Tarnma Phaser(Apoendim, table, so)... <6 5.9 eee

. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Taruma Phase decorated

DOLCE Tmt, DOS sats en = ee ee 8 a A 2

. Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase.__-__..-------------- . Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase__.-___--------------- . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mawika

Iai, PAPUININ DMRS ee ee Se i

. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Onoro Stamped,

ve Gotta Sapp Bo 05 127s tence de Nie en” eet ce NN aN ee A ON Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Yoché Flain, Laruma;Phase (Appendix,, table, 35):..=.--.-.--_.-~2--=<:

eiraements of Laruma Phase pot reste.._-- 2-2 soe ee ee ee . Pottery spindle whorls of the Taruma Phase_..__.__--------------- te Pottery whistle of the Taruma Phase:-..0-c. 12s ee ee

CONTENTS

.) Werked Buerds, Paruma Piase. cee ok se sk ee eee eee . Seriation of Taruma Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type

frequency (Appendix, table BO)EL C2. a eo eee

. Brefoimo Incised; Wai War Phaseleso ares 2 eae oo ee . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Erefoimo Painted,

WW SIE ASO ase ere eae mre perce Sgn ties SPR ake ee ems Weel en

. Sherds of Erefoimo Painted showing typical motifs, Wai Wai Phase__ . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hrefoimo

Plains Wisi Witte Mase rren faeces copa err ier en In I Teteey ec Us Bere: Sve ea

2 Artifacts of the. W alowed dase! io 2 ee ee . Sketch map of the Wai Wai village of Yaka Yaka, showing the location

of the modern house, the size of the garden clearing, and the area occupied by the Taruma Phase site of E-4___._-_--------------

. Part of Farabee’s map of the upper Essequibo area showing the

location of Taruma villages at the time of his visit in 1914 (after Farabees Onis. a Muon ure L ie |i ala pees Oy Oe Oem ce a ae eats eee

. Map showing the location of sites of the Rupununi Phase____-___-- . Sketch map of R-5 and R-6, habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase- . Sketch map of R-36: Mormiswau Head, a habitation site of the

Kupununt ‘Phases o> +0 eee Se eee ee eee ee

. Sketch map of R-37: Bis Mountain, a habitation site of the Rupununi

. Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-1: Moco Moco

Shelter, showing the position of the burial jars-__..-------------

. Sketch showing the position of the burial urn and its contents at the

Rupununi Phase site of R-14: Rock Point--__.__------_-------

. Profile sketch showing the position of the burial jar at the Rupununi

Phase site of R-16: Upper Karakara Cemetery_----------------

. Profile sketch showing the position of the burial urn at the Rupununi

Phase cemetery site of R-18: Lower Karakara Cemetery --------

. Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-34: Bei-tau,

Shelter 1, showing the position of the burial urns and associated ATE RSO Se nee thn + a 9 he PR trae SOR ened, eer oe See ee re

. Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-35: Tamrio-

wau, showing the position of the burial jars-_.___.__-_------------

. Stone axes from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase_---------- . Stone choppers from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase- - ----- . Stone hoe fragments from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase_-- . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kanuku Plain and

Rupununi Plain, Rupununi Phase (Appendix, tables 38-39) - -----

. Modeled sherds from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase-_------ . Glass beads from Jar A at R-34, Shelter 1, a cemetery site of the

Rupununi Phases ee ee ee

. Seriation of Rupununi Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery

type frequency (Appendix, table:3/)-s2os cesses ee

. The reconstructed archeological sequence in British Guiana, showing

the relative chronological position and approximate duration of the Various, Phases =o Se eer es oe

. Routes of migration into British Guiana reconstructed from analysis of

the affiliations of the archeological Phases__...-----------------

260

HimO A OO WP

12.

13.

CONTENTS TEXT TABLES

Frequency of pottery types at Alaka Phase sites_........_..._----- Sequence of Alaka Phase sites derived from the distribution of pottery

ANCSLONEHCOO LMU PES Seine ae oe: ea ees Sele eee ny ee ee ee Distribution of shellfish species at Alaka Phase sites...___________--

. Occurrence of Mabaruma Phase trade sherds in Koriabo Phase sites_-__

Duration of Abary Phase village sites estimated from rate of refuse HECUMIU ALLO eee | er Mera SEO Renee Caen es Ae Pe a Occurrence of trade sherds or sherds showing Mabaruma Phase char- aicterisuicssau Abary Phase sites! 22 no eee Poe IP eee

. Additional Taruma Phase slash-and-burn field clearings__..___.____-

Objects of European origin from Taruma Phase sites. _.._._._------ Durations of Taruma Phase sites derived from sherd refuse accumula- TAOTAPORUT ee see Att CP Tae EAS 5) SO ee ee eee Duration of the Taruma Phase calculated on the basis of a 10-percent change:inarequency ofukslunye Plain. 20S Slee eee Duration of the Taruma Phase calculated on the basis of a 10-percent changelin frequency of Yoché'Plaint) 2. bub ey Sos te Objects of European origin from Rupununi Phase sites___-_.-_-_----

. Correlation between dated and seriated position of Rupununi Phase

sites with European trade materials._......../..-L--L------L--- Correlation of geographical and historical data on Rupununi Phase

APPENDIX TABLES

. Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites

of the Alaska Phase.

. Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites

of the Mabaruma Phase.

Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic excavations at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

. Frequency of decorative motifs of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at

sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Aruka Incised at sites of the

Mabaruma Phase.

. Frequency of decorative motifs of Aruka Incised at sites of the

Mabaruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Hosororo Plain at sites

of the Mabaruma Phase.

. Krequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Hotokwai Plain at sites

of the Mabaruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Kaituma Incised and Punctate

at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

. Frequency of decorative motifs of Kaituma Incised and Punctate

at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Koberimo Plain at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Mabaruma Incised at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

513186—60——_2

XVII

319

330

XVIII CONTENTS

14.

15.

16.

ure

18.

19.

Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Mabaruma Plain at sites of the Mabaruma Phase.

Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic excavations at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Barima Plain and Koriabo Incised at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Koriabo Plain at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Koriabo Scraped at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Warapoco Plain at sites

of the Koriabo Phase.

. Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Akawabi Incised

and Modeled at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

. Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Aruka Incised at

sites of the Koriabo Phase.

. Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Kaituma Incised

and Punctate at sites of the Koriabo Phase.

. Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at

sites of the Abary Phase.

. Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic

excavations at sites of the Abary Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Abary Plain at sites of

the Abary Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Taurakuli Plain at sites

of the Abary Phase.

. Hrequencey of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Tiger Island Plain at sites

of the Abary Phase.

. Frequency of stone artifacts at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic

excavations at sites of the Taruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Kalunye Plain at sites of

the Taruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes and decorative motifs of Kanashen

Incised at sites of the Taruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Kassikaityu Punctate,

Manakakashin Red and Manakakashin Red-on-White at sites of the Taruma Phase.

. Frequeney of decorative techniques of Kassikaityu Punctate and deco-

rative motifs of Manakakashin Red-on-White at sites of the Taruma Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Yoché Plain at sites of

the Taruma Phase.

. Frequency of stone artifacts by site and rock material at sites of the

Rupununi Phase.

. Frequency of pottery types from surface collections at sites of the

Rupununi Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Kanuku Plain at sites

of the Rupununi Phase.

. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Rupununi Plain at sites

of the Rupununi Phase.

PREFACE

The presentation of any archeological report covering a large area brings to the authors the duty and the pleasure of calling atten- tion to the many other individuals whose advice and assistance made it possible. In this case, the ready cooperation and friendly aid that we encountered everywhere in British Guiana makes acknowledgment of our indebtedness an unusually pleasant task.

Our research was made possible by financial support from a United States Educational Exchange Research Grant under the Fulbright Act and by a grant from the Smithsonian Institution. By the terms of the Fulbright Act we were required to work under the auspices of a recognized local educational institution, and the University Col- lege of the West Indies agreed to undertake sponsorship. Their representative in British Guiana, Mr. A. A. Thompson, made a hotel reservation for us in Georgetown and offered his services if they should be needed to facilitate our work. A more logical institutional sponsor was the British Guiana Museum, and largely because of the personal interest of the director, Mr. Vincent Roth, it was with the Museum that we worked most closely.

From the day of our arrival until the day of our departure, we were guided and assisted by Mr. Roth. He put us in touch with the local officials, and his personal introductions made them predisposed to help us as much as possible. His intimate knowledge of much of the Colony, acquired during years as a surveyor for the Government, helped us to plan an itinerary that gave us a maximum archeological return for the time available. In addition, he allowed us to store our specimens and equipment at the Museum, which was not only a convenience but an insurance of their safety. Beyond this aid fur- nished in his capacity as director of the Museum, we are indebted to Mr. Roth for his personal hospitality, including a memorable, belated Christmas dinner in February at hishome. For all of these and many smaller kindnesses, we wish to express our deepest gratitude.

For the solution of many of the frustrating problems that con- front archeologists in a strange country, we are indebted to Ram S. Singh, chief taxidermist of the British Guiana Museum. Whatever was required, Mr. Singh always knew where to find it better, cheaper, and faster than anyone else. He piloted us through the intricacies of purchasing tickets, opening a bank account, and arranging for the export of our collections. During a visit to Plantation Lusignan on east coast Demerara, he was an indispensable interpreter from English to Guianese. Our final trip to the Abary River was organized by him from start to finish. He introduced us to many aspects of Guianese life we would otherwise have missed, and his generosity and

xIx

SMITHSO! ii i | 119 INSTITUTION ¥¥ES

5 ~

xx PREFACE

unfailing good humor contributed in large part to create the fond memories we have of British Guiana.

Among the Government officials who received us graciously and facilitated our work are: Mr. J. L. Fletcher, then Acting Colonial Secretary; Mr. J. B. Bamford, Commissioner of Interior; Mr, W. T. Lord, Commissioner of Lands and Mines; Mr. W. A. Angoy, District Commissioner, Rupununi District; Mr. J. Young, District Commis- sioner, Northwest District; and Dr. C. R. Jones, Medical Officer to the Amerindians. These gentlemen introduced us to local residents, helped us with transportation, and in several cases took considerable interest in our work. Their cooperation was invaluable and we regret that public acknowledgment has taken so long.

Although much of the area in which we worked is public domain, we occasionally had to seek permission to trespass from private owners, especially in the Rupununi District. This was readily granted, and in most cases was accompanied by an invitation to come as guests of the owner. For a warm welcome and generous hos- pitality, we wish to express our thanks to Mr. B, L. Hart and his family of Pirara, Mr. and Mrs. Caesar Gorinsky of Good Hope, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Turner of Dadanawa, all on the Rupununi savan- nas; to Mr. and Mrs. Robert Hawkins and Miss Florence Riedle of Kanashen on the upper Essequibo River; and to Mr. Alfred Read of Taurakuli on the Abary River. Among the many others who gave us help, we should like to mention Sgt. Cornelius Douglas and Con- stable Leslie Chin then of the Annai Police Station, Father J. V. McKenna of Sand Creek, Mr. Edward E, Melville of Lethem, Mr. James Brown of Dadanawa, Mr. Lawrence Hart of Pirara, Mr. W. M. ©. Bagshaw of the Forestry Department, Northwest District, Mr. Harry Madramoto, Department of Agriculture, Hosororo Sta- tion, Mr. and Mrs. Claude W. Leavitt of the Unevangelized Fields Mission, Mr. R. J. McKenzie, Manager of Plantation Lusignan, and Col, A. J. Williams of British Guiana Airways.

A special word of thanks is due Robert and Florine Hawkins, missionaries of the Unevangelized Fields Mission among the Wai Wai Indians of the upper Essequibo. Without their invitation, it would have been impractical to try to do archeological work in that region in the short time available to us. They placed a boat at our disposal, acted as interpreters between us and the Wai Wai, allowed us to make their mission our base of operations, and cooperated in many other ways, with the result that this part of the survey was one of the most successful. When we took a picnic lunch with sandwiches of Florine’s homemade bread, it required some mental effort to real- ize we were actually in the heart of the Guiana forests.

We met many other Guianese in all walks of life and of all races. We found them delightful companions, friendly, helpful, cheerful,

PREFACE XXI

and willing workers, even though in many cases we shared no common language. Although we cannot list them all by name, we can truth- fully say that they have not been forgotten, and that they have each contributed to our image of British Guiana as a charming as well as a beautiful country.

The drudgery in archeology falls to the lot of those who must wash and number the sherds preparatory to analysis. For carrying out this monotonous task efficiently, we wish to thank Mr. Charles T. Terry, Jr., and Mr, Robert C. Jenkins of the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum. Line drawings of specimens were done by Miss Betty Baker and the manuscript was typed by Mrs. Jeraldine M. Whitmore, also of the Division of Archeology.

Various members of the U.S. National Museum curatorial staff provided identification of faunal, floral, skeletal, and cultural remains, including Dr. T. D. Stewart of the Division of Physical Anthropology, Dr. Harold Rehder of the Division of Mollusks, Dr. A. C. Smith, then of the Department of Botany, Dr. Tucker Abbott, now on the staff of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, Mr. C. Malcolm Watkins of the Division of Cultural History, Mr. Edgar M. Howell of the Divi- sion of Military History, and Mr. George Metcalf of the Division of Archeology.

As a basis for interpreting the archeological remains in British Guiana, it was necessary to examine materials from adjacent areas. We are greatly indebted to Dr. Peter Goethals, Dr. John Goggin, and Dr. Irving Rouse for generously permitting us to review sherd col- lections from unpublished fieldwork in Dutch Guiana, Trinidad, and Venezuela, and thus greatly facilitating the task of comparison.

Students who may wish to use the British Guiana materials in comparative studies will find type collections of sherds representing all but the rare pottery types at the following museums: University Museum, Philadelphia; American Museum of Natural History, New York; Peabody Museum, Yale University, New Haven; Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge; Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago; University Museum, University of California, Berkeley; Goteborg Museum, Goteborg, Sweden; and the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown, British Guiana. A complete collection of sherds, stone, trade materials, and miscellaneous objects can be found in the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum, Wash- ington, D.C.

C. E. B. J. M. Division of Archeology U.S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution Washington 25, D.C., April 1, 1959

ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN BRITISH GUIANA

By Cxiirrorp Evans AnD Brtry J. Mreccrers

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE BRITISH GUIANA ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Contributions to the archeology of British Guiana can be traced sporadically for nearly a hundred years. The pioneer was W. H. Brett, whose interest in the local shell middens was aroused during his residence as a missionary in the Pomeroon District in the latter half of the 19th century. During approximately the same period, KE. F. Im Thurn devoted considerable time to the investigation and re- porting of ethnography and archeology in the colony. Since the bulk of our own monograph deals with pottery, it is somewhat sur- prising to note Im Thurn’s comment that “up to February in the present year (1884), in the course of much digging and collecting of the stone and other implements of the old inhabitants of Guiana, I had met with surprisingly few pieces of pottery; nor had I even heard rumors of any large deposits of such objects” (1884, p. 123). As is typical in the development of scientific archeology, the attention of most travelers was attracted principally to petroglyphs. Unfortu- nately, they are among the most difficult type of archeological remains to place in a chronological or cultural framework and therefore of little use in the reconstruction of local prehistory.

During the 20th century, a number of coastal sites were visited by A. Hyatt Verrill, Walter E. Roth, J. E. L. Carter, Vincent Roth, and Cornelius Osgood. ‘These people laid the basis for a generalized picture of coastal archeology, leading to the formulation of various theories about the racial, tribal, and linguistic affiliations and origins of the people who left the sites. The data accumulated up to 1945 and the hypotheses they inspired have been admirably summarized by Osgood (1946, pp. 21-42), and the reader who wishes more details on the history of archeology in British Guiana will find them in his report.

As long as intensive archeological work remained largely restricted to the Andean portion of South America, there was little reason to

1

Z BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BulL 177

devote more attention to British Guiana. Flowever, the past decade has brought an increased interest in the lowlands, with the result that the Guiana coast has shifted from a marginal to a strategic position for the solution of problems of South American prehistory. The work of Rouse, Cruxent, and Goggin in eastern Venezuela and Trini- dad has permitted the construction of a detailed cultural sequence to the northwest. Similar investigations by Meggers and Evans have established a chronological framework at the mouth of the Amazon. Several hypotheses about cultural development in the Guiana area have resulted from these new data, and knowledge of the archeology in the intervening area is important for their evaluation. This was the primary consideration behind our decision to undertake fieldwork in the Guianas.

The selection of British Guiana rather than one of the other two European colonies was motivated by two principal factors. Although archeological research should not be limited by artificial boundaries, the formalization of international relations in modern times makes it practical to remain within one country. British Guiana, being the largest of the three Guianas, provided the maximum areal coverage. In addition, it presented the most promising topographic characteris- tics. The Essequibo River and its tributaries constitute a ready route of access to the center of the Guianas, and it is only a short distance from their headwaters to the sources of major tributaries of the Ama- zon. During the rainy season, it is possible to pass from the Rupununi River in the center of British Guiana to the Takutu on the border with Brazil in a canoe across the flooded savanna. If evidence of prehistoric communication between the coast and the interior was to be found, British Guiana seemed to be a logical place to look for it.

Our itinerary was planned to include parts of the colony where evidence of migration or diffusion might be expected to show up if it existed: the Rupununi savanna, spanning one part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Amazonian drainage systems; and the upper Essequibo, which forms part of a similar intersection somewhat to the southeast. Survey of each of these regions was continued until more than 80 sites had been investigated, and the results made it ap- parent that neither had been occupied until very recently by pottery- making groups. The final portion of the survey was devoted to the coast, in the effort to trace movements from west to east, and to secure chronological information that would help to establish the relative antiquity of settlement of the coastal and interior portions of the colony by sedentary peoples.

ITINERARY AND FIDLD CONDITIONS

Among the more interesting aspects of an archeological field trip is the story that is seldom told except in informal gatherings of

BH d near ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 5)

anthropologists: the story of the problems, “adventures,” and inci- dental experiences that are encountered by anyone who ventures off the usual tourist paths. Since the lowlands of South America have attracted little attention from archeologists, an account of the manner in which fieldwork was conducted in British Guiana may serve to show that while the way is not always easy, neither is it exceptionally difficult or dangerous. The satisfaction of placing new facts in the archeological record and of visiting interesting people and places more than compensates for any discomforts that may be temporarily endured.

We arrived at Georgetown, British Guiana, on October 15, 1952, by air (fig. 1). Interviews with the director of the British Guiana Museum and with officials in various Government agencies produced such ready cooperation that 9 days later, on October 24, we were able to take a British Guiana Airways plane for the interior, where we remained for more than 8 months. The 114-hour flight by DC-3 cargo plane from the coast to the Government administrative station at Lethem on the Brazilian border was a pleasant surprise, since we had expected to go by river, a trip that because of the numercus portages consumes several weeks.

In Lethem, we were given permission to make the Government rest house our headquarters, and trips to various parts of the north sa- vanna were arranged from this center. On November 23, we moved to the south savanna, where we were invited to make our base of oper- ations at Dadanawa, headquarters of the Rupununi Development Company. Transportation on the savanna was by foot (pl. 1), horse- back (pl. 2), Fordson truck (pl. 3, a), Land Rover (pl. 3, 6), tractor and trailer, or bullock cart (pl. 4, a), whichever method was available or suitable. We hung our hammocks in schoolhouses (pl. 5, a), police stations, ranchhouses, Indian verandas, abandoned thatched huts, cattle outstations, or in the house of a resident priest. When we were not guests at a ranch, we usually cooked our own meals on a small Swedish kerosene primus stove, with corned beef and rice as the staple diet. Army C-rations were ideal for cold lunches at the sites, since they were tasty and no time was lost in their preparation. Our guides were ranchers, Indians, a schoolteacher, a medical aide, and on occasion we scouted around by ourselves.

We were in the Rupununi during the early part of the dry season, when the grass was still green and the weather was ideal. The beauty of the landscape was enhanced by a bright blue sky and magnificent, fluffy white cumulus clouds in the afternoons. Although the days were hot, the nights were cool and pleasant. We spent many an evening chatting with the ranchers about local and international topics, and were amazed to find a lively interest in the outcome of the 1952 United States presidential election, which took place during

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our stay. The Indians, acculturated into the British colonial pattern of life, generally kept their distance, but on one occasion we spent several days in the house of a Wapisiana family with a total posses- sion of four words of English. Gestures served very well in most situations, except when it came to calling a halt on the sherd collecting, and, as a result, we always ended up with a load for every man, woman, and child.

B d oaae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 5

The greatest problem of savanna archeology was transportation of the specimens. People of the Rupununi Phase practiced secondary burial in large urns, and it seemed desirable to collect some of these complete specimens for the British Guiana Museum and the U.S. National Museum. Burial sites were always relatively remote rock shelters accessible by foot or at best by horse. The form and size of the jars made them ill adapted for carrying lashed to a pack saddle on a horse or bullock, but we managed to transport some of them this way. Once we resorted to a bullock cart (pl. 4, @), which jolted and twisted so badly that it was necessary to ride with the load of vessels and sherds resting on specimen bags filled with grass to keep it from being thrown to the ground. The iron wheels transmitted the resistance of every pebble, tuft of grass, or ant hill to the riders and this method of transportation was unquestionably the most un- pleasant that we encountered anywhere in South America.

On December 11, we boarded a chartered DC-3 plane at Wichabai, and landed half an hour later in a small clearing called Gunn’s Strip (pl. 4, 0), an hour’s walk from the bank of the Essequibo River. We were met by Wai Wai Indians, who carried our baggage, with that of our hosts, representatives of the Unevangelized Fields Mission, to the water’s edge. Here it was placed in dugouts and taken upriver to Kanashen, the missionaries’ home (fig. 1) and our main base of operations for the next 6 weeks. Work in this part of British Guiana was simplified immensely by the generous cooperation of the mis- Slonaries, who spoke the Wai Wai language and thus were able to con- vey our wishes to the Indians and to arrange for one or more of them to accompany us as paddlers, hunters, and guides.

This part of the trip was a unique and delightful experience. We traveled both up and down the Essequibo River and minor tributaries, locating and excavating sites and stopping to camp wherever night- fall caught us (pl. 6, a). For the most part, we were out of contact with other human beings. Yukumé, our Wai Wai guide, was an excellent hunter and kept us provided with a variety of fresh fish, fowl, and occasional small mammals and monkeys, which he roasted by night on a badricot over a smoky fire with delicious results. A1- though we were working during the “little rainy season,” the rain fortunately came almost exclusively at night. Waterproof nylon tarps stretched over our hammocks protected us from the torrential downpour that frequently came before dawn. Lack of insects at this time of year made sleep possible without nets. When we camped near a Wai Wai village, the Indians showed friendly interest in us and our belongings. The canvas water bucket was a source of constant amaze- ment, and the primus stove was always an object of much discussion. We were offered pepper pot and cassava bread (pl. 6, 6) or one of

6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

their slightly fermented drinks when we paid a visit to any village, and in return we offered the Wai Wai whatever exotic foods we had at the moment—cookies, sugar, crackers, guava paste, or fried plantain strips.

Traveling along the river in a dugout (pls. 7, a; 40, a), we always joined in the paddling, partly to avoid the necessity of taking addi- tional paddlers and thus diminishing the space available for potsherds, and partly for enjoyment. The first day a few muscles ached but afterward we made long trips with constant paddling and felt little or no fatigue. We learned to hit the hull at each stroke of the paddle in good Wai Wai fashion, and engaged in several races with the saucy otters who sped ahead underwater and then raised their heads and jeered at us for falling behind. When we came to rapids, the Indians took over and steered us skillfully through fast water and between the rocks. Once through, they always wanted to stop to try their luck at catching the large, flat, red paku (Myletes setiger; M. paku), a delicious fish that lives in the rushing water and puts up a strong fight when shot with a harpoon arrow.

Locating sites in this area would have been difficult and slow without a guide. The river banks are densely forested, and vegetation con- ceals the ground so effectively that hills are often not visible from the river. An interview shortly after our arrival with the Wai Wai chief, the oldest man in the tribe, produced a long list of places that he said were “old villages.” On questioning, he was firm in his identification, although he had never seen potsherds at any of them. We were con- sequently somewhat dubious as we proceeded to the first such spot. Testing revealed sherds, however, and we found this to be true of all the places listed by the chief with rare exceptions, which probably were old field clearings. Tests on high spots above the flood level not mentioned by the chief always proved sterile.

The return from Kanashen to Lumid Pau on the southern Rupununi savanna took 8 days. The first 4 were by dugout with three Wai Wai paddlers plus the two of us, down the Essequibo and up the Kas- sikaityu River to a point where the trail began (fig. 1). We had radioed for two savanna Indians to meet us on a specific day with bullocks to carry our essential equipment, leaving all archeological and ethnological specimens and expendable baggage at Kanashen for later removal by plane. Miraculously, the bullocks arrived shortly after we did, and we began the second part of the trip on foot. The trail was generally clear and passed through virgin forest, now and probably always uninhabited. The only living things we saw during the first 3 days of walking were a tortoise and a few birds. On the third night we emerged into savanna and slept at the Wapisiana village of Tararton. The following day we reached Lumid Pau,

E a Evang an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA €

consisting of two adobe huts beside an airstrip where British Guiana Airways landed on a regular schedule once every 2 months. We were 214 days early, but hung our hammocks and stuck close to them to be sure we would not miss our plane.

The flight to Georgetown in the DC-3 cargo ship was routine. Stops at Lethem and Annai gave us a glimpse of the savanna at the end of the dry season, with the grass burned brown. We landed at Atkinson Field on February 3, 1958, and spent the first evening in Georgetown walking around admiring the bright lights, having seen nothing stronger than a lantern for nearly 3 months. The manager of the Hotel Woodbine greeted us with joy, having concluded weeks before that we had succumbed to one of the numerous perils that all coastal inhabitants are certain abound in the interior.

Since our research time was now running short, we arranged to take the next coastwise steamer for the Northwest District, which left on February 16. Although the trip took only 20 hours, the ship was subjected during this entire time to constant lateral wave action, which rocked and rolled it severely and rhythmically from side to side and reduced most of the passengers to a state of acute misery. On arrival at the district headquarters at Mabaruma (fig. 1), we were once again permitted to stay at the Government Rest House. The District Commissioner and other Government officials were very coop- erative, which greatly simplified the problem of transportation. Travel is by water, and without access to a motor launch we would have had to restrict our investigations to the immediate vicinity of Mabaruma. As it was, we accompanied several officials on trips up the Waini, Barima, and Aruka Rivers, making shorter trips up shallow, narrow creeks and between sites in small dugouts (pl. 7, 6). Dry land is so infrequent that camping is almost impossible, and small rest houses have been constructed by the Government for the use of traveling officials (pl. 5, 6). We slept in these or we hung our hammocks in a schoolhouse or store.

The inclement weather in the Northwest District made up for the conveniences of travel. Heavy showers fell almost daily, often sev- eral times a day. We frequently had either to suspend work, covering the excavation with a waterproof tarp and awaiting the rain to pass, or to continue digging in soil that soon turned into muck. The sherds were usually wet in any case, and the bags had to be watched carefully for traces of mildew. When the sun came out after a shower the humidity was intense. Partly because of the high humid- ity, nights were frequently chilly enough to make us shiver in our hammocks in spite of a woolen blanket.

A number of the sites of the Alaka Phase were surrounded by mangrove swamp and accessible only on foot. After making our way

8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177

to several of these, sliding off slippery logs and sinking above our boottops into the ooze, suffering the attacks of mosquitoes, and inhaling the smell of decaying vegetation, we were able to understand why the tapirs enjoy this environment, but not why it was sought out by man as a place to live.

We had with us on several trips a boatman who felt it his duty to warn us nightly of the perils that surrounded us. He maintained that it was unsafe to sleep anywhere except on the launch, and described in detail a few of the creatures that might attack us as we slept on land. In addition to “turtle tigers,” “labba tigers” and “warakaubra tigers,” there was a monster in human shape with a globular head, flat on top “like a military cap” and darting fire from its eyes, and another river-dwelling beast with 20 horns on its head. We personally felt that the mosquitoes were more likely to do us in than the “jumbies,” and used our nets for the first time in the Colony.

On March 18, we returned to Georgetown by the coastal steamer and made arrangements for the final trip eastward along the coast to the Abary River (fig. 1). This trip was organized by the British Guiana Museum taxidermist, Ram Singh, who decided that we should have the experience of one “real” expedition before leaving the Col- ony. He hired a cook, Ivan Vyphius, who brought an assistant, and we laid in a huge quantity of supplies, including a tin of “biscuits” (soda crackers) 18 inches in diameter and a foot high. We went by train from Georgetown to the Abary River on March 31, and then by the milk launch upstream, stopping at the sites. Ivan prepared fancy salads and other gastronomic delights, including a fine stew of howler monkey. In the evening, he regaled us with the story of his life, and especially the experiences of a Negro Guianese with Colonial British officials, using such inimitable phraseology that we were completely convulsed with laughter.

On April 12, we returned to Georgetown and spent the rest of our time finishing notes on the collections in the British Guiana Museum, packing specimens for shipment, and attending to other details. The rainy season was in full force by then throughout most of the colony, and in Georgetown rain fell in remarkable quantities, taxing the 3- foot-deep gutters to their capacity. One of our last duties was an interview with the press, purportedly for the benefit of science and the British Guiana Museum, following which one paper reported that we had deposited in the Museum “10 complete Indian chiefs” (we said “nots”) ! At 10:30 a.m. on April 20, we took off from Atkinson Field, and 14 hours later landed at Idlewild Airport in New York. After 6 months’ absence, it took only one Jook at the traffic to convince us that the interior of South America holds less hazards than a modern

Evan ad Mesperel ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 9

United States city. We wholeheartedly support the comments made by another visitor to the tropical forests of South America more than 50 years before us:

Whenever a Huropean hears that a traveller has buried himself in the solitudes of Amazonia, he willingly believes that this is a most exceptional exploit, and that the lucky mortal who returns from it has been in countries where never before has the foot of civilised man been set. It must be admitted that the tales of adventure which now appear as if they were serious stories of travel, are likely to spread these gross errors. Let us hasten to warn these imaginative persons, who are too prone to credit the picturesque and the marvellous. The authors of the books to which we refer only journeyed through parts inhabited by Brazilians, or by foreigners established in Brazil, where reside Government officials, merchants, soldiers, and very sociable human beings. As to the famous Indians of whom such wonderful tales are told, they remain almost always out of sight, unless they can make themselves useful by their special knowledge of the country. In any case they are generally much less to be feared than... the savages in the great Huropean cities. [Nery, 1901, p. 308.]

PRESENTATION OF THE DATA

The writing of a large archeological report always raises the prob- lem of how to organize the material to permit both easy reference to data by the technical scholar and quick access to the major conclu- sions by a reader concerned only with the general results. It is prob- ably impossible to achieve maximum compliance simultaneously with two such different requirements, but as a step in this direction, we have tried to separate the factual and interpretative portions of the report as completely as possible, and to subdivide the presentation of data in a logical manner.

The two chapters following the Introduction deal with British Guiana asa whole. The geographical description is designed to high- light differences and to bring out the major topographical, vegeta- tional, and climatic features that may have influenced aboriginal set- tlement, and it does not aim to be exhaustive in its coverage. The preceramic lithic horizon is treated in terms of the colony as a whole rather than by geographical subdivisions because what little informa- tion is available makes more sense viewed on a larger scale than the areal subdivisions permit. The remainder of the report is organized under four geographical areas: the Northwest lowlands, the Abary River, the upper Essequibo rain forest, and the Rupununi savanna. Each of these is distinct geographically and each exhibits a unique archeological sequence. The order of presentation is chronological throughout. The Northwest lowlands was the first region to be occupied by pottery-making groups, the Rupununi savanna the last. Within each area, description of the archeological phases begins with the earliest, and presentation of the data follows a standard order. Except for the section on “The site sequence and its implications,” the

10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

content under each Phase is purely descriptive. AJl of the archeolog- ical data resulting from fieldwork and laboratory analysis of the materials collected are included.

For the reader interested mainly in the overall results, there are two principal places to look: the conclusions to each geographical section (pp. 28-24, 145-153, 183-190, 326-332) and the last chapter of the volume (pp. 333-347). The final chapter on the cultural sequence in British Guiana summarizes the general conclusions and appraises their significance not only in archeological terms but also in terms of anthropological problems of various kinds. The reasoning upon which these statements are based can be found in the conclusions to each of the four major sections of the report. Here, archeological, ethnographic and historical data are brought to bear on the problem of reconstructing the origin, duration, and nature of each of the archeological phases and through this the prehistory of the region.

Presentation of the data follows generally accepted lines of current archeological monographs and needs no detailed explanation. We would like, however, to say a few words about the methods of analysis and classification used for the artifacts. Whenever possible, the arti- facts are described as types showing their range of variation as well as their most typical features rather than as individual specimens. It has been our experience that this is not only the most practical method of dealing with a large bulk of material, but also it objectifies and clarifies the data and makes the results easier to assess. Unfor- tunately, stone tools usually were not sufficiently abundant to permit the substitution of type descriptions for the description of each ex- ample, but where possible this has been done. All pottery was classi- fied into types, and those few sherds that were distinctive but rare were called “unclassified” and not given type names.

The theory of pottery type classification has been set forth by many others (e.g., Ford, 1949, pp. 38-44; 1954; Krieger, 1944; 1949, pp. 71- 80; Spaulding, 1953) and there is still much controversy about which system is the “best.” This report is not the place to debate the issue. However, in order to leave no confusion in the mind of the reader about our purpose or procedure, we will describe briefly the steps followed in handling the pottery. The principal reason for making pottery type classifications is, in our opinion, to detect significant differences that will permit the recognition of cultural and temporal change. Consequently, the first question we ask in beginning the classification of a new batch of sherds is, “Are there any readily ob- servable differences?” From extensive experience with sherds from Tropical Forest cultures of South America we have discovered that temper differences are often easily distinguishable and generally re- flect change through time. Thus, we first attempt to classify the

eae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 11 sherds on this basis, recognizing such widely divergent temper ma- terials as cariapé, crushed potsherds, crushed shell, sponge spicules, crushed steatite, mica, or less distinct differences such as fine sand and coarse sand.

When temper variations are not present or do not show a consistent trend of change through time, the problem is to find some feature or combination of features that will. Under Tropical Forest conditions, in contrast to those in the Andean and Mesoamerican culture areas, the surface erosion of the sherds is always sufficient to make surface treatment unusable. Consequently, a choice of a primary basis for classification must be made from the characteristics manifested by the paste. Aside from temper, firing differences are easiest to recog- nize and define with consistency. It has been our experience that separation of sherds into those that are completely oxidized, produc- ing a totally orange, tan, or brown cross section, and those that are incompletely oxidized, leaving a gray core of variable width, fre- quently provides a basis for seriation. After the primary features of the sherd types are established, the type categories are refined and other features are sometimes discovered to be additionally significant in showing change through time, such as rim shapes, vessel shapes, or even at times surface treatment.

In making these classifications of plain pottery types we are not concerned with the significance, if any, of the type distinctions to the potters (in fact, we are not sure how this could be determined on pure archeological materials without ethnographic correlations), but only with the ability of the types to reflect change through time. If the pottery types from the successive levels of a strata cut do not show consistent trends through time, the first classification is aban- doned and another is attempted. It should be emphasized that the classification finally presented is not superior to other possible classi- fications in theory, in the criteria employed, or in terms of ceramic technology, but only in its ability to reflect chronology.

During the preliminary classification all decorated sherds were set aside to be handled later, and the sites and levels of strata cuts were seriated on the basis of the plain ware trends. Subsequently, the de- corated sherds were examined by level and classified into types, but with decorative technique taking precedence over paste characteris- tics as the basis for classification. Theoretically, it would be feasible to combine the two criteria but in practice this often works to multiply the number of decorated types (sometimes reduced to a few sherds per type due to the scarcity of decorated sherds) with no compen- sating advantage. For example, such a classification would create four decorated types in the place of Akawabi Incised and Modeled in the Mabaruma Phase, since the same decoration was applied at

513186—60——3

12 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

various times to all four of the plain wares. Such a subdivision would reveal the same trends as the plain wares themselves show, however, and while obscuring any change in popularity of the decora- tive techniques and motifs. It might have been possible in a few cases to subdivide decorated types on the basis of differences in motif, but when the technique was uniform and the sample was small we preferred to consider the complex as a single type characterized by the presence of several motifs. When some evolutionary change can be detected, this is mentioned in each pottery type description under the heading, “Temporal differences within the type.” In contrast to the plain wares, decorated types rarely show any clear-cut changes in popularity in cultures of the level of development represented by the archeological phases in the Tropical Forest area of South Ameri- ca. Consequently, this test of classificatory validity does not apply, and the principal consideration becomes one of separating combina- tions of technique and motif that appear to have some descriptive unity.

The adoption of this philosophy of pottery type classification inevi- tably colors our approach to the discrimination of archeological phases. The ceramic complexes by which the phases are principally identified are composed of continuously changing pottery types. These changes may be either evolutionary or the effect of outside in- fluence, but in either case the alteration is usually slow. Such a point of view emphasizes the continuum rather than the innovations, and makes subdivision of a phase seem exceedingly arbitrary or even un- realistic. While the combination of traits at the end of a phase sequence may be easy to distinguish from that at the beginning, the transition from one to the other is very gradual. This orientation should be kept in mind when our descriptions of the British Guiana archeological phases are compared with the styles distinguished by Cruxent and Rouse (1959) for eastern Venezuela. These authors have followed another approach, which emphasizes differences rather than similarities, with the consequence that a sequence of change such as that encompassed within our Mabaruma Phase, for example, may be represented by two or more styles in their scheme. It should be recognized that this is not a situation in which one result is neces- sarily right and the other wrong, but a consequence of approaching similar data from different theoretical premises.

Several devices for recording and presenting archeological evidence that we use consistently appear in this report. An archeological cul- ture has been called a “Phase” because this term carries no specific ethnographic connotations (see Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 138-14). All sites are designated by a key letter and number, the letter referring to the geographical area in which the site is located (N=Northwest

E d ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 13

District, B=Berbice Province, E=upper Essequibo River, R=Ru- pununi District), and the number to the particular site in question. In two cases where the correlation is unquestionable, phases were given the names of the actual tribe to which they correspond. Other- wise a local geographical term was chosen. Pottery types were named according to the binomial system, coupling a proper noun of the region with a descriptive adjective. Color terms, such as red or white, in the name of a pottery type indicate the use of a slip; unslipped surfaces of whatever color are referred to as “plain.” In the figures illustrating vessel shapes and rim profiles, solid, blacked-in rims are used for plain wares and outlined ones for decorated types. Where the data were sufficient, we have tried to apply and to test the formula for calculating site duration from rate of sherd accumula- tion that we first proposed in an earlier monograph (Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 245-257). We have brought this method up again not because we are convinced of its validity, but because we feel that it cannot be either accepted or rejected without further testing, and that if we do not make the effort to apply it we cannot expect others to do so.

Finally, an explanation of the system of measurements should be made. Because the metric system is easier to use and is the accepted system in Latin American countries, we measured all distances and altitudes in meters and kilometers and all specimens in centimeters and millimeters. However, British Guiana being a British colony, all the published geographical descriptions and current linear meas- urements are in miles, feet, and inches. As a compromise, geograph- ical references were quoted in both systems, while our own measure- ments and observations are given only in the metric system. Spell- ing of geographical names follows British Guiana usage except in the case of the sites of the Taruma and Wai Wai Phases. ‘These words are unwritten and no attempt has been made to provide an exact phonetic equivalent.

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION

British Guiana is the largest of the three European colonies sur- viving on the northeastern coast of South America. It stretches in a north-south direction for a distance of about 800 km. (500 miles), between 1 and 9 degrees north latitude. Width varies from about 160 km. (100 miles) near the center to nearly 480 km. (300 miles) in the north.

To a larger degree than is usual, the boundaries of British Guiana coincide with distinct natural features. The northeastern frontier is the Atlantic Ocean. The Courantyne River makes the separation from Dutch Guiana on the east. The southern and southwestern boundaries follow the continental divide, formed by the low moun- tains of the central Guiana range. Only in the northwest is the border partly an arbitrary line joining sections of several different rivers.

As a consequence of the coincidence between political and natural boundaries, the drainage pattern of British Guiana is dominated by a single large network. The colony is almost bisected by the Esse- quibo River, which flows from the southern border in a generally northward course to empty into the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the other major rivers are its tributaries: the Rupununi, the Mazaruni, and the Cuyuni, all flowing from the west. Each of these is fed by a multiplicity of small streams, many of which cease to flow in the dry season. A number of smaller rivers drain the coast. All are com- paratively short except the Berbice which runs generally parallel to the Essequibo between it and the Dutch Guiana border. The lower courses of the Barima, Waini, and Pomeroon Rivers parallel the coast for some distance before emptying into the sea. None of the larger rivers is navigable uninterruptedly for its entire length, although there may be long stretches where no portage is necessary. The rapids were not an obstacle to aboriginal travel, and their major effect is to eliminate tidal variations except near the coast. The headwaters of the Rupununi and Essequibo come within a short distance of the headwaters of rivers flowing into the Amazon. The transition from the Rupununi River to the Takutu River and thence to the Rio Branco and into the Amazon is particularly easy, since there are no moun- tain barriers. It was this situation, seemingly providing a ready

14

E d yen ay ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 15

Venezuela

Curren; ai je SEORGETOWN

fsse9u 4,

Dutch

Guiana

Brazil

KEY

MOUNTAIN

SAVANNA

SWAMP

Ficure 2.—Map of British Guiana showing principal geographical features.

route for aboriginal contact or migration, that prompted the choice of British Guiana for archeological investigation.

In very general terms, the colony can be divided into three geograph- ical zones (fig.2). The narrowest is the tidal swamp along the coast, a band of some 50 miles in width. This is dominated by mangrove vegetation and dissected by countless small creeks, most of which are emptied during low tide. Travel overland is laborious because of the combination of densely intertwined branches and above-surface roots with fine-grained muck that offers no resistance to weight. Oc- casional elevations ranging from small rises to high hills occur in this

16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

zone, the most prominent being in the Northwest District (fig. 4; pl. 9). For the most part, however, except on occasional high spots along the rivers, the coastal zone became desirable for habitation by agricultural groups only after extensive drainage operations had been introduced subsequent to European occupation of the area.

The largest part of the colony is rolling, rather low terrain covered with forest. The elevation at 1.5 degrees north latitude on the upper Essequibo is only about 152 meters (500 feet) above sea level. To- ward the west, in the drainage of the Mazaruni River, the landscape is more rugged and is dominated by high plateaus. The frequency of rivers and streams is an obstacle to overland travel, and even today transportation is principally by water or by air. The present population of the forest zone is predominantly Indian, and this region shelters several groups that retain their aboriginal pattern of life largely unaltered. The land is exploitable by slash-and-burn agri- culture, but does not lend itself to intensive utilization. In the absence of outstanding commercially valuable vegetable or mineral resources, except bauxite near the coast, there has been little penetra- tion of European settlement, and the forest areas, which represent the major portion of the colony, remain unaltered from their aboriginal condition.

The third zone is the Rupununi savanna, occupying the south- western portion of the colony between the Pakarima range (pl. 2) and Marudi Mountain, and extending westward into adjacent Brazil. The savannas cover an area of approximately 13,934 square km. (5,380 square miles), and have an elevation of 91.4 to 213.3 meters (300 to 700 feet) (Baldwin, 1946). They are divided into two nearly equal parts by the Kanuku Mountains that run in an east-west direc- tion for about 120 km. (75 miles), measure 40 to 48 km. (25 to 30 miles) wide, and rise some 609.6 meters (2,000 feet). The terrain is generally level north of the Kanuku Mountains, becoming more roll- ing and broken by small tree-covered hills to the south. The vegeta- tion is also more open in the north, although large areas devoid of scattered trees are few even here. In the south savanna, groves of trees become increasingly frequent, gradually blending together and replacing the savanna entirely. Much of the savanna floods during the rainy season, when the rainfall exceeds the capacity of the rivers to drain it off. At this time the Takutu River rises about 12.2 meters (40 feet) above its dry season level, and other rivers overflow their banks. During the dry season, the clay and laterite, which are the dominant soil types, bake into a hard mass that offers little nourish- ment to the grass and is unsuitable for agriculture. In spite of its poor pasture quality, the Rupununi savanna is the most developed and most populous interior region because of the cattle industry.

Evan d ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 14

During the aboriginal period, its use appears to have been restricted to hunting grounds for groups inhabiting the adjacent forests.

These three geographical zones are correlated to some degree with differences in climate, particularly rainfall. The contrast is especially pronounced between the savanna and the forest. Records of average rainfall over a period of 10 years give a figure of 148.2 cm. (56.4 inches) at Bon Success (now Lethem) in the center of the savanna and 173 cm. (68.2 inches) at Annai, 11.2 km. (7 miles) from the edge of the forest. At Kurupukari, on the Essequibo River within the forest zone, the average for the same period is 209 cm. (82.4 inches) (Baldwin, 1946, p. 7). On the coast, rainfall averages around 228 em, (90 inches) with a maximum of 492.5 cm. (193.89 inches) recorded in 1922 (Colonial Office, 1952, p. 104). Records kept for the 3 years 1954-57 at a station on the upper Essequibo, above the mouth of the Kassikaityu, give an average annual rainfall there of between 254 and 382 cm. (100 and 150 inches) (Leavitt, Pers. commun.). In ad- dition to a difference in total annual rainfall, there is a difference in the distribution of the rain over the year. The savanna not only receives less rain than the forest but most of it is concentrated during the wet season from mid-May to the end of August. Elsewhere there is a “little rainy season” in December or January, a long rainy season from March to August, and occasional showers during the other months. In the upper Essequibo, monthly records show a fall of between 5 and 20.3 cm. (2 and 8 inches) during the “dry season” months. More evenly distributed rainfall was probably as im- portant as differences in soil fertility in explaining the concentration of aboriginal habitation in the forests.

Temperature differences between the coast and the interior are not pronounced. The coastal annual mean is about 26.8° C. (80.3° F.) with extremes during 87 years ranging from 20 to 35.6° C. (68 to 96° F.) (Colonial Office, 1952, p. 104). Temperature records on the Rupununi savanna during 1942 gave a mean maximum of 31.2° C. (88° F.) and a mean minimum of 23.6° C. (74.5° F.) (Baldwin, 1946, p.7).

Archeological survey and excavations were undertaken in four separate parts of British Guiana, representing all three of the geo- graphical zones: the coastal swamp, the savanna, and the forest. A detailed description of the particular regions investigated will assist in understanding the differences in aboriginal settlement.

THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS

The area administratively known as the Northwest District occupies the northwestern corner of British Guiana and includes the drainage systems of the Barima, Barama, and Waini Rivers. Archeological survey was confined to the lowland zone, occupying the coastal half

18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

of the District. The rivers are placid, the water flowing gently back and forth with fluctuations in the tide except during the rainy season when tidal effects are minimized. Black-water creeks have surfaces like a polished black mirror, reflecting the overhanging vegetation. Between the rivers extend the mangrove swamps—mucky, slimy, and insect-ridden. ‘There are scattered forest-covered elevations, most of them rising less than 10 to 15 meters (32.8 to 49.2 feet) above high tide level. However, in the west along the Aruka and Koriabo Rivers a series of high hills (fig. 4) rises from 39 to 96 meters (130 to 320 feet) in elevation (Osgood, 1946, fig. 7). The summit of such a hill affords a fine view over the surrounding lowland (pl. 9). The hills are steep-sided and have rather small, flat or rounded summits. A1- though most have no water supply on the summit, many were used aboriginally for village sites. Soil composition on the hills is mainly coarse decomposed granite and red clay with abundant lateritic concretions. Except for citrus trees and coflee, the hilltops or hill- sides are little used for agriculture today.

The swamps presented little attraction for habitation in aboriginal times. The only sites are small shell midden accumulations. The soil is relatively fertile when drained, however, and efforts are now being made to drain and exploit it. This is done by the construction of a large, high dirt bank along the river’s edge and the excavation of deep drainage ditches, which lower the water table sufficiently for crops to grow. There is no way to determine whether small scale operations of this sort were undertaken by the aboriginal groups, although it seems doubtful. The high land, although scattered, was probably sufficiently extensive to serve their needs. The rivers supplied fish and the forests the usual variety of game.

THE ABARY RIVER

The Abary is a small river that weaves back and forth across the - boundary separating Demerara and Berbice Provinces. Its lower course passes through the low coastal plain, which in this area is grassy rather than covered with mangrove swamp. During the rainy season the entire area is flooded and the banks of the river are in- distinguishable. Between the mouth of the Abary River and the margin of the high land, about 90 km. (56 miles) inland, elevations above flood level are few (pl. 88). Houses today are frequently raised on stilts, and during the rainy season stand in water 3 to 4 feet in depth.

The Abary savanna is comparable to savanna in the Rupununi District in general appearance. Both have scattered trees, and the erass gives way to forest when the land increases slightly in elevation. Both are flooded during the rainy season. Both appear to have offered little attraction to aboriginal habitation. Both have been uti-

Meese ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 19

lized in recent times for cattle, now being superseded in the Abary by the cultivation of wet rice.

THE UPPER ESSEQUIBO

The upper Essequibo River and its major tributaries, the Kassi- kaityu and Kuyuwini, flow through forest that extends unbroken in all directions except to the northwest, where it fades into the Ru- pununi savanna. Along the Brazilian border, a ridge rises to 304.8 meters (1,000 feet) elevation, but the rest of the area slopes gradually from 152.4 meters (500 feet) in the headwaters to sea level at the coast. In keeping with the generally low and level character of the terrain, riverbanks are typically low and the major part of the area floods at some time during the rainy season. Sticks and debris lodged in the overhanging branches of trees showed the level of the Essequibo to rise annually 4 to 5 meters (13.1 to 15.4 feet) above its lowest level, or about 3 meters (9.8 feet) above the December-January water level. The banks are not uniform in height, but in most places their elevation is low enough to flood at the peak of the rainy season. Above the mouth of the Kassikaityu, two small rapids interrupt the smooth flow of the river. Rock outcrops are more frequent below the Kassikaityu mouth, where they often jut spectacularly into the Essequibo River.

The riverbanks form dense walls of vegetation, whose composition varies with the elevation (pl. 40). Tail slender palms, their trunks bristling with downward pointing spines, grow where the land is readily flooded. On high banks, the large trees are festooned with clumps of epiphytic plants whose long, slender aerial roots hang down like streamers. Behind this wall, where sunlight is filtered out by the high canopy of tree tops, undergrowth tends to be spindly, delicate, and sparse.

The forest shelters a variety of animal life, the majority of which is rarely visible. Birds and monkeys are most commonly seen, but tapir, peccary, and smaller mammals are hunted for food by the pres- ent Indians. The river contains quantities of many varieties of fish, which are easily caught. Land high enough to escape flooding and thus suitable for agriculture is available along the river, but such areas are typically small and may be isolated by wide stretches of low land that is inundated during half of the year.

THH RUPUNUNI SAVANNA

The Rupununi savanna is the eastern edge of a formation that ex- tends over adjacent Brazil and into parts of Venezuela. In British Guiana, it divides naturally into two parts. The north savanna lies between the foothills of the Pakaraima Mountains and the Kanuku Mountains. The northern part is flat and contains wide treeless ex-

20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

panses (pls. 53; 54,a@). Moving southward, scattered trees or groves of trees occur and the terrain becomes increasingly rolling. Toward the east, trees are more concentrated and there is an almost equal division between grass and forested areas. Between the west side of the Kanuku Mountains and the Takutu River, the land is rolling low hills thickly sprinkled with trees, with intervening depressions that tend to be swampy. ‘The south savanna, south of the Kanuku Moun- tains, is relatively open and flat only in the northwest. Several moun- tains rise steeply from the savanna floor (pls. 55, a; 59, a). Moving eastward, the terrain becomes rolling, and low hills covered with bare, weathered, black granite outcrops and trees are characteristic. Groves of trees increase in area toward the south, until forest gradually re- places the grass. The 59th parallel marks the approximate limit of the savanna on the east.

The Rupununi savanna straddles the continental watershed. Trib- utaries of the Rupununi River interlock with creeks flowing into the Takutu and Ireng Rivers, which contribute their waters to the Ama- zon system (fig. 2). A consequence is a marked annual variation in water level, and hence in the navigability of rivers. In the wet season, river cargo boats can reach a point almost midway into the south savanna. In the dry season, a small canoe cannot travel above Annai, at the base of the Pakaraima Mountains. Correspondingly, creeks and waterholes overflowing in the rainy season become stagnant or dry in November and December.

The vegetation of the savanna offers little in the way of subsistence resources. Animal life is difficult to assess now that cattle have been introduced, but it is probable that deer were once more common. Several small shallow lakes contain arapaima (Suds gigas or Ara- paima gigas) and other fish, as well as cayman. The forest provided the major hunting and gathering as well as the only possibility for agricultural exploitation in aboriginal times. Even today, savanna- dwelling Indians have their fields in the forests and spend part of the year living at their gardens to plant and harvest their crops.

CONCLUSION

Although the coastal, forest, and savanna zones of British Guiana differ strikingly in superficial features, their potentialities for human exploitation are generally similar. None has outstanding soil fer- tility? or other natural resources. All offer a variety of subsistence possibilities, but all of them are time consuming in their realization. The geographical setting is consequently highly significant in explain- ing the archeological picture and reference will be made to its role in the conclusion to this report.

1 For detailed analysis of soils and agricultural potential, see Duthie, 1939 a and 1939 b, and Evans, 1939. More specific data on vegetation can be obtained from Fanshawe, 1952,

PRECERAMIC LITHIC HORIZON

SITES AND ARTIFACTS

Evidence of early lithic remains in British Guiana is very slight. With the exception of a chipping station encountered during the 1952-53 survey, finds are restricted to a few scattered projectile points. All these specimens apparently have been recovered independently and accidentally. Consequently, nothing is known of their associa- tions, and provenience is usually vaguely stated in terms of a river drainage. All specimens are from various districts in Essequibo Province, and all projectile points are in the collections of the British Guiana Museum.

BARIMA RIVER, NORTHWEST DISTRICT

The only example from the Northwest District is of red jasper (W. E. Roth, 1924, pl. 36 A, right). It is a large parallel-sided blade tapering to a short pointed tip that is missing, with a short par- allel-sided stemmed base. The chipping is grossly done except for delicately retouched edges. The total existing length is 16 cm., maximum width at the junction with stem 5 cm., stem length 2 cm. and stem width 2m.

CUYUNI RIVER, MAZARUNI DISTRICT

Four stemmed projectile points, all of slightly different size and shape have been recovered from the Cuyuni River. A broad, thin specimen of quartz (pl. 8, d) has a slightly contracting stem with a flat base. The edges show careful secondary chipping, producing a marked slope at the sides of the stem. The length is 10.6 cm. and the maximum width 4 cm.

Another point (pl. 8, 6) of chalcedony is slightly narrower and thicker. The shoulders are much less pronounced and the stem con- tracts to a rounded base. All edges show secondary retouching. The tip of the point is broken off. Existing length is 11.7 cm. and maximum width 3.5 cm.

The third example is chert (pl. 8, ¢c). It is more even and sym- metrical than the others but is of the same general form, with pro- nounced shoulders and a slightly contracting stem. The length is Sem. and the maximum width 2.5 cm.

21

22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

The remaining point is of chalcedony with the same general form and complete secondary chipping as the others, but with a more crudely executed stem contracting to a rounded base (W. E. Roth, 1929, pl. 1 A, a). The length is 5.8 cm. and the maximum width 2.8 cm.

IRENG RIVER, RUPUNUNI DISTRICT

A beautifully chipped, symmetrical projectile point of red jasper is reported to have been dredged from the bed of the Ireng River near the Good Hope ranch on the northern savanna of the Rupununi District. The specimen (pl. 8, a) has a long stem with parallel sides and a rounded base. The blade narrows from the base to the point, the tip of which is broken off. The margins are straight for almost half the distance from the base, where the even edge is broken by three serrations on each side. Above the serrated area, there is a small expansion producing a slightly bulbous outline, followed by contraction to a long, narrow, tapering point. Existing length is 14 cm., stem length 2.6 cm., stem width 1.4 cm., width at base of blade 3.4 cm., distance from base to serrations 4.0 cm., length of ser- rated zone 2 cm., width at serrations 2.4 cm., width at upper end of serrations 2.0 cm., width at broken tip 0.7 em.

PALIKUA CREEK, RUPUNUNI DISTRICT

A point of quite different form is described by W. E. Roth (1929, p- 9 and pl. 1 A, c) as coming from Palikiia Creek, a tributary of the Rupununi River. It is short and broad, and has shoulder barbs and a narrow, straight-sided stem with a straight base. The material is said to be a kind of agate. The length is 6.7 cm. and the width 3.8 cm.

TABATINGA RIVER, RUPUNUNI DISTRICT

The only nonceramic site discovered during the 1952 survey of the Rupununi savanna was R-4: Tabatinga, a small chipping station about 100 meters in from the left bank of the Tabatinga River, some 500 meters above its junction with the Takutu (fig. 109). Fragments of felsite, chert, and quartz were scattered over a small rise in the savanna. No well-defined artifacts, either complete or fragmentary, were found, and there was no pottery. Two stones show evidence of chipping. One (fig. 8, a—c) is an ovoid flake of felsite with a bulb of percussion near the center of one long edge and slight retouch along the opposite edge. Surfaces measure 4.5 by 2.8 cm., with the thickness 1.2 cm. at the center tapering down toward the edges. The other (fig. 3, d-/) is a trianguloid flake of chert, smooth on one sur- face as a result of the natural concoidal fracture, and chipped on the opposite face. The smooth surface has slight use retouch along one

EH d = ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Pa:

Figure 3.—Worked stones from the nonceramic site of R-4: Tabatinga, on the Rupununi savanna.

side. The fragment is 3.5 cm. long, 2.5 cm. wide at one end, tapering to 0.8 cm. at the other end. Maximum thickness is 1.1 cm. at the wide end and middle, tapering toward the point. ‘Two small quartz chips were associated, but these show no evidence of working.

COMPARATIVE DATA, CONCLUSIONS, AND INTERPRETATIONS

The preceramic lithic artifacts in British Guiana present a problem when it comes to interpreting the significance of the finds. Although the evidence of this cultural horizon is meager, the fact that no similar stoneworking tradition occurs associated with any of the pottery-making cultures of British Guiana indicates that it repre- sents a separate and earlier occupation. ‘There is no indication of how much earlier it may have been. Comparative analysis is ham- pered by the fact that the shape and size of the points, type of work- manship, and stone material are different from those of any of the other known preceramic lithic complexes in South America, includ- ing scattered finds from the Gran Sabana of eastern Venezuela in the region adjoining British Guiana (Dupouy, 1958). This does not mean that resemblances cannot be seen in isolated specimens from the lithic complexes of the caves of the Sierras Centrales and the pampas of Argentina (Gonzalez, MS.; Holmes, 1912, pl. 18), Palli Aike Cave in Patagonia (Bird, 1946, figs. 20-27), or the early sites of coastal Peru, such as Pampa de los Fésiles (Larco Hoyle, 1948, pp. 11, 63),

24. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Pampa de Paijan (Engel, 1957, pl. XX XIV, lower), or the caves of the Lagoa Santa region of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Walter, 1958, figs. 9, 16, 22, 88). However, when the total complex of features in each of these areas is considered, differences loom larger than similarities and no direct relationships can be postulated with the possible excep- tion of the specimens from eastern Venezuela.

In view of the wandering life associated with a hunting economy and of the unexcelled opportunities for concealment of artifact re- mains provided by the forested terrain, it is doubtful that our knowl- edge of these hunting cultures in British Guiana will ever be much more complete than it is at present. Discouraging as the situation may seem by contrast with North America or the stratified cave sites of southern South America, it is surprisingly good by contrast with the rest of Tropical Forest South America where evidence of early hunting groups is completely negative. The British Guiana finds suggest that more widespread appreciation of their significance might bring similar artifacts to light in other parts of the South American lowlands.

THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS THE ALAKA PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS

Two types of shell middens occur in the Northwest District, but only one belongs to the Alaka Phase. Mounds consisting mainly of small, striped snail (Veritina) shells mixed with no dirt and little ash appear to be associated with one of the pottery-making cultures. Alaka Phase shell middens are densely compacted refuse composed of shells (oyster, clam, mussel, snail, etc.), crab carapaces, and fish and animal bones and containing very crude percussion-made stone tools. Occasionally potsherds occur on the surface or in the upper- most levels, and sometimes human skeletal fragments are scattered haphazardly in the midden. Six Alaka Phase sites were investigated (fig. 4).

N-6: LITTLE KANIABALLI

A few kilometers downstream from its junction with the Barama River, a series of small tributaries drains into the Waini River. Their mouths are concealed by heavy growth of mangrove trees along the swampy bank. Little Kaniaballi Creek, one of these streams, drains into the right bank of the Waini. Near its headwaters, several kilometers from the mouth, a truncated conical shell mound rises prominently out of the surrounding swampy land.

The first mention of this site is by Brett (1868, pp. 435-486), who speaks of a shell midden discovered by an Indian while hunting near the “Comonoballi,” above the confluence of the Morebo and the Waini Rivers. In 1920, the site was visited by Vincent Roth. His unpublished journal describes the difficulties in reaching it, the arma- dillo holes that riddled the surface, and the mucky conditions of the surrounding swamp. Digging in the black dirt and shell refuse with machetes and sticks, he and his companions found a “portion of a human thigh bone and several fish-bones and similar relics” (V. Roth, MS.,p. 110).

At the time of our visit in 1953, the shell mound measured roughly 10 meters in diameter at its flattened top and 30 meters in diameter at its base. Asa result of an irregularity in the surface of the swamp, elevation ranges from 4 meters above the swamp on the south to 5 meters above it on the north. The mound, like the surrounding area, was overgrown with trees and bushes. The surface was disturbed in

25

2°26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

several places by animal burrowing, and a depression on one side suggested previous excavation. Shell, ash, and bones were en- countered in all parts of the site. A 2- by 1-meter cut was placed in the summit and carried to a depth of 1.50 meters, at which depth it was no longer practical to dig in so small a hole, owing to the necessity of using a pick on the hard compact refuse. To test the entire midden to its core, however, overlapping test holes were dug on each meter down to sterile ground. These demonstrated that the midden was a 4-meter-thick accumulation of shell refuse resting on a natural knoll of medium-gray clay that rose about a meter above the surrounding low swamp. Cut 1, dug in 8-cm. levels, had the following characteristics:

Level .00-.08 m__ Black loose humus containing few shells.

Level .08-.16 m__ Badly broken, pulverized shells and crab claws inter- mixed with ash; fish and human bones scattered in refuse ; compact masses of shell cemented together.

Level .16-.24 m__ Same conditions.

Level .24-.82 m__ Entire level compacted into hard layers 2-5 cm. thick; some dirt mixed in the refuse. Majority of shells are mussels and clams with some striped snail (Neritina) ; crab claws and carapaces also very common.

Level .82—.40 m__ Mussel shells pulverized into fine, flaky particles inter- mixed with dirt and ash; occasionally the shell refuse is cemented into large hunks.

Level .40—.48 m__ Same conditions.

Level .48-.56 m_. More dirt mixed with shell than in previous level; other- wise conditions the same.

Level .56—64 m__ Same as previous level.

Level .64-—.72 m__ Similar conditions to above.

Level .72-.80 m__ Refuse less compacted and without cemented layers.

Level .80—.88 m__ Same conditions.

Level .88—96 m__ Pulverized shell intermixed with ash, dirt and fire-burnt stones suggests a hearth.

Level 0.96-1.04 m_. Dirt more abundant; a dark-gray loam intermixed

with finely pulverized shell.

Level 1.04-1.12 m__ Same conditions.

Level 1.12-1.20 m__ Light-gray soil with tiny fragments of shell and fine

ash.

Level 1.20-1.27 m__ Hard layer of cemented shell.

Level 1.27-1.50 m_. More abundant shell refuse below the cemented layer,

with much of the shell in whole fragments rather than pulverized ; soil light-tan to gray.

Cut 1 was not carried below this depth owing to the problems of digging, explained previously. The other tests were not controlled by levels but it was observed that the same general conditions con- tinued to the bottom of the deposit. Broken stones occurred through- out and were saved to be examined later in the laboratory for traces of use.

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SF lly Mung 60°

Ficure 4.—Map of the Northwest District, showing the location of archeological sites. Elevations are given in feet.

1 ena ¥!

Magee

Deval, nieowiig the Heating of,

lie i '

E d 0 Bvensian ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 27

A sample of shells from the various levels was identified? with the species listed generally in their order of most frequent occurrence: Neritina zebra Bruguitre—a common brackish-water, intertidal snail, herbiv-

orous, ranging along the north coast of South America from Honduras to

Brazil.

Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin—a common intertidal clam preferring warm, sandy mud, usually not far from mangroves. Although a marine species, it can tolerate intermittent fresh water.

Mytilus falcatus Orbigny—a common mussel of brackish water.

Melongena melongena Linné—a common conch of the West Indies living in marine to slightly brackish water not far from mangroves; carnivorous, likes sandy mud.

N-8: ALAKA CREEK

The Morebo River drains into the left bank of the Waini River a few kilometers upstream from the junction of the latter with the Warapoco River. Alaka Creek is a small tributary on the north (left) bank of the Morebo River. On the right bank of Alaka Creek, near its headwaters, are two large shell middens. Although the sites can be reached by water, they are also accessible overland from the Warapoco River.

This site came to the attention of Brett in 1866, and he sent his representative, Mr. D. Campbell, to investigate it. He described it as “about sixteen feet in height, with a base of 400 feet in circumference. It stands hard by a small stream, called after it ‘Alaka,’ the shells . . .” (Brett, 1868, p. 485). The site was visited by Vincent Roth (MS., pp. 184-135) on September 21, 1920, and his general de- scription coincides with ours except that during testing he uncovered fragments of human skeletal material intermixed in the midden refuse.

The Alaka Creek shell middens are located at the edge of a long ridge 3 meters in elevation, which extends from the Warapoco River to Alaka Creek. There are two distinct knolls (fig. 5), the margins of which overlap slightly giving a continuous deposit. Mound 1, the smaller of the two, is 8.0 meters in diameter at the base and 4.5 meters high. It rises at the edge of the slope, where the land drops down to the Alaka Creek, 5 meters away. The opposite side of the creek is swamp. Mound 2, 12 meters in base diameter and 6 meters high, is farther back from the edge and separated from the slope by Mound 1. It has a flattened top 4 meters in diameter, perhaps leveled by agricultural activity, since the high land including the site was under cultivation by the modern inhabitants. Several tests were made to determine the limits of the refuse deposit, and these produced a variety

2 All identifications of the shells and statements about their habitat throughout the entire section on the Alaka Phase were made by Dr. Harald Rehder, curator of the

Division of Mollusks, U.S. National Museum, and Dr. Tucker Abbott, Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, formerly on the staff of the U.S. National Museum.

513186—60———4

28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

—— SITE LIMIT

=x Ww uw « o

ALAKA

MOUND | MOUND 2

Ficure 5.—Sketch map of N-8: Alaka Creek, a shell midden site of the Alaka Phase.

of miscellaneous rocks, 1 plain sherd, and quantities of shell, bone, and carapaces of crustacea. Cut 1, a 2- by 1-meter stratigraphic excavation controlled in 25 centimeter levels, was dug in the summit of Mound 2. Sterile soil encountered at 2.60 meters, indicated that the mound was built on a small, natural rise of the same sandy, decomposed granite as the natural soil of the surrounding area.

The contents of Cut 1 by levels are:

Level .00-.25 m_. Loose black loam; scattered fish bones, stone chips, small striped snail shells, a few mussels and clams. Dis- turbed by cultivation. Shell not common until after a depth of 16 cm., but fish bones rather abundant. A small drilled shark’s tooth found from 16-24 ecm. (fig. 7, e). Seven sherds came from the surface and 1 small sherd was found at a depth of 8-16 cm. Natural quartz spalls and limonite and hematite concretions very abundant.

Level .25-.50 m__ Fish bones and stone chips less abundant from 25-82 em. than in previous level, but pulverized mussel shells in- crease in frequency; all intermixed with considerable dirt. From 30-32 cm. there is a stratum of cemented shells, crab carapaces and claws, and fish bones in the southwest and northeast corners of the cut. Otherwise, the composition is a rather even intermixture of shell, fine ash, iron concretions, fire-burnt gneiss fragments, and gray-brown soil. From 40-50 cm. in the south half of the cut, there was an unusually large concentration of crab claws and carapaces.

onaend ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 29

Level .50-.75 m_._ Up to 70 cm. the conditions are the same as above, with a rather even intermixture of well pulverized shell, bone, crab claws and carapaces, ash and dirt. At 70 cm. there was a deposit of well compacted shelis of many species, intermixed with fish bones, remains of crabs, palm seeds and a minimum of dirt.

Level 0.75-1.00 m__ Pulverized, broken shells abundant. All bones are so in- crusted with calcium carbonate that they are uniden- tifiable in the field. Dirt still intermixed with the shell in streaks of black to gray-brown. Hard layers from 2-3 em. thick are scattered throughout the level suggesting that when a basket of ashes was dumped, chemical action caused by water filtering through the ash and onto the shell cemented the mass together.

Level 1.00-1.25 m__ All conditions the same except at 1.10 meters, where a cemented layer of shells, ete. from 2-3 cm. thick, ex- tends across the entire cut. Natural, unworked pieces of quartz, feldspar, andesite, and limonite concre- tions also present.

Level 1.25-1.50 m__ Dirt and shell intermixed ; at 1.25 meters there are large hunks of cemented material reaching 10 cm. thick.

Level 1.50-1.75 m__ Dirt and pulverized shell continue but stone less com- mon; fire-burnt piece of quartz.

Level 1.75-2.00 m__ After the removal of several large hunks of cemented materials at 1.75 meters, no more compacted material was found. Dirt and pulverized shell with the dirt now tending to be a lighter tan and brown. Fire burnt hunks of granite.

Level 2.00-2.25 m__ Streaks of orange, fire-burnt areas containing black and gray ash intermixed with dirt, pulverized shell, and fire-burnt andesite rocks.

Level 2.25-2.60 m__ Same conditions as above layer. At 2.60 meters sterile, natural soil of light-gray sand containing coarse, large, decomposed-granite particles appeared.

The shells from the midden include: Veritina zebra Bruguiére, My- tilus falcatus Orbigny, Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin, Melongena me- longena Linné, and Thais coronata Lamarck. The last species is the first record for this type of snail in the Guianas. It is an estuary, brackish-water snail that clings to the roots of mangrove trees. De- tailed comments of distribution and ecological adaptation are found for the other species under the discussion for Site N-6 (p. 27).

N-9: ALAKA ISLAND

The land around the mouth of Warapoco Creek is mangrove swamp. Thirty meters inward from the bank of the Waini, on the left side of Warapoco Creek, is an elevated spot with large granite outcrops. Black dirt and shells were scattered widely, churned up by the burrow- ings of armadillos and their hunters. Although the midden was over- grown principally with small trees, hanging vines and shrubs, a few trees measured up to 1 meter in diameter. In addition to shells, a few

30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

plain sherds were on the surface. A large granite boulder rising 5 meters out of the ground marks the northern limit of the site, which extends 30 meters to the south and 25 meters in an east-west direction (fig.6). ‘The 1.50 and 2.00 meter contour line above high-water level outlines a small rise. The midden deposit is smaller in area than the natural knoll, leaving a sterile strip 2 to 15 meters wide around the

(STERILE) \x MANGROVE SWAMP

x TEST: ——— LIMIT OF MIDDEN

\nunoat

i

ee ee es o 2 4 6 8 I0M

Ficure 6.—Sketch map of N-9: Alaka Island, a shell midden site of the Alaka Phase.

border. The midden surface is irregular but rises generally to the north. The highest part, near the large rock, has an elevation of 4 meters above the surrounding swamp. The depth of the refuse accu- mulation is 2.50 meters at the location of the strata cut, but on top of the mound it decreases to 1.25 to 1.50 meters.

The area was tested extensively to determine the limits of the midden. A 2- by 1-meter strata cut, controlled in 25 cm. levels, was placed in a level place near the middle of the southern flank, in an area apparently free from animal burrows. The refuse deposits had the following characteristics :

Level .00-.25 m_. Rich black loam and shell in a mixture that contained over 80 percent dirt. 16 potsherds were recovered from the level, and 8 potsherds were found on the surface.

Level .25-.50 m__ Black dirt; shells rather sparse, mostly oyster; 12 sherds.

eneast ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 31 Level .50-.75 m__ At 65 cm. the dirt turns grayer. Oyster and clam

shells are still present, but small, striped, snail shells

(Neritina) are now more common. 10 potsherds

seattered in the refuse. Fragments of badly broken

adult human bones (patella, distal end of femur,

fragment of a lower jaw with a few teeth in place)

were scattered haphazardly throughout the refuse.

Level 0.75-1.00 m_. Soil now gray; Neritina snail and oyster shells com- mon; 1 sherd, and 1 egg-shaped fired clay object.

Level 1.00-1.25 m__ No change in conditions up to 1.10 meters. At this point several large hunks of rotten granite were found and the soil changed to light tan and gray tan. Large oyster shells abundant. Evidence of an old armadillo burrow ran horizontally across this level at one end of the cut.

Level 1.25-1.50 m__ One oval-shaped piece of fired clay. Tan ash and sterile sand mixed with shell suggests a load of clean river sand had been dumped in one area.

Level 1.50-2.45 m__ At 1.50 meters the amount of shell increases notice- ably, but the bone and stone fragments decrease. Crab claws and carapaces appear for first time below 2.00 meters. The soil is now a distinct tan color. These conditions continue until sterile, brown, sandy soil appears at 2.45 meters.

Whereas the other shell middens contained several species, this site produced only two: Weritina zebra Bruguiére and Crassostrea rhizo- phorae Guilding. The latter is a common, intertidal, brackish-water oyster that usually grows attached to mangrove trees.

N-10: SAND CREEK

Three-quarters of the way downstream from Warapoco Mission School, Sand Creek enters the left bank of Warapoco Creek. This small tributary drains an area that at high tide is completely flooded and during low tide is swamp, except for a few scattered high spots surmounted by large granite boulders. Several of these outcrops, 4 to 5 meters high, are located 85 meters inland from the left bank of Warapoco Creek in a northeasterly direction. Behind these rocks the land rises 8 meters above the surrounding swamp and is sprinkled with small granite boulders. The soil is black and flecked with de- composed mussel shells. Oyster, clam, Neritina snail shells, fish bones, crab claws, and carapaces are intermixed. Testing over the area re- vealed a midden accumulation similar to that at N-9 except that the quantity of pulverized mussel shells was greater. The depth of the deposit ranges from 0.75 to 1.00 meter on a foundation of decomposing granite rock. The extent of the midden refuse is irregular, covering an area 40 by 25 meters above the 2-meter contour line. <A collection of stone chips and artifacts was made from test pits. A few plain, sand-tempered sherds were collected. The shell sample from this site

32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

contained Veritina zebra Bruguiére, Crassostrea rhizophorae Guild- ing, Z’hais coronata Lamarck, and Melongena melongena Linné.

N-11: HOSORORO CREEK

Driving from the Government headquarters at Mabaruma in a southwesterly direction, one comes to the Northwest District Govern- ment Agricultural Station on the top of Hosororo Hill. This hill, on the left bank of the Aruka River, is one of the highest in the area. Hosororo Creek flows down the hillside in a series of cascades to the flat. bottom lands between the foot of the hill and the Aruka River (figs. 4, 22). This low area has been cleared of mangrove trees and drained for agricultural purposes by means of deep ditches. Where Hosororo Creek makes a sharp curve, it cuts into the left bank ex- posing a large quantity of shell midden refuse, rocks, chips, some sherds, and a few human skeletal fragments. By sporadic testing, as well as checking the soil discoloration, and the presence of shells in the cultivated areas and drainage ditches, the midden was found to cover an oval area extending inward from the left bank of Hosororo Creek roughly 35 meters wide and 47 meters long. The front edge of the midden is 100 meters back from the Aruka River and the op- posite flank of the midden is 70 meters from the foot of Hosororo Hill (fig. 21). During low tide, Hosororo Creek has only 8 to 10 em. of water, but at high tide depth increases to about 1 meter. The original height of the midden cannot be determined with accuracy today because the embouldering and the agricultural activity has leveled the area considerably and there has been a sinking of the heavy midden refuse into the soft muck beneath. Today the midden area is only 75 em. higher than the adjacent land on the west end and 1 meter higher on the northeast end. In addition to making a surface collection from the cultivated area and the exposed, eroding bank, a small strata cut, 1 by 1 meter dug in 25-cm. levels, was placed in the approximate center of the midden. The deposit had the following features:

Level 25 em__. Disturbed from garden use and drainage ditch con- struction. Soil a black muck with reddish tinge below 15 em. Stone chips and stone artifacts are fairly common; shells rare. 261 sherds were collected from the surface and 5S from the level.

Level 23-50 em... Soil a dark, reddish brown. Stone chips abundant as well as lots of natural iron concretions washed down from the lateritice soil of Hosorero Hill. 214 petsherds came from this level; all badly eroded. At 30 cm. the soil with its natural rock inclusions and the midden refuse are cemented inte a hard conglomerate in which the sherds, artifacts, etc. are embedded. This con- tinues until 45 cm.; from 45 to 50 em. the refuse is loose and uncemented.

BE d Teas ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 33

Level 50-80 cm__. Black, oozy, wet muck with sherds, shells, and rock intermixed occurs from 55 to 80 cm. Most of the 61 sherds were in a zone from 55 to 65 cm., with a thick shell and ash layer below. Water reached at 80 cm.

A small sample of shells was collected from this site. This included Mytilus falcatus Orbigny, Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding, Neritina zebra Bruguiére, and Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin.

N-16 > AKAWABI CREEK SHELL MIDDEN

Akawabi Creek flows into the Wauna River, which in turn is a tributary of the Koriabo River. A shell midden is located on the left bank of Akawabi Creek at the first sharp bend above the mouth (figs. 4, 22). The bank here rises to 3 meters above creek level and then levels off over a rather large area. At the front, along the creek, there is a knoll a meter higher in elevation than the bank (fig. 24), and the shell midden is located on the northeast part of this rise. Later, 2 Mabaruma Phase village reoccupied the site and the sur- rounding area (see pp. 73-75). More recently, the whole area has been under cultivation, and the part occupied by the site has been leveled and a school constructed. In 1953 there was a house on the high knoll, northwest of the edge of the shell midden.

Verrill (1918 a, pp. 18-15) visited Akawabi Creek and tested the shell deposit. He found it to be 3 to 6 feet in thickness and “in most places it was very barren of relics” (op. cit., p. 14). The three burials he encountered appear from their associated pottery (op. cit., figs. 10-12) to belong to the later Mabaruma Phase occupation (see p. 75).

At the time of our visit, the shell midden was 12 meters long by 5 meters wide (fig. 24). Test A, at the center of the site near the edge of the 4-meter contour line, showed the deposit to be 85 cm. deep. Soil was mixed with ash, shells, crab remnants, and rock chips throughout the entire deposit. Sherds were encountered only in the upper 10 cm. In contrast to the dark-gray midden refuse, the sterile soil was granular, gray-brown sand containing particles of decom- posed granite.

Cut 1, a 2- by 1-meter excavation, was placed near the high knoll, 25 meters from the margin of the major shell midden concentration. Each 15-cm. level had the following materials and characteristics:

Level .00-.15 m__ Disturbed soil from recent leveling of the land for agri- cultural purposes; 124 sherds, quartz chips, fragments of stone tools; black loose loam with numerous lateritic concretions.

Level .13-.30 m__ Soil conditions the same; 33 sherds; 1 bone fragment.

Level 30-.45 m__ Black soil: no shell: 6 sherds; lateritic rocks abundant.

34 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

Level .45-.65 m-._ Same conditions as previous level; no sherds. Level .65-.90 m__ Reddish, rusty-brown with black granules, giving it a dark-grayish tint. Sterile.

The stone artifact types from this excavation are counted in the Ap- pendix, table 1. The shell refuse included Mytilus falcatus Orbigny, Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin, Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding and Neritina zebra Bruguiére.

DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS

The shell middens of the Northwest District and Pomeroon District attracted attention in British Guiana as early as 1845, and the litera- ture referring to them ranges from serious discussions and speculations about these “man-made” structures to fanciful comments by travelers, public officials, missionaries, and teachers. The best summary of our knowledge of the subject has been made by Osgood (1946, pp. 28-87). He suggests that not all of the shell middens belong to the same cultural periods. Only those that belong to the Alaka Phase are considered in this section.

BARAMBINA (BARABINA) MIDDEN

The most carefully studied and described site in A. Hyatt Verrill’s archeological explorations in British Guiana in 1917 is Barambina shell midden (fig. 4, adjacent to N-23), which extends over an area 150 by 300 feet on the extreme western slope of Barambina hill in the Northwest District (Verrill, 1918 a, pp. 13-14; Osgood, 1946, p. 34). Verrill tested the area extensively with pits and trenches. He found no fancy, modeled pottery but mentions many fragments of plain, poorly made pottery from the surface to the bottom of the deposit, which he determined to be as much as 5 feet in depth (loc. cit.). At three places in the digging, complete human skeletons were found in sitting or kneeling position, facing east, with a rough slab of earthen- ware over the occiput (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 18). Osgood revisited the site in 1944 and excavated a trench 2 meters wide and 12 meters long, controlled in 25-cm. levels (Osgood, 1946, p. 49). This check con- firmed Verrill’s observations with one exception; Osgood found sherds only in the first level (0-25 cm.), even though he carried the excava- tion to sterile soil at a depth of 1.50cm. These sherds were not deco- rated. The details of Osgood’s work and the tabulation of the artifacts, etc., should be consulted for comparative purposes in the original source (Osgood, 1946, pp. 49-50). Although these sherds and stone artifacts were destroyed in the Georgetown fire of 1945, the general characteristics of this midden conform to those we ex- amined, and it can be identified as belonging to the Alaka Phase.

ema ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 30

MISCELLANEOUS NORTHWEST DISTRICT SHELL MIDDENS

Certain other sites listed by Verrill (1918 a, pp. 18-17) and by Osgood (1946, pp. 61-63) can be classified as probably belonging to the Alaka Phase. However, the site and artifact descriptions are too sketchy to do more than expand the distribution of the Phase. Un- doubtedly, other sites could be found by systematic survey.

A concentrated effort was made by us to relocate the sites of Hobo and Atopani (Attibani) on small tributaries of the left bank of the Aruka River near the Government Headquarters at Mabaruma (Os- good, 1946, Sites +6 and +7, p. 61). Unfortunately, even with the help of the present inhabitants of the region, the search was in vain, and yet all the local guides knew what we were talking about for they constantly made reference to Barambina shell mound.

Other Alaka Phase sites described by Verrill, and also classified from his descriptive data as shell middens by Osgood are Simri (Simiri), Hotohana, and Hotokwaia (Osgood, 1946, Appendix: Sites #64, #16, and +412, respectively).

Our guides and workman reported that middens of approximately the same size and shape, with the same type and amount of shell refuse, rocks, bones, crab remains, and crude tools as those in which we were working occurred in the following places (fig. 4): (1) at the head of Bamboo, or sometimes called Kamuata Creek, which is the next tributary of the Waini River below the Little Kaniaballi Creek; (2) at the head of the Waiwa River, a tributary of the Barama River; (3) about 15 km. above the mouth of the Waiwa River; (4) at the head of the Morebo River; (5) on the Querow (Quiaro) Creek, a tributary of the Waini River below Kwabanna Creek.

WARAMURI SHELL MIDDEN

Waramuri shell mound was discovered in 1844-45 when the hill was cleared for a mission among the Warrau Indians in the Pomeroon District. A 20-foot-wide trench was dug into the mound by a school teacher, D. Campbell, at the direction of W. H. Brett, a missionary interested in the ethnography of British Guiana. The discovery created such excitement that the Governor of the Colony came from Georgetown in 1866 to view the site. E. F. Im Thurn and W. H. Brett both wrote extensive descriptions and it is from their data that Osgood drew the information for his excellent summary (1946, p. 25).

The midden is approximately one-quarter of a mile from Moruka near the junction of the Moruka (Moruca) River with the Haimara- Cabura (Haimara-cabra) Creek (fig. 4). The midden has also been referred to by the name of this Creek. It is 120 feet in diameter and rises 20 to 25 feet above the surrounding sand dune, which is 80 to 90

36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

feet above the surrounding swamp. A clear pool of fresh water fed by a spring offers a constant water supply even during the driest season. Excavations in the mound were carried to sterile sand through shell deposits consisting of striped Neritina snails, oysters, conchs, clams, crab remains, and mussels, with bones scattered throughout. Near the bottom of the refuse, ashes, charcoal, shell, and bones had cemented into a hard conglomerate. Human skeletal materials were scattered throughout the refuse, except for the upper 5 to 6 feet. Their hap- hazard arrangement is described by Brett (1868, p. 423) :

. -- human bones [were encountered] in irregular positions, and at unequal depths.

These bones were not found stretched out, either in horizontal or perpendicular positions, but huddled and jumbled together in a manner impossible to describe. The skulls, some of which were of great thickness, were in fragments ;—the long bones had all been cracked open and contained sand and dust. Each mass appeared to have been deposited without ceremony in the common heap. There they had become welded into singular clusters during the lapse of years. An elbow bone, for instance, was found so tightly fixed in the spinal vertebrae, that the brittle substance would break ere they could be separated. Bones from various parts of the body, and in some instances of more than one body, were dug up in masses, which also had fish-bones and shells adhering to and consoli- dated with them. Scarcely any were found in natural juxtaposition.

In the extensive diggings by various people no pottery has been discovered. However, there is a discussion about “baked clay” in the writings of Brett (1868, p. 422), Im Thurn (1883, p. 414), and Osgood (1946, footnote 34, pp. 25-27), which should be mentioned. Brett (loc. cit.) describes “some hard slabs of clayey substance which re- sembled the baking-pans or plates used by the wilder tribes at the present day and which the shells, &c., plentifully adhered to and encrusted.” Im Thurn interpreted these as parts of burnt surfaces stretching in several parallel strata over the mound and resulting from Indian fires. Osgood’s comments about the fact that careful excava- tion would have solved the point are well taken, but his further state- ment that lumps of clay and platter fragments have been excavated by him from British Guiana sites is not wholly relevant. From our brief excavations in various Alaka Phase shell middens in British Guiana, it is our firm conviction that Im Thurn’s interpretation is the correct one. We found burnt areas in the shell midden refuse and attribute them either to a large fire for roasting purposes built immedi- ately on the spot, or the dumpings of a cleaned-out hearth or firepit on shell refuse. Although at times the clay has been fire burnt, the fragments do not resemble griddle sherds known in any of the ceramic sites of British Guiana.

Unfortunately, descriptions of the stone artifacts leave much to be desired. Brett (1868, p. 438) illustrates and describes stone axes as “rude ... even those with sharpened edges.” The collection of arti-

E a 3 Evans an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 37

facts from “Waramuri Mound” and “Haimaracabra Shell Mound” (two names for the same site) in the British Guiana Museum suggests both selectivity for better-made specimens and mixture with some of the later occupants of the site during the past few centuries. Types of polished tools not found in any other sites in the Northwest District are mixed with these collections along with cruder, percussion-made specimens. CABACABURI SHELL MIDDEN

Aside from Waramuri, the best-described shell midden in the Pomeroon District is Cabacaburi, on a hillside at the mission of the same name about 40 miles above the mouth of the Pomeroon River (fig. 58). Although both Brett and Im Thurn visited the site, neither gives the dimensions. Brett (1868, p. 441) dug several pits and a large trench. He found skeletal remains haphazardly scattered through the lower levels of refuse, with some of the bones cracked open (op. cit., pp. 440-442). In the upper 3 feet, the skeletons were better preserved and the bones uncracked. Since European red bricks were uncovered at a depth of 3 feet, Brett interprets these upper bones as recent intrusions, perhaps dating from the Dutch coloniza- tion (op. cit. p. 442).

The nonceramic artifacts include broken axes, quartz chips, a small stone chisel, and lumps of red pigment. <A pair of thin, silver plates, perforated and used as ear ornaments, was found associated with a skull at a depth of 4 feet and Brett (1868, p. 439) mentions finding a, few small sherds at the same depth. Im Thurn (1884, p. 123), who excavated for 2 days in 1877, reports finding “a small and broken animal mask of clay, which might have been a boss, or other orna- ment, on some clay vessel.” He also mentions that a friend found two fragments of a pottery griddle. There is no question that the pottery head, the griddle, and probably the silver earrings belong to a later culture than the Alaka Phase. In view of the intrusive bricks and skeletal remains, they may even date from the contact period.

AKAWINI SHELL MOUND

Two men sent by Brett to search for other shell middens in the Pomeroon District reported a site on the Pomeroon River near the Akawini Creek (fig. 58). No details are given other than that the midden is located near a swamp and is similar to Waramuri but broader and flatter (Brett, 1868, p. 483).

SIRIKI MOUND

Siriki mound is located near Siriki, a small stream on the eastern side of the Pomeroon River, and adjacent to a swamp (fig. 58). It

38 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

is larger than Akawini, 250 feet long, 90 feet wide, and 20 to 25 feet high. Brett’s (loc. cit.) five test pits produced the typical shell refuse and large amounts of human bone.

PIRACCA MIDDEN

Piracca midden, located by Im Thurn in 1877 when he was working at Cabacaburi, is presumably named for a small tributary (fig. 58). This midden, reported to be 38 feet high, was on an island in the middle of a swamp. Osgood (1946, p. 27) notes that although Im Thurn describes the contents as similar to shell middens, he mentions in later publications the finding of a European pipe stem at a depth of 3 feet and of potsherds at an unspecified depth.

ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS

Alaka Phase artifacts are made of bone, a shark’s tooth, pottery or stone, with the latter by far the most common.

OBJECTS OF BONE AND TEETH

Avis (fig. 7, a-d).—Striations produced by wear on two fishbones indicate that they were used as awls. The complete specimen comes from N-8, level 0.75-1.00 meter. It is small and slender, 4.6 cm. long, and dark brown in color. One end is sharpened to a point, and the surfaces are smooth and polished from usage (fig. 7, c-d).

The other specimen is broken, but striations from use on the tapered end suggest it to be of the same type as described above. This frag- ment came from N-6, level 0-24 cm. It measures 6 cm. long to the broken end, and originally was probably several centimeters longer (fig. 7, a-b).

Punch (fig. 7, f-g).—A dense, heavy, compact section of bone prob- ably split from one of the long bones of a tapir, but too fragmentary for positive identification, has been abraded and one end polished to a blunt point. The total length is 10.0 cm., with the polished, blunt end 2.8 cm. long; thickness varies from 1.0-1.2 cm. The punch came from N-9, level 0.75-1.00 meter.

Drilled shark’s tooth (fig. 7, ¢)—A small fragmentary shark’s tooth, drilled biconically for suspension, came from N-8, level 0-25 em. The tooth fragment measures 1.5 by 1.3 cm. The perforation is 3 mm. in diameter.

Stonr ARTIFACT TYPES

From the large number of stones excavated, 496 were identified as artifacts and 187 as flakes. While the work was underway and even when some of the specimens were being washed in the laboratory, many appeared to be only miscellaneous pieces of broken rock. How-

ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 39

Evans and Meggers]

5

SPE NUSTO NAG

Res

d, Fishbone awls.

ts of bone and teeth from Alaka Phase sites. a-

ec

Ficure 7.—Obj

f-g, Bone punch

's tooth.

é, Drilled shark’

40 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

ever, as more of the specimens were handled it became clear that spe- cific tool types were represented. A discussion of the problem with geologists indicated that the type of fracture involved could not have been produced by any natural agency, but must have been the result of intentionally struck blows. In some cases, as with the objects classed as choppers or chopper-hammerstones, the fracture appears to be the result of use. In other tools, such as picks, there seems to have been some attempt at shaping. Thus, even though some of the types appear to be only roughly shaped, the fact that they occur con- sistently from site to site and could not have been accidentally formed by nature indicates they represent characteristic tool types of the Alaka Phase. The type descriptions of the stone artifacts are grouped according to method of manufacture. The first two cate- gories include tools shaped solely by percussion without any further modification, using either the core or the percussion struck flakes; the third category is percussion-struck tools with some modification by abrasion, especially the bit of celts; the fourth category contains well polished tools shaped by pecking and grinding.

The artifact types, their rock material, and their exact provenience are shown in detail in the Appendix, table 1.

PERCUSSION-MADE CORE TOOLS

Choppers (fig. 8; pl. 10)—Large waterworn cobblestones usually of andesite, range from 6-15 cm. long, 6-10 cm. wide, and 3-6 cm. thick. A few large flakes have been struck off the sides and working edge, either deliberately or from hard use. Sometimes a core frag- ment has been used as a chopper and the edge shows battering (fig. 8, d). The characteristic feature of these objects is a chopping edge, which in cross section tapers from a thickness of 2-3 cm. to a blunt edge 2 to 5 mm. wide. These tools show use fracture in the form of long fracture planes at right angles to the cutting edge.

Chopper-hammerstones.—Some of the choppers have one edge that is so blunt and rounded that it could not have been used in any way other than to strike a blow or for pounding. The size and irregular shape are within the range of the previously described choppers.

Hammerstones (fig. 9).—Waterworn cobblestones, usually of ande- site, showing a battered edge, have been classified as hammerstones. Size varies considerably; length is 5-10 cm., width from 4-8 cm. The surfaces are usually badly eroded, especially the battered edge.

Hafted hammerstones (fig. 10).—Three hammerstones from N-11 have been pecked at the center on opposite sides to form a depression for hafting. They measure roughly 11 cm. long by 5 cm. wide, with the pecked area 3-4 cm. wide and the depression 5-8 mm. deep. The

E and Mecgerel ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA

Ficure 9.—Hammerstones: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase.

42 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

0. Miav2. CM

Ficure 10.—Hafted hammerstones: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase.

Hvans and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 43

Meggers]

ends are highly battered and blunt. AJl of these specimens are made from fine-grained, micaceous schist, roughly shaped by percussion.

Hoes.—The surface of N—11 produced three specimens that cannot be classified as celts, choppers, or hammerstones. The high polish or uneven surfaces suggests that they may have been used as a digging tool, such asa hoe. All are of fine-grained, micaceous schist, roughly shaped by percussion into a long, rectangular form. The only com- plete specimen measures 11.0 cm. long, 4.5 cm. wide, and 1.2 cm. thick, but the fragments suggest objects of similar size and proportion. The used, polished end is beveled with a blunt edge.

Large core picks (fig. 11, b-e). Large core tools made from ande- site cobbles by striking off large flakes are classified, for want of a better name, as “picks.” The characteristic feature is a long, curved, blunt point usually formed by three or four intersecting concoidal fracture planes. The point has been well used and often worn or broken off. The “butt” end is bulbous and irregular. Size and shape vary, the bulbous end measuring 3-6 cm. across and ranging in length from 5-10 em. with the majority around 5-7 cm. long. The tip ends usually form a blunt point and the butt ends would fit into the palm of the hand quite well. These tools might have been used to pry off shells from their attachments or perhaps even to open larger shells. That they were used for picking or prying something is demonstrated by the fact that the tips are worn and often broken off with a 90-degree fracture that resulted from pressure applied when the point was used as a lever.

PERCUSSION-MADE FLAKE TOOLS

Blades (fig. 12; pl. 11).—If they were viewed individually, one might conclude that these specimens were merely flakes struck from a core by percussion blows. However, when dozens of them are placed side by side, it is immediately clear that the flakes were struck off in a regular manner and given additional percussion shaping to produce what has been called a “flake blade.” Although the blade edge is not retouched or regular, it is sufficiently sharp to be used for cutting. As a result of the fracture and the bulb of percussion, the cross section tends to be triangular. The most com- mon rock material is andesite, with some quartz and fine-grained, micaceous schist. Thickness ranges from 0.8-2.0 em., width from 2.5-5.0 cm., and length from 3.5-6.0 em.

Flake picks (figs. 11, a, 13-15; pl. 12).—This group of artifacts can be divided into two categories, large and small, but both are manu- factured in the same manner and are merely size variations of a single tool type. A flake 3-10 cm. long was struck from a core by a per-

513186—60—_5

44 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

e

Ficure 11.—Picks of the Alaka Phase. a, Percussion-made flake tool. made core tools.

[Bull. 177

b-e, Percussion

E d ean sh ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 45

cussion blow. The width of the flakes ranges from 2-5 cm. There is little reshaping of the flake except at one end, where a few extra percussion blows are struck to form a point ranging from blunt to long and sharp. At first glance some of these artifacts might be classified as drills, but a careful examination of the wear and the type of stone material suggests all were used to pry open shells or pick out the meat. Originally, those falling into the smaller category were called projectile points, but their irregularity, complete absence ° of reshaping except at the tip, and their lack of consistent shape or

symmetry favor the classification as picks. d (

SX

Ficure 12.—Blades: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase.

46

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

GK, ~~

Co

Ficure 13.—Large, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase.

hated ty ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 47

Percussion flake picks of the large variety range from 5-10 cm. in length, 2.5-5.0 em. in width, and 5-15 mm. in thickness (figs. 13-14; pl. 12, a-h) ; the small variety ranges from 3-5 cm. in length, 2-3 cm. in width, and 5-8 mm. in thickness (fig. 15; pl. 12,¢-p). Although andesite is the most common rock material, fine-grained micaceous schist, quartz, limonite concretions, and gneiss are also used.

Scrapers (fig. 16).—A series of quartz tools from several sites are classified as scrapers. The quartz of this area is poor quality and difficult to work by percussion chipping. However, by taking ad- vantage of the natural cleavage of the rock, it was possible to produce

OF ts 62 SCM

Ficure 14.—Large, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase.

48

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Ficure 15.—Small, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase.

[Bull. 177

E d Meee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 49

a large enough flake to have a long, sharp edge. Although somewhat irregular, this edge could be used for scraping. The tools are crude, but their form is distinct from the natural quartz spalls found in the area. The length is 2.5-5.0 cm., width 1.5-3.0 cm., thickness

8-10 mm.

2 CM

Ficure 16.—Percussion-made flake scrapers of the Alaka Phase.

50 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

PERCUSSION-MADE TOOLS WITH SOME ABRASION

Celts (fig. 18, a).—Two artifacts of fine-grained micaceous schist, shaped by percussion and abraded to produce a tapering at one end, come from N-11. Both are flat, with relatively even surfaces and one end broken off. The remaining end shows abrasion on one face. The blade is rounded in cross section. The length of the two examples is 8 and 10 cm., width 3.0 and 6.5 em., thickness 1.2 and 2.2 cm.

Mortar.—A rim fragment from a shallow bowl or mortar of fine- grained andesite was found in the lowest level at N-9. The surfaces areeven. From a flat-topped rim, 1.2 cm. thick, the walls slope slightly inward and increase in thickness. Existing depth is 3.5 cm., and the fragment appears to be broken off close to the bottom. Mouth diameter is 16cm. .

Pestles (fig. 17).—Except for the lower end, which is well smoothed from use, the pestles are irregularly shaped by percussion. A com- plete example from N-9 is a natural, irregularly shaped almost hexagonal, waterworn, andesite cobblestone. In addition to being worn smooth on both ends, it shows some abrasion on the sides, sug- gesting it may also have been used asa mano. The length is 12 cm., and the diameter 7 cm. at the lower end and 4.5 cm. at the upper end. Other examples are roughly conical, with the broad end showing abrasion. This surface varies from elongated, 5.0 by 1.3 cm., to nearly circular, 6.0 by 7.5 cm. Stone materials include gneiss, granite, and micaceous schist.

Rubbing stones (fig. 18, e-g).—Fragments of limonite or hematite concretions and other types of rock have one or more well-worn sur- faces. All of these have been put into the general category of rubbing stones. They are very irregular in shape, the only uniformity being the existence of one or more abraded surfaces. The size ranges from 5.5 by 5.2 by 0.8 cm. to 3.8 by 1.8 by 0.7 cm.

POLISHED TOOLS

Celts (fig. 18, a,b) —Well polished, rectanguloid celts or ungrooved axes were found only at N-11. Of the three specimens, two are quartz- ite, and one is felsite. One is complete and two are fragments of the bitend. The surfaces are slightly rounded, the bit slightly to strongly convex and the sides nearly straight and parallel. The complete celt has a rounded butt. Maximum thickness is toward the butt, the sur- faces tapering gradually toward the blade. Between 1 and 2 cm. from the bit, they curve strongly meeting at a sharp edge. The complete specimen is 7 cm. long, 5.5 cm. in maximum width, 4 cm. wide at the blade and 3 cm. thick.

Chisels or gouges (fig. 18, c-d).—Small polished tools, probably used as chisels or gouges, were made of fine-grained micaceous schist or

E a prensa ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA oi

Ficure 17.—Percussion-made pestles of the Alaka Phase showing surfaces worn by grinding.

shale. Two fragments were found at N-8, both of which probably had a rectanguloid shape when complete. The larger, made of pol- ished shale, measures 5.3 cm. long by 3.6 cm. wide. One edge is highly polished to a sharp cutting edge and the opposite end flattened and smoothed (fig. 18,d@). It is split lengthwise so the existing thickness is only 8 mm., but the original thickness must have been at least 1.5 cm. The other artifact is smaller and more fragmentary, measuring 3.2 cm. long, 2.8 cm. wide, and 5 mm. thick.

oe BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

Ficure 18.—Alaka Phase stone tools showing polishing. a-b, Celts. c-d, Chisels or gouges. e-g, Rubbing stones.

H d aengen ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 5d

A long, narrow chisel of fine schist came from N-9. It is slightly curved from side to side in cross section, with parallel sides tapering to a blade 1.0 cm. wide. The maximum width of the tool is 1.7 cm., existing length 3.6 cm., and thickness 5 mm. (fig. 18, ¢).

Mano (fig. 19, a)—Although hand-size grinding stones are not common in the Alaka Phase, one mano of granite was found at N-11. The flat surfaces and slightly convex edges all have been well smoothed by abrasion, the surfaces showing the most wear. The form is rectanguloid, 7.5 cm. long, 5.0 cm. wide, and 3.5 cm. thick.

Metate (fig. 19, b)—A metate fragment upon which the above- described mano may have been used also came from N-i1. Itis a thin piece of granite with biotite inclusions. The fragment is 10.5 cm. long, 7.0 cm. wide, and 2.8 cm. thick. The upper surface has been worn slightly concave by backward and forward grinding action. The depression measures 2 mm. deep.

Miscellaneous polished tools—tIn the collections of the British Guiana Museum a series of artifacts is cataloged as “Waramuri Mound, on the Moruka River” and “Haimaracabra Shell Mound.” Both these names refer to the same site, but since some of the objects were given one designation and some the other, they probably represent two separate collections made at different times. The specimens on the whole fit the general pattern of Alaka Phase stone artifacts, with a majority of percussion-made tools; however intermixed among typical materials is a series of highly polished celts, petalloid celts, and notched, rectangular axes all of which seem incongruous to the culture complex. Since the Waramuri Mound has been occupied by many different aboriginal groups up to the present day and was the site of an early European mission that attracted Indians from the surrounding area, this material could be of more recent origin. Alternatively, it may reflect influence from an unidentified group with a polished stone tradition. Only careful future excavation and study of the whole shell midden complex of the Guianas wil] resolve the

problem. Pottrery TYPE DESCRIPTIONS

All the pottery fragments from Alaka Phase sites were found either on the surface or in the upper levels of the refuse middens. Although there are few sherds, distinctive features of paste, temper, etc., set them apart from pottery types of other archeological Phases in the Northwest District and therefore they have been classified and de- scribed as separate pottery types. The predominant pottery type of the middens clearly associated with typical Alaka Phase stone arti- facts is a mica and sand-tempered plain ware (Sand Creek Plain). At Sites N-9 and N-11, shell-tempered sherds (Wanaina Plain) occur; pottery with this temper was not found in any other site in the whole

54

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bull. 177

Ficure 19.—Mano and metate fragment from N-11, a site of the Alaka Phase.

Bvans and Meggers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 55

of British Guiana. It is possible that the modern cultivation and drainage ditches have disturbed the deposits at N-11; however, since the shell-tempered sherds occur at N-9 also, it does not seem likely that their association with the Alaka Phase stone complex at N-11 is accidental.

A tabulation of the occurrence of pottery at the various levels and from the surface of Alaka Phase sites is given for reference in table A (p. 58).

SAND CREEK PLAIN

PASTE:

Method of manufacture: Coiling.

Temper: Sand with minute mica particles; amount of quartz sand varies greatly from almost none to about 40 percent of the volume of the paste; size of particles ranges from minute to 3 mm. The only constant factor is the presence of fine mica.

Texture: Fine-grained ; temper well mixed in the paste; no air pockets.

Color: Tan to gray to gray brown; about half have a gray core, the remainder an orange Core.

Firing: Oxidized, poorly controlled ; some fire clouding.

SURFACE:

Color: Both surfaces tan, brown, or, rarely, dark gray.

Treatment: Even, smooth, with small irregularities readily visible; occa- sional temper particles protrude.

Hardness: 3-3.5.

Form: :

Rim: Direct with rounded, tapered or flattened lip; rarely, slightly thickened with rounded lip. Rim tends to be uneven and wavy.

Body wall thickness: Range 4-9 mm. ; majority 6-7 mm.

Base: Flat, diameter 6 cm., or slightly rounded.

Major vessel forms reconstructed from sherds:

1. Open bowls with outslanting sides, direct rim and rounded to flat- tened lip. Rim diameter 22-34 cm. (fig. 20-1, top).

2. Deep bowls with vertical sides, direct or slightly thickened rim and rounded lip. Rim diameter 10—28 cm. (fig. 20-2, top).

8. Jars with walls incurving to constricted mouth. Body wall thickness tapers down to direct rim with rounded or flattened lip. Mouth diameter 12-22 cm. (fig. 20-3, top).

TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE Type: None.

CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Since Sand Creek Plain is found at the largest number of sites (N—8, N-9, and N-11), it might be considered most characteristic pottery type of the Alaka Phase. It is never common, however (see table A for sherd counts).

WANAINA PLAIN PASTE: Metiod of manufacture: Coiling; breaks along the coil line are very distinct, with the coil width averaging 1 cm. wide. Temper: Crushed shell (pl. 18). Except in a few sherds the temper is completely leached out, leaving platy, irregularly shaped holes. The white flecky shell is well distributed throughout the paste, constituting about

56 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

eerie a OF 2 SCM

RIM SCALE

SSS Oo 4 8 #I12CM

VESSEL SCALE

Ficure 20.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Alaka Phase pottery types. Top: Sand Creek Plain. Bottom: Wanaina Plain.

15-25 percent of the mixture. The species of shell cannot be identified because of leaching and the fineness of the particles except that it is not mussel. Some particles are as large as 1 cm.

Texture: Platy; leached and eroded sherds full of holes; not friable, al- though soft.

Color: Medium- to dark-gray core with a thin area of lighter gray or gray tan adjacent to the surfaces.

Firing: Incomplete oxidizing, poorly controlled.

SURFACE:

Color: Uneroded sherds are usually light tan to gray tan on exterior and

interior.

hep ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 57

Treatment: Smoothed with hand, but remaining very uneven and irregular causing the body wall thickness to vary considerably on a single sherd.

Hardness: 2-2.5, easily scratched.

Form:

Rim: Direct, with tapering, rounded or slightly flattened lip. General crudity of manufacture is reflected in the variation of the rim profile on a single sherd.

Body wall thickness: 4-14 mm. ; majority 5-7 mm.

Base: Rounded or slightly flattened, but not sufficiently sharply demarcated from the side wall for reliable measurement of diameter. Thickness slightly greater than adjacent side walls.

Vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: All rim sherds represent deep bowls, with a variation in rim angle from slightly outsloping to slightly incurving; the majority are incurved. Mouth diameter 14-80 cm.; ma- jority 14-22 cm. (fig. 20-1, bottom).

TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE Type: None evident in the small time span represented.

CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: The most abundant pottery type at the end of the Alaka Phase (table A).

UNCLASSIFIED CARIAPE-TEMPERED PLAIN

Only one sherd from Alaka Phase sites can be definitely recognized as cariapé tempered. It has a dark-gray core in which white flecks of finely ground eariapé stand out clearly. Surface color of the exterior and interior is light tan to cream tan. Parts of the exterior have a reddish color as if rubbed with a piece of red ocher, Body wall thickness is 5mm.

UNCLASSIFIED CLAY-TEMPERED PLAIN PASTE:

Method of manufacture: Coiling.

Temper: Particles of bright-orange, light-orange, or light-tan clay, typically under 1 mm., but occasionally 2 mm. in diameter, stand out sharply in the gray paste. Microscopic examination of the sherds suggests these might be natural inclusions and impurities in the raw material rather than intentional tempering.

Texture: Clayey; no sand, mica, or other gritty components. Tendency to layering; occasional irregularly shaped air pockets. Breaks with a very irregular, jagged edge.

Color: Typically a medium- to dark-gray core, fired orange or tan only on the surfaces or to a depth of 3 mm. from the exterior. Color of the temper makes strong contrast with the paste.

Firing: Oxidizing, incomplete and unevenly controlled.

SURFACE:

Color: Exterior and interior are typically the same, ranging from gray to light tan to pinkish orange. <A few sherds have a gray interior and tan or orange exterior.

Treatment: Superficially smoothed, leaving unevenness and depressions. Some of the excessive unevenness may be the result of differential erosion of soft surfaces.

Hardness: 2.5-3.

ForM: Rim: Direct with slightly tapered, rounded lip. Body wall thickness: Majority 7 mm.

58 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

Base: Rounded and thickened to 1.1 em. at center. Vessel shape reconstructed from sherds: The only rim sherd is from a vertical-sided bowl with a mouth diameter of about 26 cm. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None evident in the small sample. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TyPE: Contemporary with Wanaina Plain (see

table A). UNCLASSIFIED DECORATED

A body sherd with crude, incised decoration from N-9 has a fine, clayey tex- tured paste that is unlike that of any of the plain pottery types from Alaka Phase sites. The surfaces have suffered erosion, but appear never to have been well smoothed or even. The interior surface and cross section are medium gray, the exterior light orange. Two pairs of parallel, slightly curved lines are lightly incised on the exterior. The lines in each pair are 1 mm. wide and 2-8 mm. apart, with the pairs 1.2 em. apart. Body wall thickness is 1.0 em., body di- ameter about 18 cm.

TRADE SHERDS FROM THE MABARUMA PHASE

Sherds of Mabaruma Phase pottery types, both plain and decorated, were re. covered from the surface and excavations at N—-11 and N—16 (see sherd counts in table A). These sherds are unquestionably of Mabaruma Phase origin and the pottery type descriptions can be found under that Phase (pp. 86-116).

Tasity A.—Frequency of pottery types at Alaka Phase sites

N-8 N-9 N-10 N-11 N-16 ; > 5 E : alee ; | : _|6 Sere gl) el eleisisielels|818)o] 81 Sle Ba Shi | Gl ce ise |e 3 3 Slee ise ES MS iaes s Alysi2\islilsalsaildio a |o}] od |dilo i co be PleIP Sle (lela (eT 1 8/S/ ei] 6 1S ise Aare) ele | etal et! ies Ae Pe ett |: 24 wy} HIB Alaka Phase types: Sand Creek Plain__-__- 7 Dee LOS 80! Sree ieee See S| eee S| ee al ee eee 48 Unclassified Clay- tempered, Plains 23 eee |S soi i 2a 2 - Ba ee | ee 2S |e) (fee fee 16 Unclassified Cariapé- tempered, Plain sed a5 oe SS a | eS ei oe eee ee 2 Wranains Plain. = seer fe roe eS BAN a” eke 145 26s 2100612 8| 2] 476 Unclassified Deco- TES 310 Mee oe pa Peete RRR PD Pen Hee te pA (ea nesee ment (acest (ene tenn pa epepetied tn janes | (Mall | | toe | 1 Mabaruma Phase types: Hosororo) Plalips 2 Sees ©) 2 ee EM eR S OSs ee ee) oa ee Lp] 22 eee ae 21 6; 1] 48 Hotokawall [Pidin = 22-35 | 2222) S22 S Se Shae ee cee eee hee | eee 7h lh a i os | fea 25 Koberimo: Plain... 2-22 ]-25-}2.--)-225]22- 4) --—ajesse te 2] 3. ee Tal Satter sleeve 34} 10] 1 52 Miabarume Pisin 2 poo se Soibe ose al oe See oe eos £1 et ese |e | bard 35 7 eh 200 Aruks Incised 22+). 230/242 ELE Ee BEDS EUR seh ea Sees 9 Stans 18 BY senal 22 Akawabi Incised and Miadeléd =): ae7 . Seale Sate seelis® Oe | Se ee a ee ee 4:\.2c (Meee Syjusseeyseee 7 Kaitima Incised and Pametatee. _- 2. fe eee ean oe cee celp ose eee bees oeene| poe 13 Difeecc), “el eectees ees 16 Mabarumaineised litt | G2o)b. we) 2s Suiet sees en | See eee a ee a ee 1 Pee ee ee 2 Total per level___.- 7) D8 P8522) Op Di) oe 1) 259) | bd) 214) | GIS eS Sar Ger

POTTERY ARTIFACTS An egg-shaped lump of sandy-textured, yellow to bright-orange pot-

tery was found at N-9, level 1.00-1.25 meters. The surface is rela- tively smooth, although with some irregularities. Length is 4.4 cm.,

E d Hyane ay ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 59

diameter 3.5 at the center, tapering slightly toward the ends. A frag- ment of what appears to be a similar object comes from level 0-25 cm. of the same site. If these are artifacts, their use is problematical.

THE SITE SEQUENCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

The Alaka Phase is represented by six sites, five of which were tested stratigraphically. Although the deepest deposit reached 2.60 meters, the number of stone implements per 25-cm. level was too small for a percentage analysis of artifact type frequency. There are, how- ever, two kinds of evidence that make it possible to distinguish sub- periods within the Phase. These are the presence or absence of pottery and the presence or absence of stone implements showing abrasion in their manufacture or use. The data reveal several interesting ten- dencies in the development of Alaka Phase culture and these are outlined as a basis for future investigation. It should be emphasized, however, that the evidence is not sufficiently strong or clear-cut for the interpretations suggested here to be considered final.

Five of the Alaka Phase sites produced pottery (tables A,B). No sherds were found at N-6. N-8 produced pottery only in the upper 16 cm. of a 2.60 meter deposit, indicating that pottery was introduced into an earlier non-pottery-making culture. The sherds from N-8 and N-10 are all Sand Creek Plain. Although not of outstanding quality, this sand-tempered pottery is by no means experimental and is more reasonably explained as derived by trade than as the beginning of pottery making in the Alaka Phase. The very small quantity of sherds from these early sites suggests a scarcity of pottery vessels that is in keeping with this interpretation. Further support for the trade theory comes from the pattern of pottery-type frequency at the remaining Alaka Phase sites (table A).

The stratigraphic excavation at N-9 produced a majority of sherds of Sand Creek Plain, but in addition each level contained a few sherds of Wanaina Plain, a more crudely made, shell-tempered ware. Unlike Sand Creek Plain, Wanaina Plain has certain characteristics that suggest it may be of Alaka Phase origin. The readiness with which sherds break along coil junctions indicates handling of the clay when too dry to form a good bond, and improper kneading together of the coils. When these features are added to the irregular thickness of the vessel walls and superficial hand swiping to smooth the surfaces, the total impression is one of incomplete mastery of the pottery- making technique. Another argument for Alaka Phase manufacture rather than derivation by trade of Wanaina Plain is the fact that it is the only ware in the Northwest District employing crushed shell as temper. This tempering material would seem a natural choice for a group living on middens largely composed of shells. In keeping

513186—60-——6

60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

with the conclusion that Wanaina Plain is of Alaka Phase origin is its great increase in frequency at N-11 after what seems to be a “slow, experimental” beginning at N-9 and N-16.

The presence of both decorated and plain sherds of types belonging to the Mabaruma Phase in association with Wanaina Plain at the late Alaka Phase sites of N-11 and N-16 provides further indication that Wanaina Plain is an Alaka Phase ware. The Mabaruma Phase pottery was unquestionably acquired through some kind of contact. However, since shell tempering is not found in the ceramics of the Mabaruma Phase, Wanaina Plain must either be of Alaka Phase origin or trade from another source. It is difficult to conceive of a primitive shellfish-gathering group carrying out extensive commerce simultaneously with two separate pottery-making groups. When we consider that Wanaina Plain is much inferior technically and artis- tically to the pottery of the Mabaruma Phase, and to be derived by trade it must have come from a more distant source, the alternative conclusion that it is of Alaka Phase origin seems more likely. The fact that the cruder Wanaina Plain is more abundant than the Mabaruma Phase types also supports the inference that it is of local manufacture.

TasLe B.—Sequence of Alaka Phase sites derived from the distribution of pottery and stone tool types

Pottery Stone tools

Pee ae awe nn (eA a cag ay Phase Perecus- Period Site Alaka and Percus- sion- Absent Phase Maba- sion- made types ruma made and only Phase only abraded types Mabaruma Phase contact __--.2_-_------- JSF 8 age PS ae le PA ae a ea DX fyi. Ree eee *< INK1G) = tile cee 5 Ae = oe Kee x Incipient .ceramicys.- eps. eee fest vine | eee Seer DK Me es gee ee x IN=Si Sees is DX 22 35 2 ee x IN=LOUS © ole ee ea WK xp |sasoe see XK. please sees IPTOCOPSINIC Sapo) eet ee eae ata uae N-6 Py ae Na | Mie Wlisenaeeeeee

The distribution of pottery types divides the Alaka Phase sites into three periods: preceramic, incipient ceramic, and Mabaruma Phase contact (table B). Incipient ceramic includes the sites that have only what may be termed “Alaka Phase types,” that is, Wanaina Plain and the early trade wares of unidentified origin, Sand Creek Plain and Unclassified Clay-tempered Plain. Alaka Phase sites showing con- tact with the Mabaruma Phase produce Wanaina Plain in association

3 The only other shell-tempered pottery reported from this general region is that of the Bontour style on Trinidad. This, however, is dated by Rouse (1953, p. 97) as proto- historic and historic, and consequently could not be related to the Alaka Phase occurrence.

BE d pyeusen ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 61

with typical plain and decorated types of the Mabaruma Phase. Pre- sumably, this contact eventually resulted in the assimilation of the Alaka Phase population.

Analysis of the stone artifacts from Alaka Phase sites shows a parallel pattern of change. Crude, percussion-made tools, such as choppers, core picks, flake picks, and scrapers, occur at all sites and are diagnostic of the Phase as a whole rather than of any of its parts (Appendix, table 1). Implements showing abrasion or polishing occur only at the pottery-producing sites. The only abraded tool from N-8 is a small flat object that may have been part of the polished bit of a chisellike tool. However, the remaining three sites, N-9, N-11, and N-16 have celts, manos, metates, mortars, and pestles in sufficient quantity to indicate a significant change in the stone-tool inventory. This change, although not exactly correlated with the pottery sequence of innovations, nevertheless is sufficiently parallel to it to suggest that a general alteration in the total culture was taking place (table B).°

The addition of manos, metates, pestles, and possible hoes to the stone-tool inventory implies the appearance of a new subsistence resource in the latter part of the Alaka Phase. Since it does not seem likely that this new tool complex would have developed to exploit a previously unused wild food, it must reflect the introduction of agriculture. This conclusion could be strengthened if it were possible to show an alteration in the wild food diet or settlement pattern corresponding with the appearance of these artifacts. Unfortunately such evidence is not clear-cut.

Two kinds of locations were selected for habitation by the Alaka Phase people. Four of the sites are surrounded by mangrove swamp where the ground surface is subject to inundation at high tide and in the rainy season, and covered with slippery, soft mud and roots when the water is out. ‘Two of the sites are on high land at the edge of the swamp. Since the shellfish food supply was no less accessible to one location than to the other, a reasonable excuse for swamp living seems to be superior advantages for defense. This being the case, the acquisition of incipient agriculture would not necessarily be accompanied by an exit from the swamp as would be expected if swamp living were primarily motivated by accessibility to the food

supply.

4The major portion of this site 1s preceramic and a more refined seriation would have to distinguish between the preceramic and incipient ceramic aspects. However, for the purposes of this analysis, sites are classified in terms of their total artifact sample. In the case of N-8, this technique suppresses the preceramie component, while the analysis of shellfish species brings it out (table C).

6 Osgood’s (1946, p. 50) tabulation of the artifacts from the Barambina stratigraphic excavation shows the same addition of pottery and ground and polished stone tools to a preceramic, percussion-made tool industry.

62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY _ [Bull. 177

Analysis of the shellfish species composing the midden refuse is not conclusive, but there is some evidence to suggest that a dietary change was taking place. In addition to crabs, fish, and occasional mammals and birds, six types of shellfish were eaten by people of the Alaka Phase: two species of snails (Veritina zebra Bruguiére and Thais coronata) Lamarck), a brackish-water mussel (A/ytilus falcatus Orbigny), a mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding), an intertidal clam (Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin), and a marine or brackish-water conch (Melongena melongena Linné). However, not all these species occur at all sites, and when the sites are grouped in the order indicated by the pottery and stone artifact analysis (table B), the result shows that four species occur throughout the sequence but two others were exploited only at the early sites (table C). Geo- graphical distribution will not account for this difference since N-9 is in the vicinity of N-8 and N-10. The alternative explanation that the two species are absent from the later sites because they became extinct owing to overharvesting by the Alaka Phase peoples does not receive support from either malacologists or archeologists, since these two species were not eaten in any greater quantity than the ones that continued to thrive and be eaten. In view of these factors, it seems probable that the decrease in the variety of shellfish exploited is related to an addition of other kinds of food to the diet.

TABLE C.—Distribution of shellfish species at Alaka Phase sites

Species of — Site | Melon- Thais | Neritina |Phacoides| Mytilus | Crassos- gena trea

INSYS Stat sotto. Pee eee eh cee een ose A eal eet ee be x x Xx x NEG siesenteboot tote cle aeecee tuesatelovonebose LB ces aos x x x x DN Fes [ee ee a ee es See ol eee | |e ee hm, Meee ee Moyo | Jscee yee eee x N=Si Ee. os Aue eee ae eS x x x x paisa (pi it Pe sae N=10 es 2h be ee sede. ee 4 x x > S| PoP er eee Eterna x

SYS EES SP se al sg i ra Se! Spee a ae x x OS Wy) SES Sees’

In addition to a decline in the number of species utilized, there is a notable decline in the density of the shell refuse in the late sites, particularly in N-11 and N-16. N-11 is somewhat unique because of the disturbance it has suffered from drainage and cultivation, but if the shell refuse had ever been as densely compacted and cemented together as in the earlier sites the disturbance would have had to be greater than it is to destroy this evidence. At N-16 the shells are loosely mixed with dirt and other refuse in a manner similar to that at N-11. In the four earlier sites, by contrast, shell was very con- centrated, with little dirt intermixture. Percolating water produced chemical action in which lime was dissolved and redeposited, resulting

E d aeases ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 63

in a series of cemented strata. The absence of this condition of the refuse at the late sites, while not conclusive in itself, supports the interpretation of a decline in shellfish eating and its replacement by a different food.

The only other evidence about the culture of the Alaka Phase comes from the presence of human bones haphazardly scattered in the midden refuse. If these are burials, the body was interred with little care and possibly disarranged by continuing habitation of the same spot. Bones found in the excavations were frequently broken several times, and it could not be established whether this damage occurred before or after burial. Brett also mentions finding human remains scattered in the refuse of the Waramuri midden. Verrill (1918 a; Osgood, 1946, pp. 38-34) describes burials in a sitting or kneeling position, but it is probable that the sites in which these occur were subject to Mabaruma Phase influence, especially since pottery bowls are often associated with the skeleton. In any case, this type of burial does not appear to be characteristic of the Alaka Phase, nor is there evidence of its presence in the early part of the Phase. Whether or not cannibalism was practiced in the Alaka Phase, as has sometimes been suggested because of the condition of the human bones (e.g., Im Thurn in Osgood, 1946, p. 29), cannot be settled on the basis of the present evidence.

Data on dress and ornament are confined to a single shark tooth drilled for suspension, probably on a necklace, and two awls of fish bone whose exact use cannot be established, but which could have been employed in the manufacture of articles of apparel or basketry.

DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE ALAKA PHASE

Alaka Phase sites are shell middens, typically located in, or ad- jacent to, mangrove swamps. They have been built up as a result of people living on a foundation provided by a small natural elevation that did not flood during high water. The middens vary from small, conical mounds 12 meters in diameter to large deposits 80 meters in length by 30 meters wide. Maximum height is 1 to 15 meters; the Waramuri and Sirika middens are reported to be several meters higher but it is not certain whether this is an estimate or a measurement. The deposit is composed principally of snail (Neritina zebra Bru- guiére and Thais coronata Lamarck), mussel (Aytilus falcatus Or- bigny), oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding), clam (Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin), and conch (Melongena melongena Linné) shells, mixed with crab carapace fragments, mammal, bird, and fish bones, fire-cracked rocks, chips, ash, and a little dirt. Percolating water has dissolved calcium carbonate from the shells and redeposited it, creat- ing thick, hard cemented layers of refuse in the midden. Occasional human bones in the refuse possibly represent burials.

64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

Typical stone artifacts of the Alaka Phase are crude, percussion- made tools showing little shaping except at the working point or edge and no secondary retouching. Most commonly employed rocks are andesite and micaceous schist, with occasional use of quartz, gneiss, and concretions of limonite and hematite. Characteristic percussion- made core tools include choppers, hammerstones (sometimes with a slightly pecked groove for hafting), and large picks. Blades, small picks, and scrapers were percussion-made from flakes. The majority of these tools are probably employed in food gathering and prepara- tion. Except for a few rubbing stones, implements showing abrasion in manufacture or use are restricted to the late part of the Phase. They consist principally of celts, mortars, pestles, manos, and metates, all of which suggest the introduction of a new subsistence resource, probably agriculture.

The sequence of Alaka Phase sites is based on the presence or ab- sence of pottery, and the pottery types represented. Pottery is ab- sent at the early part of the Phase, labeled “preceramic.” This period is followed by a transitional, “incipient ceramic” period, characterized by a few sherds identified as trade and the beginnings of pottery mak- ing by the Alaka Phase in the form of a very crude, shell-tempered ware given the name of Wanaina Plain. In the third period, “Ma- baruma Phase contact,” Wanaina Plain increases greatly in abundance and is associated with plain and decorated pottery types of Mabaruma Phase origin.

There is no means as yet of dating the inception of the Alaka Phase in the Northwest District, or its duration as a preceramic cul- ture. The diffusion and adoption of pottery making and probably also agriculture seems to have preceded the arrival of the Mabaruma Phase and perhaps stemmed from.a different source. Strong Maba- ruma Phase contact in the late Alaka Phase sites suggests that the Phase ultimately succumbed to domination and probably assimilation by the immigrants.

THE MABARUMA PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS

Fourteen sites in the Northwest District produced pottery that has been classified as belonging to the Mabaruma Phase. All are on the Aruka River except one, which is on the Barima River. All are habi- tations. Six had refuse deposits of sufficient depth for stratigraphic excavation.

N-1: MABARUMA HEADQUARTERS

This large habitation site on the summit of Kumaka hill (pl. 9, a) is one of the best known in the Northwest District (figs. 4,22). It has been occupied in recent years by the District Government Headquar- ters (pl. 14), and during building construction, road grading, drainage ditches, and other improvements, many specimens have been recovered. Asa result of its accessibility, the site has been visited by a number of people interested in the archeology. Walter E. Roth (MS.) made a collection and described some of the materials. Verrill (1918 a, p. 16) “obtained a very large collection of heads, many fine pieces of decorated pottery and a number of stone implements,” in 1917. In 1944 Osgood (1946, pp. 44-48) made a stratigraphic excavation by the flagpole between the District Commissioner’s house and office, but the results were destroyed by the Georgetown fire in 1945. To avoid future confusion with other sites on Kumaka Hill, Osgood called the site “Mabaruma Headquarters,” and we have followed suit.

In spite of the modern occupation, many parts of the site remain undisturbed below the surface. Limits of the refuse accumulation are readily perceived by examining the profile of the drainage ditches. These show the deposit to be approximately coterminous with the level top of the hill, an area 251 meters east-west by 70 meters north-south. Beyond the north and south limits the land slopes rapidly, dropping 2 meters in a distance of 15 meters. The slope is considerably steeper at the east and west sides, dropping precipitously some 265 meters to the swamp bordering the Aruka River (Osgood, 1946, p. 44). There is no fresh water supply on the hilltop. Today the inhabitants collect rainwater for domestic use.

At the time of our visit a new sewage ditch had been dug in back of the District Commissioner’s Headquarters to a depth of 1.00 to 1.50 meters, exposing a good profile of the soil conditions. The lateritic clay in the upper 20 cm. was a darker grayish red due to the presence

65

66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

of ash; below this the natural, undisturbed lateritic clay was a bright orange red. This same color line is evident in ditches throughout the site, the only difference being that in some places the refuse deposit extends to a depth of 50 cm.

A stratigraphic excavation was placed in an undisturbed sector of the lawn near the northeast corner of the Government Rest House (pl. 14, 6). This was near the center of the site and not far from a drainage ditch in which potsherds were exposed. The cut was laid out 2 meters in a north-south direction by 4 meters in an east-west direction. The grass layer 1 to 2 cm. thick was removed and then the excavation was controlled in 8-cm. levels. Conditions were as follows:

Level 0-8 cm___---- Soil compact, dull reddish-orange with a gray hue. Iron concretions abundant. Sherds rather small and very soft due to the damp soil.

Level 8-16 cm_____-_ Soil conditions the same.

Level 16-24 cm___. No change in conditions; refuse concentrated in the eastern 14 of the cut.

Level 24-32 em____-_ Eastern end of the cut produced 90 percent of the sherds

of this level. This area shows decided soil discolora- tion with a blackish red-orange hue.

Level 32-40 cm_____ Concentrations of dark soil and fine ash intermixed continues in the east end of the cut. Level 40-48 cm_____ Except at the east end of the cut, the soil has turned

to sterile, bright orange red, lateritie clay with abundant iron concretions. Hearth area with fire- burnt rocks in east end, 1 meter from the east wall and 25 cm. from the south wall; the area measured 20 em. square with rocks arranged to form a bed 7-9 em. thick. All the sherds in this level came from either the hearth itself or within a radius of 50 cm. around it.

Level 48-56 em___-_ Sterile, bright red-orange lateritic soil appears at 52 em. A complete Aruka Incised bowl surrounded with fire-burnt rocks and miscellaneous sherds came from this level, partially embedded in the southeast corner of the cut. Since the adjacent drainage ditch was 80 cm. deep and a nearby sewage channel went to a depth of 1.50 meters, it was not necessary to test the sterile soil of the bottom of this cut beyond making a few test holes to guarantee that the entire cut had reached the red-orange lateritic clay composing the natural hill.

East end extension_. In order to increase the sherd sample the east end, which had produced the darkest soil discoloration and greatest refuse concentration, was extended 50 em. to the east by 1.25 em. wide. Soil conditions identical to the rest of cut. All the specimens from this extension placed under a_ separate eatalog number.

E d iraneae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 67

The only restorable vessel from N-1 is an Aruka Incised bowl, now in the collections of the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. It has the following characteristics :

Aruka Incised Bowl (pl. 22).—All sherds were found except the annular base, but wear showed this to be an old break. The remain- ing portion is 7.2 cm. in diameter and 8 mm. high. The vessel walls slope outward to a maximum diameter of 18.5 cm. at a height of 4. cm., then curve inward to a constricted mouth 9 cm. in diameter with a flattened lip. Total height is 10 cm. All features of paste and decoration are typical of Aruka Incised. The interior is smoothed and quite even; the exterior has been polished, giving a low luster. The surfaces are light tan except where small fire clouds darken one side and half of the bottom. Decoration is on the ex- terior of the insloping upper wall and consists of bold, broad (2-3 mm.), U-shaped incisions ranging in depth from 1-3 mm. The lines are not equally spaced or regularly parallel, and the freehand execu- tion of the curved lines and spirals gives a pleasing effect.

N-4 : KORIABO POINT

A short distance below its junction with the Koriabo River, the Barima River makes a sharp bend creating a point on the right bank. N-4 is on a 4-meter high bank above this bend, separated from the point by a low area (fig. 4). A small creek flows along the base of the high bank, emptying into the river just below the site. Habi- tation refuse extends 25 meters inward from the Barima River and 35 meters along the bank. Recent clearing for a garden left the whole area covered with a tangle of low secondary growth sprinkled with lemon, papaya, and banana trees.

Adjacent to the east (inland) edge of the habitation area is a large shell midden, about 20 meters in diameter and rising 5 meters above the natural surface of the ground. The top was originally slightly higher but had been flattened off to plant 6 lemon trees. This deposit was tested by digging small holes on the summit and at every meter contour on the slopes. The composition was uniform throughout: burned and unburned shell (predominantly Neritina zebra Bru- guiére), ash, fire-burnt stones, quartz spalls, a few animal and fish bones, with very little dirt intermixed. Weathering had caused ce- menting together of the shell into hard masses. A few Mabaruma Phase sherds were found on the surface and in some of the test holes. No artifacts of the Alaka Phase were encountered, suggesting that this midden may have been accumulated by the occupants of the adja- cent habitation site. However, none of the other Mabaruma Phase sites contain any shell refuse.

This is the only Mabaruma Phase site found on the Barima River. However, nearby Koriabo Phase sites contain much Mabaruma Phase

68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

trade pottery so that it cannot with certainty be identified with the “Koriabo Hill” visited by Verrill (1918 a, p. 17). The fact that he specifies “no shells” suggests he must not be referring to N-4.

A small stratigraphic cut 2 by 1 meters, controlled in 8 cm. levels, was placed in the center of the sherd area. It had the following characteristics:

Level 0-8 cm___. Disturbed by modern tomato cultivation; soil a black loam mixed with large quantities of natural float quartz, iron concretions, granite fragments, and large hunks of mod- ern charcoal from recent slash and burn clearing. Sherds fairly abundant.

Level 8-16 em__. Same conditions.

Level 16-24 em_. Rocks more abundant, sherds sparse.

Level 24-32 em... Soil continues dark gray until 32 em., where it changes to light gray. Sherds sparse; small, angular, granite frag- ments becoming more common.

Level 32-65 cm_. Sterile; from 32-45 ecm. the soil is light gray; 45-55 cm., orange gray; below 65 cm. very sandy clay.

N-12: HOSORORO HILL

This site is on the summit of a hill in a chain southwest of the one occupied by N-1 (figs. 4, 22) and, being nearly as accessible, it has been visited repeatedly. It is mentioned by Walter FE. Roth (MS.), Verrill (1918 a, p. 16), and Osgood (1946, p. 33). As Verrill notes, there are two sites (fig. 21): an Alaka Phase shell midden at the base of the hill, which we have desigated as N-11: Hosororo Creek, and a Mabaruma Phase site high up on the slope, which we have designated as N-12: Hosororo Hill. <A collection of artifacts from “Hosororo” is in the British Guiana Museum.

Hosororo (Ossorero, Issororo) Hill rises on the left bank of the Aruka River to a height of some 90 meters. The base of the hill is separated from the river by a strip of mangrove swamp, now drained for agriculture (pl. 9,5). The slope facing the river rises in a series of broad steps or shelves, whose nearly flat or gently sloping surfaces are separated by narrower areas of steeper rise (fig. 21). The largest shelf is between the 50- and 60-meter contours, and its size and relative levelness make the area ideal for habitation. A further advantage is Hosororo Creek, a small stream with clear, fresh water, that plunges down a series of small falls at the south edge of the shelf. Behind, the hill rises some 30 meters higher to its summit.

The whole hill was originally covered with trees. In 1917, part of the summit had been cleared for a rubber plantation (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 16). In 1958, the upper shelf was occupied by the District Govern- ment Agricultural Station, consisting of a house and a fenced ex- perimental garden (fig. 21). The hillside had been cleared of the

Evans and Weeeeta? ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 69

SWAMP (DRAINED 2 2 £ FOR AGRICULTURE)

a * *

\ “ ei TEST,

» *~ ; pi ——— LIMIT OF SITE

~ a = .— 2 = ! — | (oa ee

foqluara / ° 25 50M ARUKA RIVER

Ficure 21.—Sketch map showing the location of N-11: Hosororo Creek, a shell midden of the Alaka Phase, and N-12: Hosororo Hill, a habitation site of the Mabaruma Phase.

majority of trees, leaving a few for shade. Sherds were visible in the cultivated garden and in paths leading down the hillside. Tests in the intervening and surrounding area indicated that a former habitation site occupied the major part of the shelf, extending over an approximately oval area 160 meters in a north-south direction by 95 meters east-west. Refuse varied from 25 cm. deep toward the north edge to 30 or 85 cm. deep on the south side. Sherds were abun- dant in the garden, where the soil had been loosened around the plants. The adjacent area to the east seemed undisturbed and was selected for a 2- by 1-meter stratigraphic excavation (Cut 1), which was con- trolled in 8-cm. levels. Cut 1 had the following characteristics:

70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

venezuela

British Guiana

Ficure 22.—Detailed map of the Aruka River area, showing the distribution of hills in this part of the Northwest District. Numbers designate archeological sites included in the survey. (Map after Osgood, 1946, fig. 7.)

ie te

Moma ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 71

Level 0-8 em-_- Loose, reddish-black soil with abundant lateritic concre- tions; sherds small.

Level 8-16cm_- Soil same as previous level; sherds sparse and small.

Level 16-24 cm__ Soil conditions same; two small, thin sheets of mica, 1 by 2 cm.

Level 24-32 cm__ Soil conditions same, concretions larger; a few scraps of mica.

Level 32-40 cm__ Same until 36 cm.; between 36 and 40 cm. the soil changes to light-gray-orange color with small iron concretions, and with no sherds.

Level 40-85 em__ Sterile, natural, lateritic soil; compact, with heavy con- centration of iron concretions and hunks of clay. This same natural soil condition was also encountered in the test holes.

N-13 : HOBODEIA

N-13 is on the right bank of the Aruka River, just above the mouth of Hanobasa Creek (fig. 4). The land here rises steeply to between 3 and 4 meters above the river level so that the summit is safe from flooding (pl. 15, @). Since high land in the vicinity is rare, the site was being lived on in 1958 by several Guianese families, who had built houses and planted a garden. Testing and surface sherds showed the sherd refuse to extend for 55 meters along the riverbank by 30 meters inland. Its northern and eastern boundaries were along the edge of the bank where it sloped down to the river and the creek. High land extended beyond the site to the south and west.

A small strata cut 1 by 1 meter was placed 25 meters from the modern settlement. It was controlled in 15-cm. levels and gave the following results:

Level 0-15cm__ Black loam with fragments of modern charcoal from slash an burn egriculture, 1 large modern spike and a rusty knife blade indicating disturbance. Sherds abundant, also small iron concretions and a few frag- ments of badly decomposed granite.

Level 15-30 em__ Soil conditions the same; sherds abundant.

Level 30-45 cm__ From 380 to 38 cm. small fragments of decomposed granite were mixed with the sherds. Soil color is a lighter gray than in previous levels.

Level 45-60 em__ Soil grayer, more compact; rocks larger and more abun- dant.

Level 60-75 cm__ From 60-75 cm. an occasional sherd; at 70 cm. the soil

; turns to grayish tan and is sterile. Tested to 1.50 meters, revealing a uniform deposit of sterile sandy clay.

N-14: HOBODEIA SCHOOL

The Roman Catholic School of Hobodeia is on the right bank of the Aruka River, 5 minutes by motorboat upstream from N-13 (fig. 4). The shore between N-13 and N-14 is tidal flat, but inland the two

72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177

sites are connected by the low rolling Hobodeia Hills. At N-14, the flat is 10 meters wide, flooded at high tide and soft muck at low tide. The riverbank rises steeply to 2 meters and more gradually to 3 meters above low water. Just downstream from the site, the swampy tidal flat widens abruptly so that the site is on a point, with the river and swamp bounding the northwest and northeast sides and the high land extending to the southeast and southwest. The sherd refuse extends for 70 meters along the bank by 55 meters inward. The southwest half of the site is on the 3-meter elevation, the re- mainder on the slope to the point. The present school buildings and clearing are on the slope and the teacher’s manioc garden on the summit, so that no part of the site is free from erosion or disturbance (pl 15, 6). Tests made over the entire area showed the soil to be medium to light-gray sandy loam, with sherds most abundant in a zone between 10 and 15 cm. below the surface. Below 15 cm. the soil was sterile light-tan to brown, sandy clay. A 1- by 1-meter test in the southwest end of the site produced 185 sherds, all from be- tween 10 and 15 cm. below the surface. These were added to the gen- eral sherd sample from the site.

N-15: HOTOKWAI (HOTAKWAIA, HOTAKWAI)

“Hotakwaia Hill” was visited by Verrill (1918 a, p. 17), who describes it as a granite formation with no shell heaps and no pot- tery. He found one stone ax. Osgood (1946, p. 61) lists it as No. 12 in his inventory of British Guiana sites. Hotokwai Hill is a prominent rise on the left bank of the Aruka River, a little above its junction with the Aruau River (fig. 4). A low projection extends from the east side of the hill toward the river. Hotokwai Creek flows along the northeast edge of this high area. A 60-meter-wide strip of low swamp separates the edge of the rise from the Aruka River, and the swamp widens out to surround the base of the hill. Behind the shelflike spur, the hillside rises steeply to a height that commands a view over the swamp in all directions.

N-15 occupies the major portion of the spur (fig. 23). Sherd refuse extends inward from the front edge for 40 meters to the be- ginning of the steep slope and 60 meters from side to side. In this distance, the land rises from 50 cm. in elevation to 2 meters, with the major portion of the site area about 1.50 meters above the swamp level. The modern Hotokwai school is on the upper part of the site, and several houses occupied the edge near the creek in 1953. Clumps of large bamboo covered the southwest part of the spur, at the edge of the site area. Extensive testing revealed sherds at a depth of 5 em. below the surface except in the vicinity of the bamboo, where a layer of sterile soil 10 to 15 cm. thick covered the refuse deposit. The soil was light to medium-gray, sandy clay, becoming light-tan

E d vans ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 73

6 | CLUMP OF BAMBOO ——— LIMIT OF SITE

SCHOOL

i re) > c <q = 2 « =<

Ficure 23.—Sketch map of N-15: Hotokwai, a habitation site of the Mabaruma Phase.

sand below the refuse layer. A 1- by 1-meter test excavation near the creek produced only 40 sherds and a few fire-burnt stones.

N-16: AKAWABI CREEK

N-16 has two occupations, a shell midden belonging to the Alaka Phase and a later site belonging to the Mabaruma Phase. The details of the site location are given under the Alaka Phase (pp. 33-34) and will not be repeated here (figs. 4, 22).

Whereas the Alaka Phase midden occupies a very small area near the bank of Akawabi Creek, the Mabaruma Phase refuse extends 75 meters inward from the bank and 100 meters north-south along the edge (fig. 24). Behind the site, some 300 meters away, Akawabi Hill rises 4 to 5 meters above the site elevation. Its slopes are covered with clumps of bamboo. The major portion of the site area has suffered from recent disturbance, especially leveling of the surface. Conse- quently, little reliable data could be obtained about the depth of the refuse deposit. Sherds occur on the surface, on the eroded slopes leading to the swamp and the creek, and in the path that had been cut through the rise separating the school building from the creek. In the walls of this path, Mabaruma Phase sherds were found in

[Bull 177

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

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E d Erenags ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 75

abundance to a depth of 40 cm. Associated were quartz chips, fire- burnt stones and a few bones incuding the shaft of a human femur. Since this was the most productive part of the site, the bank was cut inward to enlarge the sample. This excavation, designated as Test B, covered 3 square meters. An attempt at a controlled stratigraphic excavation proved unsuccessful. A 2- by 1-meter cut was placed in the high part of the site as far as possible from the area of intense Alaka Phase occupation, but Alaka Phase refuse was nevertheless intermixed with Mabaruma Phase artifacts from each level. The sherd sample was small, and analysis showed it to be contemporary with the material from Test B, so the two collections were combined to increase the sample for seriation purposes.

Although we encountered no burials, Verrill (1918 a, pp. 14-15, figs. 7-12) reports excavating three skeletons on his visit to N-16 in 1917. These came from the shell midden, but Verrill concludes that “the condition of the shells proved that the dead had been placed in graves dug in the shell mound” (op. cit., p.15). Further evidence that the burials belong to the later occupation is the association of a pottery vessel with one of the skeletons. It had been placed inverted over the occiput. The type of plain pottery cannot be identified from the photograph (op. cit., fig. 11), but the shape is typical of the Mabaruma Phase. The three skeletons were side by side, with the legs flexed and the faces toward the east. Verrill (op. cit., p. 15) identifies the central skeleton (which had the bowl) as male and the others as female. A few crude stone implements were found in the vicinity, but Verrill is probably correct in suggesting that these are accidental associations from the shell refuse midden rather than burial offerings. Verrill’s “very careful search of the entire hill” (loc. cit.) failed to locate any other burials.

N-17: WAUNA

In 1917, Verrill searched the hills near Akawabi for additional sites and found only one place that produced “several earthenware heads and fragments of decorated pottery” (1918 a, p.15). This may be the same place we discovered on the bank of the Wauna River, just above its junction with Akawabi Creek (figs. 4,22). Here, the bank rises 2 meters and then slopes back up the flank of the high Wauna Hills that rise to the west. The site covers an area 65 meters along the bank by 20 meters wide. A modern settlement occupied the same area in 1953 and the ground surface had been cleaned of all vegeta- tion, exposing the black soil and sherd refuse. Tests showed the de- posit to be 10 to 20 cm. deep, but erosion and modern habitation made it possible to collect only a small sherd sample. This identifies the site as belonging to the Mabaruma Phase, but is not large enough to use for seriation.

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76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 N-18: HOBO HILL

Hobo Hill is a finger of the same chain on which N-1 is located (figs. 4, 22), lying southeast of Kumaka Hill. The northwest side rises steeply, flattening out just below the crest. Here sherds were found over a gradually sloping area 15 meters in diameter in a manioc field. The nearest fresh water source is the headwaters of the Attabani Creek 100 meters to the northeast. The soil was slightly darker in the site area than the surrounding bright orange laterite. Sherds occurred only from the surface to a depth of 5 cm. and were all badly eroded. A few glass and earthenware fragments from the same area appeared to be associated with recent gardening activity. The 199 sherds include the Mabaruma Phase types, Mabaruma Plain, Hosororo Plain, and Koberimo Plain.

N-19: KUMAKA CREEK

Kumaka Creek was visited by Verrill in 1917 (1918 a, p. 16). He describes the site as located on the eastern slope of Kumaka Hill (figs. 4, 22). The reddish soil produced no shell refuse, only pot- sherds and stone. In 1920 Vincent Roth spent half an hour at the site in the company of a geologist, J. A. Bullbrook.