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Cte ] fal © eek Aa a Oe : PULgeNe : RT } POS TT TEE be | wt Nn Li A rl Ry Vecegtivcys tty! three, | HTT TTL aediwenersy HEFTY ty i ¥ y, A@e . vy v™ we r any / Wate Uo wwsrery | wy Shake f vn f at Tease ree wevrrrerity ST Add AL ILL ilies ele tahoe etubetete | aL | | PN TL Tat Deset na yy eae BM La ret LA ee i vw 19008 ese nan se peed ee Cd oe = wilh nw ¥ Py = | Tuan, wy vv swtve 7 nd em! a wgGpte ». we RN, ae “ew i Vy: Wy Se Vuwet ww beh bebe VenritSerceve cee aie 5 Gaited Z be XN ; i = : i A Nag Se = «= At th 4 4 Be ol THE Ne ww Ze oer were) ere! HEU SE ne yi of | cee _ a Foal “eo A eee wee ; On, wm es | 2 | past a. rp hoe f an . oe oe ‘ 3 PRTEEPEPEL EL] |] val manor | ace teal) “ne b adtes i he Seeouu: : Lan ih aiasanaannnraivllline sprees os ee aN “0 chen ie agi ee tence vost a yoga! \ fhe y- Wees. ; 7 Pi) J : a abbas “gn , Hee vy *. eae a eh rie co sith had rye", ™ Ma te wal ae coffin SPSS SS 5 ‘By. ve ah spiecbtnntertite mess * ss eked ~ ee aul Ses ON ‘ "ery r ~~ ; ZT ‘ mu : oe : f Fe Da "4 +. iM a Th oS 9S ere ‘aii a ey Bae be ast JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 20, 1930 290080 BOARD OF EDITORS Epaar T. WHERRY UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA C. WrtuEr CooxE EpGar W. WooLaRD U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GRORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. E. Merwin Haroup Morrison ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY EH. A, GOLDMAN G. W. STosE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY -: AGNES CHASE J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Roger C, WELLS CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, Mp, ERRATA Vol. 20,1930 Page 48, line 21: for ‘‘chacteristic’’ read ‘‘characteristic.’’ Page 48, line 32: for ‘‘tubersoa’’ read ‘‘tuberosa.’’ Page 392, line 20: for ‘‘Illinois”’ read ‘‘Illinoian,”’ Page 402, line 26: for ‘‘than’’ read ‘‘as.’’ Page 406, line 20: for ‘‘Ospores”’ read ‘‘Oospores.”’ Page 422, line 22: for “‘by’’ read ‘‘to.”’ Page 422, footnote: for ‘“‘Hureke’’ read ‘‘Eureka.”’ Page 424, line 27: for ‘‘reminants’’ read “‘remnants.”’ Page 425, line 22: for ‘‘consist’’ read ‘‘consists.’’ Page 425, line 29: for ‘‘southern”’ read ‘‘northern.”’ Page 425, line 33: for ‘‘same’’ read ‘‘name.”’ Page 426, line 31: for ‘‘Dinorthes’’ read ‘‘Dinorthis.”’ Page 426, line 35: for “‘laminatedy”’ read “‘laminated.”’ Page 427, line 33: for ‘‘neither’’ read ‘‘none.’’ Page 429, line 39: for ‘‘diminantly”’ read ‘‘dominantly.’’ Page 430, line 7: for ‘‘many”’ read ‘“‘may.”’ Page 431, line 36: for ‘‘is’”’ read ‘‘are.”’ Page 432, line 10: for ‘‘Trissic’’ read ‘‘Triassic.’’ Page 455, line 31: for ‘‘about 81,000” read ‘‘over 80,000.” BORD OF ¥ EDITORS 3 iors Fey . : hina TS Waerrr “puneat oF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS itd re AE. ‘8. 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They came from the Cretaceous of South Dakota and represent an undescribed species of Callianassa. Callianassa cheyennensis, sp. nov. Type-locality —Very top of Pierre shale and just below Fox Hills sandstone; collected along both banks of the Missouri River at several points between the mouth of the Cheyenne River and the Cheyenne Agency; 17 fragmentary specimens showing portions of the chelae. Type in the Geological Museum at the University of South Dakota at Vermillion. Measurements.—Propodus of left cheliped, holotype, length to end of finger 14.6, length to sinus between fingers 10, greatest height 10.6, distal height of palmar portion 9.2 mm. _ Description.—The type-specimen (Fig. 1) shows the inner face of a propodus of a left and probably major cheliped. Palm short and high, the greatest height equal to the length through the middle. Upper margin straight ora little convex, rounding down at each end. Proximal end not exactly at right angles to upper margin but forming a slightly acute angle. Considering the upper margin as horizontal, the lower margin after rounding down from the proximal end slopes gradually upward to the tip of the finger. Surface nearly flat. Finger (propodal) narrow, its base less than a third the height of the distal end of the palm; from the base it narrows rapidly to a slender extremity and curves gradually upward. On the inner surface of the hand there is, close to the lower margin, a row of hair sockets of which 27 can be made out; this does not include a few that may be at the proximal end. On the upper margin the sockets are fewer and more distant but the number cannot be determined. On the inner surface near the margin of the finger there is a curved row of three small distant sockets; the two distal of these are paired by a socket higher up, either on or just over the finger edge. At the distal end of the palm near the sinus between fingers there are two large sockets, 1 Received November 18, 1929. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 much larger than any others. A little below the upper margin in a straight line not quite parallel with the margin, but sloping a little downward distally to the condyle articulating with the dactylus, there is a row of linear spaced sockets of which about 9 can be made out. A few more sockets are scattered over the inner surface. Callianassa cheyennensis. Fig. 1. Inner view of propodus of left Fig. 2. Inner view of dactylus of right cheliped, X 3. Holotype. cheliped, X 4. Paratype. Fig. 3. Callianassa cheyennensis. Paratype. Outer view of propodus of right cheliped, X 4. The paratype (Fig. 3) is a right palm with the outer surface exposed. If, as I assume, it is the same species as the holotype, it is a minor chela of a larger specimen. The upper portion is broken off, the outer surface is convex from top to bottom and the inner is flat. Parallel to the lower margin outside there is a row of rather large well separated sockets 12 of which are visible, running on to the finger. A large socket near the sinus between the fingers is by far the largest of a series of 5 which follow the line of the propodal finger; and on the edge there is a row of small, evenly spaced sockets at least 7in number. Below the middle of the palm there are 5 or 6 distant fair-sized sockets making 2 subparallel oblique lines. On the distal edge of the palm between the fingers there is a strong tuberculiform tooth pointing distad. JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 3 The movable finger (Fig. 2) belongs to a right chela, perhaps to the prop- odus just described, near which it lies; it is very thick, upper surface broad, upper margin convex except for a deep transverse sinus which embraces the articulating condyle. ‘Two sockets transversely placed on upper surface not far from sinus. On inner surface just below upper margin there is a row of 5 prominent oblique sockets. Further down at the middle two small sockets are disposed longitudinally; 2 sockets on lower surface and a broad triangular subbasal tooth. The thin prehensile edge is nearer the outer surface; it, as well as the tip, are incomplete. Affinity —The specimens have been compared with 3 specimens of C. whiteavesii Woodward? from Sounding Creek, N.W. Territory. In this species the palm is definitely longer than wide, its proximal end is at right angles to both upper and lower margins, although the latter begins to slope upward at about the middle of its length, making the proximal half of the palm higher than the distal half. None of the specimens show the inner surface. The outer surface is less convex than in cheyennensis, its upper edge thin and not ~ bent over so far on to the inner side. A smooth, blunt ridge runs inward from the upper edge of the propodal finger and fades out about half way along the palm. The surface below this is flattened or a little concave. In the new species this surface is evenly convex. Close to the upper edge in white- avesii there is a row of lengthwise punctae 12 of which can be made out. Near and parallel to the proximal end, a row of 6 punctae, visible on the counterpart of Woodward’s fig. 2b; and a row of 3 punctae arranged length- wise and slightly obliquely at the middle of the palm and pointing toward the upper edge of the propodal finger (on the counterpart only of fig. 2b). The fingers are of about equal size. On the original of Woodward’s fig. 2a there is a large, depressed, transverse socket on the palm near and parallel to the dactylus. BOTAN Y.—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old species of Venezuelan plants.—III. Old and new species of Euphorbiaceae (Conclusion).! H. Prrrimr, Caracas, Venezuela. Croton redolens Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hluteria) Arbuscula redolens, aromatica, coma depressa, ramis contortis, nodosis, glaberrimis, cortice griseo tectis, ramulis novellisque dense fulvo-tomentosis; foliis alternis, petiolatis, membranaceis, petiolis laminis 2-3-plo brevior- ibus, teretibus, tomentellis, apice 2-7-glandulosis, glandulis brevissime stipitatis, laminis late ovatis, subcordiformibus, basi leviter emarginatis rotundatisve, 5—7-nerviis, apice acutatis obtusiusculis, supra velutinis vel praeter nervis parce stellulatis, subtus dense cano-tomentellis, marginibus plus minusve sinuato-dentatis, dentibus villosulis; stipulis inconspicuis; racemis terminalibus axillaribusve, pedunculatis, rhachi anguloso, longitu- dinaliter sulcato, fulvescente-tomentello; bracteis inconspicuis; floribus flavescentibus virescentibusve, pedicellatis, haud congestis, foemineis remotis 1-8 basalibus, masculinis 1-4-fasciculatis, cito deciduis; flor. foem.: pedicello crasso calyce subaequante, calyce haud accrescente extus tomentoso intus — NGeoleMag. n.s.7: 430. pl.17, fig. 2° (1900) 1 The two first contributions on new and old species of Venezuelan plants appeared in THis JOURNAL 19: 175-186 and 351-357. 1929. Received November 15, 1929. 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 1 parce stellulato, pilis bombycinis, segmentis ovato-lanceolatis obtusis; petal- is lineari-lanceolatis, villosis, calyce brevioribus; ovario dense tomentello, stylis semel dichotomi, cruribus denticulatis, basi parce stellulatis; flor. masc.: pedicello gracili calyce subbreviori, calycis segmentis ovato-oblongis, obtusis, tomentosis; petalis ovato-oblongis, obtusis, utrinque villosulis; receptaculo bombycino-villoso; staminibus 15-17, glabris; capsula pedicel- lata, subglobosa, trisuleata, extus dense stellulato-tomentosa; seminibus carunculatis, laevibus, oblique transverse-sulecatis. Arbuscula 2-3 m. alta, basi ad 12 em. crassa. Petioli 0.8-3.5 em. longi; laminae 2.5-8 em. longae, 1.5-6 cm. latae. Racemi 4-10 em. longi, pedun- culis 2-2.5 em. Flos masc.: pedicelli sub-2 mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 2-2.5 mm. longa, 0.8-1.2 mm. lata; petala circa 1.5 mm. longa, 0.5-0.8 mm. lata. Flos foem.: pedicelli plus minusve 5 mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 4—4.7 mm. longa, basi 1.5-1.8 mm. lata; petala 1.8-2.5 mm. longa, 0.1-0.4 mm. lata. Capsula 4-7 mm. longa; semina 2-5 mm. longa. FEDERAL District: On arid hills near Las Trincheras, 900 m.; Tacagua valley, on the old cart-road from Caracas to La Guaira, forming small groves; flowers and fruits September 6, 1925 (Pittier 11886, type); other collections, same locality Pittzer 10250 (var. parvifolia), 10254 (var. velutina). The female flowers are always distinctly 5-petalous, so that this interesting species has to be placed in Section Eluteria, where it has so far no nearly related Venezuelan ally. It presents itself in at least three distinct varieties: the typical one (var. genuina Pittier, var. nov.); another with larger leaves velvety on the upper face (var. velutina Pittier, var. nov.); and a third, the tree more twisted and gnarled, the leaves also tomentellose on both faces, but much smaller, biglandular or the glands obsolete (var. parvifolia Pittier, var. nov.). All parts of the tree, the leaves especially, have a very aromatic, pungent smell, and are used as a home medicine. Vernacularly, the plant is known as Sangredrago, a name which applies to the arborescent species of Croton generally. Croton anomalus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Decarinium) Arbuscula ramis glabris glabrescentibusve, ramulis parce adpresseque stellulato-pubescentibus: foliis alternatis, membranaceis, breviter petiolatis, basi eglandulosis, petiolis teretibus, adpresse pubescentibus indumento stellu- lato pilis paucis erectis longioribus intermixto, laminis ovalibus ovato- lanceolatisve basi rotundatis, leviter emarginatis, quintuplinerviis apicem versus sensim angustatis et abrupte cuspidatis, marginibus irregulariter sinuatis, dentatis serrulato-dentatisve, supra pilis simplicibus parcissime hirtis vel glabrescentibus asperulisque, subtus dense cano-tomentellis; stipulis elongatis, lanceolato-linearibus, pubescentibus; racemis terminalibus, rhachi pubescente; bracteis linearibus, stellulato-villosis, persistentibus; floribus foemineis 1-3 sessilibus subsessilibusve, calycis segmentis 6 (interdum 7) ovalibus, obtusiusculis, valde inaequalibus, 4 anteriores reliquis majoribus, supra obscure viridis stellulato-puberulis, subtus cano-tomentellis; ovario dense fulvo-hispido, stylis ter-dichotomis, cruribus gracilibus, villosis, su- premis brevibus; floribus masculis numerosis caducissimis pedicellatis, foemi- JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 5 neis minoribus; pedicellis gracilibus, calycis segmentis late ovalibus, obtusis, tenuiter membranaceis, venulosis, atque receptaculo utrinque villosis; petalis calycis segmentis paullo longioribus, obvato-spathulatis, longe angusteque unguiculatis, utrinque villosulis; staminibus 16, filamentis villosis; capsula ignota. Boe eiceuld ad 2 m. alta. Petioli 0.6—1.2-cm. longi; laminae 3-6.5 em. longae, 1—2.7 cm. latae. Stipulae 0.8-1 cm. longae. Racemi 5-7 cm. longi; bracteae circa 3mm. longae. Flos masc.: pedicelli 1.5-2.5 mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 4 mm. longa, 1.8-2.4 mm. lata; petala 4 mm. longa, 1.2-1.6 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta majores ex centrum 6.5-7.2 mm. longa, 2.8-3.8 mm. lata. Lara: Los Rastrojos, between Sarare and Barquisimeto, in bushes; flowers April 9, 1925 (Pittver 11757, type). This species departs from all the other species of Croton found heretofore in Venezuela in the 6-7 calycinal segments, 4 of which are manifestly larger than the 2 remaining ones. Though I am aware that its relationship to C. glandulosus and C. chamaedryfolius is very remote, I have placed it pro- visionally in Section Decarinium. Croton timotensis Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Decapetalon) Arbuscula tronco ramisque in aetate glabrescentibus, ramulis teretibus villoso-tomentosis pilis simplicibus fulvescentibus; foliis modice petiolatis, membranaceis, petiolis canaliculatis dense stellulato-tomentosis apice pauci- (2-6-) glandulosis, laminis ovato-cordiformibus basi late emarginatis sub- truncatisve (3—)5-(7)-nerviis, apice longe cuspidatis, margine dentatis, supra praeter nervis stellulato-puberulis glabrescentibus minute tuberculatis, subtus dense estellulato-tomentosis, pilis fulvescentibus; stipulis setaceis, stellulato-villosis; racemis elongatis, remotifloribus, rhachi pedicellisque dense tomentellis, bracteis lineari-subulatis; floribus 4—6-fasciculatis; foemnecs subsessilibus interdum solitariis, calycis segmentis anguste oblongis, obtusis, extus tomentellis, glandulis atris substipitates alternantibus; ovario fulvo- tomentoso, stylis semel dichotomis, cruribus basi parce stellulatis; calycis segmentis florum masculorum late ovatis, obtusis, extus fulvo-tomentosis; petalis 10, calycis segmentis brevioribus, lanceolatis, basi longe attenuatis glabris, apice ciliatis; receptaculo villoso; staminibus 39-51, filamentis villoso- tomentosis; capsula ovoidea, extus parce stellulata; seminibus laevibus, carunculatis. Arbuscula usque ad 2.5 m. alta. Petioli 1.5—-5 em. longi; laminae 4-11 cm. longae, 2-5 cm. latae. Stipulae 3-4 mm. longae. Racemi 15-22 cm. longi; pedicelli florum masculorum circa 4 mm. longi; bracteae 4-5 mm. longae. Flos masc.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 4-4.5 mm. longa, 2—2.5 mm. lata; petala 3-4.2 mm. longa, 0.9-1.6 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 5-6.5 mm. longa, 1.1-1.6 mm. lata. Capsula circa 6 mm. longa; semina 4.5—5.5 m. longa. Meriva: Vicinity of Timotes, 2000 m., in bushes along river; flowers and fruits January 20, 1928 (P7ttier 12646, type). This species is a most interesting addition to the flora of Venezuela, being the first and only representative of Section Decapetalon, which according to Muell.-Arg. comprised heretofore only 3 species, 2 in the Tropics of Asia and Africa and another in Southern Brazil. 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 Croton confusus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Eutropia) Arbor elegans, trunco erecto, cortice griseo tecto, coma elongata, ramis vestutis glabrescentibus, juveniis dense rufo-tomentellis, pilis stellulatis; foliis submembranaceis, imprimis utrinque stellulato-tomentosis, indumento subtus petiolorumque densius et canescente, in aetate utrinque glabrescenti- bus nervibus supra subtusque prominentibus, venulis reticulatis subtus prominulis; petiolis elongatis, gracilibus vix sulcatis, laminis amplis, integris trilobatisve, basi leviter emarginatis biglandulosis, glandulis magnis sessilibus, lobis acuminatis, saepe sublobulatis, margine sinuato-dentatis, dentibus glandulosis; stipulis setaceis, caducissimis; racemis foliis brevioribus rhachi dense stellulato-tomentoso; bracteis inconspicuis, ovatis, villosis; floribus luteis 6-9-fasciculatis, masculis foemineisque inmixtis, pedicellatis; pedicellis masculis calyce subduplo longioribus, foemineis brevioribus; calycis masculi segmentis ovatis, obtusis, extus dense stellulato-tomentosis intus receptaculo- que tomentosis pilis simplicibus; petalis lanceolatis obovato-spathulatisve, tomentosis, calycis segmentis longioribus; staminibus 24, glabris; calycis foeminei segmentis oblongis, apice acutatis, obtusis; disci glandulis majuscu- lis; ovario dense fulvo-hirsuto, pilis simplicibus; stylis e basi divisis, fere glabris, cruribus apice breviter bilobulatis, lobulis latis obtusis. Capsula non vidi. Arbor ad 20 m. alta, basi 40 em. crassa. Petioli 4-14 cm. longi, laminae 7-22 cm. longae, 3.5-16.5 cm. latae. Racemi 12-16 cm. longi; pedicelli florum masc. 4-6 mm., foemin. circa 2 mm. longi. Flos masc.: calycis segmenta ex centrum circa 4 mm. longa, 2.2 mm. lata; petala 4.5-5 mm. longa, 1-1.5 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum circa 5 mm. longa, 1-2 mm. lata. Yaracuy: Forested hills around Iboa near San Pablo, at an altitude of 450 m.; flowers January 2, 1929 (Pzttier 13077, type). Confused at first with Croton gossypizfolius Vahl, it differs in the number of stamens, which was found to be 24 in all the flowers examined; in the con- | texture of the leaves almost invariably with two large glands at the base and with small yellow glands on the margin; in the yellow flowers; and in several other good characters. The vernacular name is Sangrito. Croton caracasanus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) Arbor parva vel mediocris, ramis glabrescentibus, ramulis plus minusve lepidotis; foliis alternis, membranaceis, opacis, modice petiolatis, petiolis gracilibus, anguste canaliculatis, parce lepidotis, apice hirtellis superne biglandulosis, inferne hirtellis, glandulis sessilibus crateriformibus; laminis ovalibus, basi rotundatis 5-nerviis, apicem versus acutatis, margine irregu- lariter grosse serrato-dentatis, utraque pagina stellulato-lepidotis, lepidibus haud contiguis, supra obscure viridis, subtus pallidioribus nervis vix prominu- lis basi hirtellis; stipulis inconspicuis; racemis elongatis, rigidis, remotifloris, saepe unisexualibus; basi saepe bracteis 2, foliaceis alternis suffultis; rhachi gracili, anguloso, densius lepidoto; bracteis inconspicuis; floribus parvis, numerosis, foeminers sessilibus, vulgo solitariis interdum binis; calyce breviter tubuloso, lepidoto, segmentis ovatis, obtusiusculis; ovario cano-tomentoso, stylis bifidis, cruribus crassis, subciliatis; floribus masculis breviter pedicellatis, calycis segmentis late ovatis, extus tomentellis; petalis calyce subaequantibus, extus glabris, intus receptaculoque bombycinis, margine dense cano-tomentel- lis; staminibus 14-16; capsula depressa, trisuleata, parce stellulato-lepidota. ao JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS / Arbor usque ad 12 m. alta, basi 35-40 cm. diam., vel saepe arbuscula depressa 2-3 m. alta. Petioli 1.5-4 em. longi; laminae 5.5-12 cm. longae, 3-7.5 em. latae. Racemi 10-22 cm. longi. Flos masc.: pedicelli 1-1.5 mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.3-3 mm. longa, 1.7-1.9mm. lata. Petala 24-3 mm. longa, 0.9-1.2 mm. lata. Calyx foemineus circa 2.5 mm. longus, segmentis 1.4—2 mm. longis, 0.9-1.3 mm. latis. Capsula 8 mm. longa, circa 10 mm. lata. Lara: Vicinity of Duaca; flowers July 1925 (Saer d’Héguert 276, type). FEDERAL District: Catia de los Frailes near Caracas, on rocky slopes; flowers and fruits December 21, 1923 (Pittzer 11289); Chacafito Gorge, in forest; flowers August 24, 1923 (Pittzer 11181). This species, which seems to be very variable in size, is not uncommon on the wooded hills with southern exposure and in the cool gorges around Caracas. I do not think to be mistaken in placing it in Series Argyrocroton, Subsect. Cleodora of Sect. Hucroton, although the two other Venezuelan species of that Series, C. orinocensis and C. multicostatus differ in the habit, in the glandless leaves and in the twice divided styles. C. caracasanus would come near to C. stenotrichus Muell.-Arg. In Lara, it is known vernacularly as Sangre de drago and Cdscara amarga. Croton multicostatus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) Arbor parva vel mediocris, ramulis crassis creberrime subferrugineo- lepidotis, in aetate glaberrimis; foliis magnis, coriaceis, integerrimis, modice petiolatis, petiolis teretibus, anguste canaliculatis, lepidotis, lepidis haud contiguis, laminis late ovatis, basi emarginatis, eglandulosis, apice vulgo late rotundatis, supra primum praeter costam nervosque dense stellulato-hirsutis parce stellulatis, demum glaberrimis, subtus primum utrinque densissime lepidotis, mox glabrescentibus glabrisve, costa venisque 12-15 parcissime stellulato-lepidotis; stipulis lineari-lanceolatis, lepidotis, cito deciduis; racemis terminalibus densifloris haud bene evolutis, rhachi alabastrisque lepidotis; bracteis masculis 3-floris, lepidoto pubescentibus late triangularibus, con- cavis, unilateraliter lobulatis, lobulo triangulari; petalis oblongis, obtusiuscu- lis, extus minutissime puberulis, intus glabris, margine dense ciliatis; recepta- culo villoso; staminibus 11-12, filamentis basi barbatis; bracteis foemineis masculis majoribus, unifloris, intus glabris; calyce foem. subtubuloso, seg- mentis ovatis, acutis, extus lepidotis, intus plus minusve villoso-tomentosis; ovario dense rufo-villoso, stylis bis vel ultra dichotomis; et caetera ignota. Arbor 8-12 m. alta. Petioli 4-5 cm. longi; laminae 9-19 cm. longae, 6-14 cm. latae. Stipulae 1.2—-2 cm. longae, 2-3 mm. latae. Bracteae foem. ad 1 em. longae, masc. 0.5 cm. longae. Calyx foem. circa 1.2 em. longus, lobulis 0.5 em. longis, 2.5-3 em. latis. CaRaBoBo: Hacienda de Cura, 900 m., in forests; in bud August 15, 1918 (Pittier 8018, type). This fine species, of which we unfortunately have only imperfect specimens, belongs undoubtedly to Series Argyrocroton, Subsect. Cleodora of Section EKucroton (Medea). The scales are of the same type as those of the Brazilian Croton migrans Casaretto. The most striking character, which this species has in common with C. wmbratilis H.B.K., consists in the unusually large 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 number of primary veins; the size and glabrescence of the mature leaves are also unusual in the Venezuelan species. The tree is known locally as Torco. Until more complete information is obtained, we assign to this species our No. 11948, also imperfect, with unripe capsules. It differs from the typical C. multicostatus mainly in the oval-lanceate leaves. The scales of the petioles also seem to be smaller, with indistinct rays. The young capsules are obo- void, 13-15 mm. long and scaly furfuraceous, the seeds 11 mm. long, smooth and with a sessile caruncula. The calyx is persistent, but apparently not accrescent. The tree is a large one with a trunk not less than 4 m. up to the main limbs and about 50 cm. in diameter. In the valley of Caruao (Federal District) whence our specimens come, it is known as Sarasaro. Croton grossedentatus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Eucroton-Cleodora) Frutex humilis, trunco ramis vestutis glabris glabrescentibusve, ramulis squamuloso-stellulatis, novellis petiolis racemorum rhachidibusque dense hirto-tomentosis; foliis membranaceis, modice petiolatis, basi eglandulosis 7-nerviis, petiolis leviter canaliculatis, laminis oblongo-ovatis basi cordiforme emarginatis, apice sensim acuminatis acutissimis mucronulatis, marginibus fere e basi grosse serrato-dentatis, dentibus serrulatis apicibus glanduloso- mucronulatis, supra obscure viridis parce stellulatis, subtus cano-tomentosis costis nervibus venulisque transversalibus prominentibus; stipulis lineari- setaceis, stellulato-pilosis; racemis brevibus axillaribus terminalibusque, basi floribus foemineis 2-4 breve pedicellatis, apice floribus masculis cito caducis gerentibus; bracteis parvis, hirsutis, caducissimis; floribus parvis; foemineis: calyce persistente, segmentis oblongo-acuminatis, extus dense fulvo-tomento- sis, intus glabris; ovario fulvo-hirsuto, stylis sub-4-partitis, cruribus gracilibus, saepe bifidis, fere ad apicem villosis; floribus masculis foemineis minoribus, calycis segmentis oblongis, apicem obtusem versus angustatis; receptaculo villoso; staminibus 12, exsertis, filamentis glabris; capsulis obovoideis, extus cano-villosis, indumento stellulato in aetate depauperato; seminibus ovalibus, earunculatis, laevibus, brunneis. Frutex usque ad 1.50 m. alta. Petioli 1—-5.5 em. longi; laminae 6.5-12 em. longae, 3.5-6 cm. latae. Stipulae 8-10 mm. longae. Racemi 2.5-4.5 em. longi. Flos masc.: pedicelli 3 mm. longi, calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.7—3.2 mm. longa, 1.2-1.4 mm. lata. Petala 2.8-3.3 mm. longa, 0.5-1 mm. lata. Flos foem.: pedicelli 2-3.5 mm. longi, calycis segmenta e basi 5.5 mm. longa (longitudino calycis 7 mm.), plus minusve 2.5 mm. lata. - Capsula 6-7 mm. longa; semina circa 3.5 mm. longa Lara: On arid hills along the road between El Tocuyo and Humocaro Bajo; flowers and fruits, January 6, 1929 (Pittzer 13105, type). Related to C. populifolius Mill. through the mode of division of the styles and the number of stamens but differs in the eglandular calyx, in the serrature of the leaves, and the simply subulate stipules. From C. urticaefolius Lam. it is distinguished by the number of stamens (12 instead of 9-11), the glabrous filaments, and also the shape of the leaves and the eglandular stipules. JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 9 Croton truxillanus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) Frutex vel arbuscula ramulis novellisque sordide pubescentibus, foliis alternis, breviter petiolatis, membranaceis, sub-3-plinerviis, petiolo sordide pubescente laminis 5-7-plo breviori, apice biglanduloso, laminis ovatis, basi cuneatis apice breviter acuminatis, supra pubescentibus cinereo-viridisque, in aetate glabrescentibus, subtus dense cano-tomentosis, pilis omnium stellatis, marginibus obscure denticulatis; racemis terminalibus, elongatis, basi floribus foemineis 2-7 subsessilibus, apice floribus masculis dense congregatis gerenti- bus, rhachi gracili tomentoso; bracteis triangulari-lanceolatis, tomentosis, foemineis 1-, masculis 1-—3-floris; florzbus foeminers: calyce persistente, segmentis ovato-triangularibus, obtusiusculis, extus dense tomentosis, intus glabris: petalorum rudimentis conspicuis, glanduliformibus: ovario dense flavescente-tomentoso, stylis bifidis, basi glabris, cruribus gracilibus, stellato- pilosulis; floribus masculis: calycis segmentis late ovatis obtusis, extus tomen- tosis, intus glabris; petalis oblongo-linearibus, obtusis, basi villosis, calyce longioribus; receptaculo villoso-tomentoso; staminibus 15-17, filamentis basi villosis; capsulis subovoideis, extus dense stellulato-tomentellis; seminibus oblongo-ovoideis, minute carunculatis, lucidis, biseriatim oblique undulato- costatis. Frutex vel arbuscula 0.50-3-metralis. Stipulae triangulares, inconspicuae, 1-3 mm. longae. Petioli 0.6—2 cm. longi; laminae 5-12 cm. longae, 2—5 cm. latae. Racemi 6-12 cm. longi. Bracteae 3-4 mm. longae. Flos masc.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 3 mm. longa, circa 1.5 mm. lata; petala 2.5 mm. longa, 0.5-0.7 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 3.5-4 mm. longa, basi 1-1.2 mm. lata. Capsula circa 4 mm. longa; semina 3.5 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata. TrugILLo: El Dividive, in scattered savanna groves; flowers and fruits November 27, 1922 (Pittier 10820, type); Loma del Moron, near Valera, in bushes; flowers November 18, 1922 (Prttver 12723, 12725); Mendoza, on steep, arid hills; flowers January 19, 1928 (Prttier 12627). So far this species has been collected only in State Trujillo, where it seems to be rather common and is known as salvia muneca and punta de lanza. It looks very much like Croton rhamnifolius H.B.K., but differs in the obliquely grooved seeds, in the shape and dimensions of the calyx and in the rudi- mentary petals in the female flowers. Croton dolichostachyus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Hucroton-Cleodora) Arbuscula vel arbor parva, ramulis sordide pubescentibus, apice ramorum congregatis subverticillatisve; foliis magnis mediocrisve, longe petiolatis, membranaceis, discoloribus; petiolis crassis, canaliculatis, fulvo-pubescenti- bus, laminis 3-4-plo brevioribus; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi breviter 3-nerviis, obsolete 3—4-glandulosis, cuneatis subrotundatisve, apice breviter acuminatis, supra punctulatis parce pilosulis, subtus densius stellato-pubes- centibus tomentosisve sordide canescentibus, marginibus minute serrulatis; stipulis obsoletis; racemis longissimis, remotifloris, rhachi pubescente, angu- loso, sulcato; bracteis triangularibus apiculatis; flos foem.: bracteis 1-floris, floribus sessilibus, numerosis, calyce extus tomentello, intus glabro, segmentis lineari-triangularibus, angustis, apice obtusiusculis; ovario dense rufo- tomentoso; stylis profunde bifidis, cruribus longissimis, apice saepe clavatis, parcissime stellulato-pilosulis: flos masc.: braeteis 2—5-floris, floribus breviter 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 pedicellatis; calyce dense stellulato, segmentis ovato-acuminatis; petalis linearibus, calyce subaequantibus, basi bombycino-barbatis; receptaculo villoso; staminibus circa 20; filamentis glabris; capsula ovoidea, extus dense rufo-stellulata. Arbuscula usque 3-metralis. Petioli 2-7 cm. longi; laminae 12-16 cm. longae, 3.5-7.5 em. latae. Racemi 18-30 cm. longi. Bracteae 2.5-4.5 mm. longae. Flos masc.: pedicelli circa 2’m. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.5-3 mm. longa, 1.3-1.6 mm. lata; petala 2.2-2.6 mm. longa, 0.5-0.9 mm. lata; flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 3-3.5 mm. longa, basi 0.5-1 mm. lata; stylorum crures ad 4mm. longa. Capsula circa 4 mm. longa. Lara: Between Corora and Trentino, common on valley flats; flowers January 16, 1928 (Pittier 12616, type). Zui1a: Near Mene Grande, in bushes; flowers and fruits November 2, 1922 (Pittier 10651). Belongs to the group of Croton rhamnifolius, from which it differs mainly in the much longer petioles, in the very long racemes, in the shape of the petals and in the number of stamens. CROTON FERRUGINEUS H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 77. 1817 (Sect. Hucroton- Cleodora. ) Arbuscula ramis elongatis cortice griseo tectis, ramulis, novellis rhachi- busque densius stellato-ferrugineis; foliis parvis, breviter petiolatis, mem- branaceis, penninerviis, petiolis ferrugineo-hirsutis, laminis circa 5-plo bre- vioribus; laminis ovalibus, basi rotundatis biglandulosis, apice late obtusis mucronulatis, margine minute denticulatis, supra parce subtus densius sordideque stellatis, costa venisque subferrugineis subtus prominulis; stipulis nullis vel inconspicuis; racemis brevibus subdensifloris, rhachi anguloso; bracteis parvis triangularibus, acutis, hirsutis, persistentibus, marginibus glandulosis; flos foem.: bracteis unifloris, floribus sessilibus, calycis segmentis ovato-lanceolatis, subacutis, utrinque flavescenti-hirsutulis; petalorum rudi- mentis conspicuis, brevibus, glanduliformibus; ovario densius fulvescente stellato-hirsuto; stylis fere usque ad basin bifidis, cruribus parce stellato- pilosiusculis; flos masc.: bracteis 1-3-floris, floribus breviter pedicellatis; calycis segmentis ovato-lanceolatis, obtusiusculis, extus dense villosis; petalis obovatis, spathulatisve, sepalis longioribus, unguiculo elongato, angusto, margine longe barbato; receptaculo villoso; staminibus 14-19, filamentis basi villosis; capsula parva, ovoidea, dense stellato-pubescente; seminibus carun- culatis, lucidis, minutisime rugulosis. Petioli 5-10 mm. longi; laminae 2.5-4 mm. longae, 0.9—2 em. latae. Racemi 5-8 em. longi. Bracteae circa 1 mm. longae. Flos masc.: pedicelli 2—5.5 mm. longi; calycis segmenta ex centrum 2.7-3 mm. longa, cirea 1.3 mm. lata; petala 2.7-3 mm. longa, cirea 1 mm. lata. Flos foem.: calycis segmenta ex centrum 3—3.4 mm. longa, 0.7—1.1 mm. lata. Capsula 6 mm. longa; semina 5 mm. longa. Méripa: Paéramo del Morro, 2500 m.; flowers and fruits April 1st, 1922 (Jahn 1063; redescription based on this). It is difficult to distinguish Croton ferrugineus from the several varieties of C. flavens L. Jahn’s specimen, however, seems to correspond closely to the description of the first species, differing only in the smaller leaves, the larger calyx and also in the presence of glandular rudiments of petals in the pistil- JAN. 4, 1930 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 11 late flower, a detail which may have escaped to the original observer. From C. flavens it differs in that the primary veins emerge from the costa at an acute, not nearly right angle; also in the shape of the basal glands, in the eaducous female calyx, in the styles divided nearly from the base, and in the shape and indumentation of the male petals. Julocroton acuminatissimus Pittier, sp. nov. (Sect. Oligonychia) Frutex elatus, ramis ramulis angulosis petiolisque dense sordideque stellu- lato-pubescentibus; foliis membranaceis, petiolis teretibus, laminis 6—7-plo brevioribus; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi latioribus, 3-7-nerviis, rotundatis, obsolete biglandulosis, apice longissime gradatim acuminatis, marginibus irregulariter denticulatis, supra viridis crebre minuteque stellulatis, subtus dense stellulato-pubescentibus; stipulis lineari-setaceis, integris, stellulato- pilosulis; inflorescentiis subcapituliformibus, apice ramulorum congestis; spicis breve pedunculatis basi bibracteatis, rachidibus pubescentibus; bracteis foliaceis, bracteolis unifloris, lineari-setaceis, pilosulis; flos masc. non evolutus; flos foem.: pedicellis brevibus, sepala utrinque stellulato tomentosis, 3 anterioribus magnis, ovato-lanceolatis, pinnatisectis, 2 posterioribus minori- bus, integris, setaceo-linearibus; disci glandulis 3 anterioribus cohaerentibus, subacutis, glabris, posterioribus obsoletis; ovario globoso, stellato-tomentoso, stylis bis dichotomis, cruribus longissimis, tenuibus, pilosis. Et caetera ignota. Frutex usque ad 2m. altus. Petioli 0.7—1.5 cm. longi; laminae 4.5-10 cm. longae, 2-7 cm. latae. Stipulae 1-1.5 cm. longae. Pedunculi primarii 7-8 cm., secundarii (spicarum) 0.5-2 cm.; pedicelli florum foeminorum usque ad 0.5 mm. longi. Bracteae 2—2.5 cm., bracteolae 0.8—1.2 cm. longae. Sepala majora circa 9.5.mm. longa, 4.5-5 mm. lata. Styli plus minusve 7 mm. longi. ; Yaracuy: Between La Piedra and Yaritagua, in bushes; flowers September 18th, 1923 (Pittzer 11175, type). Belongs to Sect. Oligonychia, and is perhaps closely allied with Julocroton montevidensis Muell.-Arg., differing mainly in the very long acuminate leaves with shorter petioles, and in the less divided styles. Manihot filamentosa Pittier, sp. nov. Arbuscula glaberrima, trunco brevi, ramoso, brunneo, ramis cinereis, efoliatis, ramulis glaucescentibus, stipulis parvis, lanceolatis subulatisve, apice plus minusve denticulatis, deciduis; foliis apice ramulorum congestis, longe petiolatis, membranaceis, petiolis gracilibus, laminis vulgo longioribus, purpurascentibus, laminis plus minusve ovato-reniformibus, fere ad basin 5-lobulatis, basi late emarginatis minute bistipellatis, supra obscure viridis, subtus glaucescentibus, reticulatis, costis prominentibus venis venulisque vix prominulis, lobis penninerviis, sinuato-lyratis, lobulis apice plus minusve rotundatis, longe acuminatis acutissimis, exterioribus interdum auriculatis, saepe integris; stipellis subulatis; inflorescentiis terminalibus, ramulosis, ramulis longe pedunculatis; floribus pedicellatis, virescentibus, pendulis; pedicellis basi 2-bracteolatis, bracteolis subulatis; florcbus masculis: pedicellis longiusculis; alabastris ovoideis, angulosis; calyce campanulato, lobulis late ovatis, brevissime acutatis, marginibus introflexis; disci glandulis plus minusve 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 coalitis; staminibus 10, liberis, filamentis longissimis convoluto-flexuosis, 5 exterioribus longioribus, omnium glabris, antheris lineari-oblongis; florzbus foemineis masculis majoribus; lobulis fere usque ad basin liberis, anguste lanceolatis, acuminatis, marginibus introflexis; discus annularis; ovario ovoideo, 6-carinato, glabro, stigmatibus brevibus biseriatim flabellatis; capsula globosa, pedicello apicem versus gradatim incrassato. Arbuscula (fide Saer) 2-3 m. alta. Stipulae 4-6 mm. longae. Petioli 6-23 em. longi; laminae 6—14 cm. longae, 9-15 em. latae; lobulo mediano 6-13 em. longo, 3.5-6 em. lato, infimi 4-7.5 em. longi, 2-3.5 cm. lati. Inflores- centiae partiales 10-12 cm. longae, pedunculi circa 7 cm., pedicelli 8-10 mm. longi; bracteolae 4 mm. longae. Flos masc.: calyx 10 mm. longus, lobulis cirea 4.5 mm. longis, 4-4.5 mm. latis; fllamenta longiora circa 15 mm., bre- viora 5 mm. longa; antherae bene evolutae 4-5.2 mm. longae. Flos foem.: calyx 9-11 mm. longus, lobulis 6.5-7.5 mm. longis, 2-3 mm. latis. Capsula (non bene evoluta?) 17 mm. longa, 18 mm. diam., pedicello 15 mm. longo. Lara: Scattered in sandy thorn-bushes along the La Ruesga (mostly dry) River in the vicinity of Barquisimeto; flowers and fruits August 20, 1929 (J. Saer d’Héguert 366, type); same locality, flowers April 1925 (same collector; 191). Closely allied to W. carthagenensis (Jaeq.) Muell.-Arg., but differs in the description of the leaves, in the longer, denticulate stipules, and more especially in the stamens with very long filaments and elongate, almost linear anthers. I am indebted to Mr. Saer d’Héguert for several interesting details taken from the live plant and for the communication of the common name, Yuca sibidiqua. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY The 993d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 25, 1929. Program: L. W. Tiuton, Variations in the optical density of glass —Most optical glasses are not sufficiently homogeneous to obviate compensatory figuring of the surfaces of certain highly corrected optical systems. These variations in the optical properties of good glass are matters of the fifth and sixth decimal places of index of refraction. They have been generally considered as due to unavoidable differences in chemical composition. It has, however, been shown by Tool and others that the properties of glass, as measured at ordinary temperatures, are dependent on the character of the heat treatments to which the glass has been subjected. Some quantitative relationships between refractive index and effective annealing temperature have been recently determined. Furthermore, in the case of a barium flint glass, 90% of the existing optical heterogeneity was removed by special reannealings under iso-thermic conditions. It is now of interest to inquire as to whether the uniformity of optical glass in general may be improved by more careful annealings. Local variations in the index of refraction of samples from six types of optical glass were measured by a prism method and the corresponding index gradients were computed. The values so obtained for these specimens of ordinary crown, JAN. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 13 medium flint, and dense flint were, respectively, 0.6, 2.4, and 2.3 x 107° percm. They were all lower than the gradients found in borosilicate crown, light barium crown, and dense barium crown, v72., 4.9, 3.1, and 3.7 & 107° per cm., respectively. Considering only two categories in classing these six types of glass, it is found that the group which has the low index gradients is identical with the group which has low index sensitivity to differences in effective annealing temperature. Apparently there is a significant correlation existing here. The index deviations can not be due entirely to differences in chemical composition, and it may be inferred that more careful annealings will greatly decrease the existing heterogeneities in all of these glasses. By way of confirmation, Gifford’s data on the existing limits of uniformity in optical glass were analyzed in a similar way, and with the same result. When considering this encouraging prospect for increased uniformity in optical glass, it is well to remember, however, that the index variations now existing over distances of several centimeters in the best glass correspond to differences of only 1°C. or less in effective annealing temperature. Con- sequently, there are difficult problems in connection with the practical execution of sufficiently iso-thermic annealings. (Auwthor’s abstract.) Discus- sed by Hryt, Gisu, L. H. ApAms, and PRIzEsv. E. G. AnpERSON, Colored light measurements on various photometers.— Four different photometers were used to measure the light transmission of red, orange-amber, green and blue filters. Each of ten observers made two sets of measurements on each filter, the measurements being made on different days. Each observer made from five to ten individual observations in each set of measurements. The average deviations of the individual observations from the observer’s mean, for each set of measurements were 3.0, 4.2, 4.5, and 4.5 per cent, respectively, for the Ives-Kingsbury, Flicker, Weber, Martens, and the Standard Lummer-Brodhun photometers. The average deviations of the means of each set of measurements from the mean of the two were 3.1, 5.0, 4.1 and 5.0 per cent respectively, for the photometers named in the same order as above. ‘The results indicate that the measurements on the Weber and Martens might well be adjusted for a normal or average observer by the method of Ives and Crittenden for flicker measurements. The adjustment of the Lummer-Brodhun measurements appear to be less definite. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Prirst and L. H. Apams. Haruan W. Fisx, Secular variation of magnetic intensity and its accelerations in Pacific countries—Charts showing the lines of equal annual change in the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field have been prepared in detail for various parts of the world by investigators in the countries chiefly concerned, but it is difficult to combine these small charts into a chart of the whole Earth, chiefly since they refer to different epochs. World-charts have been prepared, such as that given as an inset on the British Admiralty chart of “Curves of Equal Horizontal Force,’”’ but these show the general trend of the changes over large areas, and omit details which the latest observations have disclosed. In a previous discussion the author pointed out that in the Western Hemisphere there are two distinct centers, or “foci,’’ around which the rate of annual decrease of horizontal intensity is large, one of these foci being in southern Argentina, and of greater intensity in the West Indies. Separating these along the Amazon Valley there is a belt within which up to about the year 1917, the horizontal intensity was increasing, but since that date has been decreasing at a low rate in the west, and increasing slightly along the Atlantic coast. Hence the lines of equal annual change of this element on a chart of the Western Hemisphere take the form of two series of 14. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 concentric ovals which seem to undergo alternate dilation and contraction, in part but not wholly, in phase with the sunspot cycle. An analogous condition was found to exist in the Eastern Hemisphere. A negative center (around which the horizontal component is decreasing) exists in western Siberia, but in the southern part of the hemisphere there are two such centers, one of extremely rapid change south of Cape Town, and a second of less intensity west of Australia. In southern India there is a center around which the horizontal intensity is increasing, and which offers especially favorable conditions for investigation because of the number of active ob- servatories in the vicinity. When the mean annual values of horizontal intensity from the reports of an observatory near one of these foci of rapid change have been suitably smoothed and plotted, it is found that the resulting rate-curves are very dissimilar, even for observatories comparatively near together. The contrast is even more striking when the acceleration-curves are compared. The acceleration-curves for Sitka, Honolulu and Christchurch (New Zealand), all of which are remote from foci of rapid change, are very similar and all bear a close resemblance to the smoothed sunspot curve for the same years. When a composite of these three acceleration-curves from such widely separated observatories is plotted, and upon it is superposed a curve made by plotting the departure of the annual sunspot numbers from the mean number for the years under discussion, it is found in general that the accelera- tions are positive as long as the number of sunspots is greater than the mean number, and becomes negative when the number falls below the mean. This is not in agreement with the widely accepted principle, that the apparent secular rate increases as the number of spots decreases, and vice versa. Acceleration-curves for stations within the area of rapid annual change show other characteristics which seem to be superimposed upon the typical changes which are concurrent with the sunspot cycle and exemplified by the three observatories named. By use of the observatory reports and available field-observations, it was possible to construct the lines of equal annual change around the positive center in the vicinity of Ceylon as they were in 1918. With much less data it was possible to draw the same lines in the positions occupied in 1906. Consideration of the positions occupied by these lines as the center passed from southern China to Ceylon furnishes an explanation of the apparent inconsistencies in the acceleration-curves for neighboring observatories. For illustration, as the center passed very near Toungoo, the annual rate increased very rapidly on its approach and diminished correspond- ingly as it receded; Barrackpore on the other hand was so situated with respect to the path of the center that it remained between the same two contours, and therefore experienced a very small change in rate. In a similar way the differences in the acceleration and rate-curves for the Soviet observatories near the negative center in western Siberia can be accounted for. It is probable therefore that these areas within which the annual change of horizontal intensity is large, are undergoing changes of various kinds. There is an alternate expansion and contraction, in phase with the sunspot cycle, and a continual shift of position accompanied by alterations inform. Whether such areas disappear altogether to reappear elsewhere, it is not possible at present to say. That high rates of change should continue in a given locality for long periods is improbable because of the unreasonable distortions in the distribution of the element which would result. For example, the horizontal intensity at Cape Town has diminished by more than 16 per cent in the past 30 years. Should the same rate of decrease be maintained for 150 years more, JAN. 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 15 that component would vanish, creating the conditions of a magnetic south pole at that place. Whether the movement of these areas on opposite sides of the Earth are in any way connected has not thus far been disclosed, and unfortunately the present means for collecting the data necessary for a satis- factory solution of the problem are far from sufficient. (Author’s abstract). Discussed by GIsH. Oscar 8. ApAMs, Recording Secretary. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY The 412th meeting was held at 8 p.m., Thursday, June 6, 1929, in the National Museum. In the absence of the president and first vice-president, Mr. F.C. BisHorp, the second vice-president, presided. ‘There were present 29 members and 22 visitors. Mr. Frank D. DEGANT, Cleveland, Ohio, was elected to membership. The first feature on the regular program was an informal address by Dr. L. O. Howarp, entitled ‘Observations on some entomologists and their work, during a recent western trip.”’ He outlined briefly the work being done by a considerable number of entomological workers met by him during his recently completed tour of certain portions of the West. Among these were the entomologists at New Orleans, La.,—Ho.LiLoway in his work with sugar cane insects, and Buiss in his investigations of the camphor scale. During the time spent in California inspections were made of the activities of CAMPBELL, STONE, SMITH, TIMBERLAKE, QUAYLE, BoypmEN, and others at Alhambra, Riverside, and various other places in southern California. An auto trip was then taken to San Francisco and Berkeley, where contacts were made with VAN DuzeEE, VAN Dyk, BLAISDELL, EVERMANN, HERMS, SEVERIN, STANDLEY, FREEBORN, and others, and inspections were made of the sugar leafhopper work and the recent accessions to the Museum there. While at Berkeley, Dr. Howard received from the University of California the honor- ary degree of “LL.D” and was guest of honor at a banquet at which over 70 entomologists were present. While in Oregon, inspection was made of the work of Mote, ATWELL, and others on European earwig, and of Rockwoop, REEHER, and others on cereal and forage pests, and while in Washington State with that of KincaprE, Hatcu, Doucntt, Spricut, and others. While en route homeward, stops were made with such State workers as CHAPMAN, RinEy, Wiuson, Mzrcatr, Fuint, Hayns, Batpurr, FRison, and others at the Universities of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Illinois. Dr. Howard com- pared the scope and character of the present day entomological work with that of the limited field and restricted activities of early workers, and had only words of earnest praise for, and appreciation of, the work now being done, and dwelt with hearty enthusiasm upon the prospects for the future in en- tomological work. A number of slides of the entomologists under considera- tion were shown. Discussed by BisHopp, McInpoo, GAHAN, Morrison, and RoHWER. The next feature on the program was an informal address by R. E. Snop- GRASS, entitled “Reviews of some European literature on insect morphology.”’ This was a brief resume of some of the more important recent items which had come to his attention of entomological literature dealing with morphology. These included certain papers by WEBER, DENis, Morison, JACKSON, and Uvarov. Separates of the pavers were exhibited. Discussed by Howarp, CampBeLL, Ronwer, and BisHopp. 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 1 Dr. WILLIAM ScuHaus reported briefly on the recent accession by the Na- tional Museum of the collection of Lepidoptera recently presented by the Brooklyn Museum of Arts and Sciences. He was in Brooklyn from April 8 to 15 packing the collection and making arrangements for its shipment by truck. It contains a considerable number of very valuable types of species described by SmitH, Grote, HuttzeE, Harry Epwarps and others. The entire collection comprises over 900 drawers and is valued at over $60,000. It contains, among others, the Nomogan collection valued at $10,000. The bequest to the National Museum by the late Col. Wirt Rosinson, of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, was reported by H. 8. BARBER, whose duty it had been to prepare the insect collection for transportation to Washington. Col. Robinson’s interest in Natural History had built up a large collection of insects, besides birds and mammals, and he had erected a private museum near his residence overlooking the James River at Wingina, Va., where he had intended to devote his leisure to their study. By his un- timely death only three months after retirement and just at the beginning of this long contemplated leisure we have lost the chance of such discoveries as his ardent, experienced industry would surely have made in this neglected section of Virginia. The collection of beetles was arranged in about 150 large drawers and is rich in unstudied material. His great liberality to students resulted in his having no types but original series (probably paratypes) of such of his discoveries as Arthromacra robinsoni Leng, Anthonomus robinsont Blatchley, Pzezocorynus virginiae Leng, Gyrohypnus davis: Notman, ete., besides certain very rare forms such as the third known U. 8. example of Enoclerus viduus (Klug) (synonym, Clerus jouteli Leng), are added to the National collection. The occurrence of Lucanus elaphus in central Virginia is demonstrated by four males and a female from near Wingina. The bulk of the material was collected by him either near West Point, N. Y., or Win- gina, Va., but he also collected in Panama, Jamaica, Cuba, and elsewhere. Mr. BisHopr reported that an investigation recently had been started of parasites of reindeer in Alaska, and that Dr. W. E. Doves had been assigned to the problem, and would sail from Seattle on June 8 for Alaska, where a laboratory would be established at Nome in coéperation with the territorial government and the U.S. Biological Survey, with PALMER at Fairbanks and MILLER at Nome. J.S. Wave, Recording Secretary Obituary Rey. Francis ANTHONY Tonporr, 8. J., Professor of Physics and Director of the Seismological Observatory at Georgetown University, and a member of the AcapEMy, died on November 29, 1929, at:the age of 59 years. He was born in Boston, Mass. , and received the degree of A.B. from Woodstock, Md., College in 1895, and Ph. D. from Georgetown in 1914. He was an eminent ue nerey. © on seismolog gy and related subjects. INTS OF THE ‘ AFFILIATED D SOCIETIES Bar Saree UI otk CL ‘wt he aS 2 oS ae. 4" 1% i oF ingeet WO ot it ¥ Lies \ “ CONTENTS | Jy Baa MOR AEH) ecek eS “see ss OE Ea Botany.—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old species o zuelan plants.—III. Old and new species of Rupherbinceas (Conel ! PROPER. coe. ae OR a bee bee ee eee teen ee -PRocEEDINGS : i iy The Philosophical Society. eee sees ee ease ects eeeeeceee ree eteten The Entomélogical, Society: et oe ce ess » See Osrruary: F. A. Aue > a ts a os as sad ~# % ; OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. President: Auzs Hnoutdica U. S. Ni onal Museum. JANUARY 18, 1980 No. 2 = | a ‘OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY | OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS JOHN B. REESIDE, JR. Epg@ar W. WoouarD — EpGar T. WHERRY : NATIONAL MUSEUM GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS g s ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. ApAmMs 8. A. Ronwtr PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY : ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E, A. GotpMan G. W. Stross BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 5 AGneEs CHASE J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY 5 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Roger C. WELLS CHEMICAL SOCIETY >. So a Se PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royrat AND GUILFORD AVES. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND td Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office, at Baltimore, Md., under the ty Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing ata special rate of postage provided for « in section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Jounnat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to rere present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. 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Special rates are given to members of scientific societies. etalates with the Academy he i > * - * ince as ere) a an aS ed Re JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Von. 20 JANUARY 18, 19380 No. 2 GEOPHYSICS.—Hypotheses on the development of the earth.: B. GUTENBERG, Frankfort a/M. (Communicated by W. D. Lam- BERT. ) The hypotheses that have been made as to the evolution of the earth involve a great many assumptions. In general there are four groups of these: the condition of the earth at the moment when the assumed forces began to act, the forces themselves, the mode of action of the forces and the condition of the interior of the earth today. _ The usual method has been to search for a single force that might have effected all the changes in the earth’s crust, and then to try to explain all of them by this one force. But that method, of which the best example is the hypothesis of contraction, is not sound. We must try to find out all the forces that can produce changes in the structure of the earth and the effects themselves. Only by applying this method can we solve our problem. The researches on the forces that act have given the following re- sults. We have: Chemical forces and gravity: They formed the different shells of the earth and the changes due to chemical causes continue to occur in the crust of the earth. We have cosmical forces: They are difficult to state. The most important are the tidal forces, which seem to have caused the separa- tion of the moon from the earth. Forces, the importance of which seems to have been overlooked are those caused by the deviation of the earth’s crust from hydrostatic pres- sure. The higher continents try to move toward the oceans. These forces are of the order of 10° dynes per square centimeter (dynes /em?). 1 Received November 26, 1929. These hypotheses are to be more fully explained and developed in the Handbuch der Geophysik, Band 8. 17 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 Other important forces are those caused by the cooling of the earth and the crystallizing of the matter in the earth’s interior. Both together effect a contraction of the circumference of the earth of the order of 2 cm. in a century. Movements of masses, which disturb the equilibrium of the earth’s crust, are caused by erosion and sedimentation. The difference of height between the center of gravity of the con- tinents and the matter that forms the bottom of the oceans causes the ‘‘Polflucht’”’ forces, which strive to move the continents against the equator with a force of the order of 107 dynes/cm.?. To the greater forces belong, finally, the stresses caused by movements of the earth’s crust relative to the axes of the earth. All other forces seem to have no influence on the great changes in the figure and the state of the earth. This seems to hold in the case of the forces causing a westerly drift which are due to tidal friction, and, according to Schweydar,? to the precession of continents. In the latter case the complete analysis seems not to have been made, and it appears to me to be not impossible that such a force is very small or does not exist at all. Local chemical and physical occurrences are the causes of local voleanic events. Finally small stresses are caused by the movements of the poles with a period of one year and the Newcomb period, by the changes of air pressure, by tides and changes of the water level, by formation and melting of ice, by denudation and other similar forces. They have only a little effect. In some cases they are the “trigger” forces that cause breaking of the earth’s crust and earth- quakes, and in others they cause changes of level, for instance the uplift of Scandinavia. The original state of the earth is unknown, but we can suppose that at an early time it was a hot amorphous body the crystallizing point of which was nowhere attained and which possessed relatively little strength. Nevertheless even at that time the incompressibility and rigidity might have been of the same order as today. Now gravity acted on the matter and caused the heavier material to be pushed down near the center. In addition there was a chemical separation which, according to Goldschmidt,’ acted in a similar man- ner as the processes taking place in a blast furnace. Both events together caused the division of the matter into the core, the intermedi- ate layer and the mantle. In subsequent time the difference of density between core and intermediate layer prevented the mixture ?W.Scuweypar. Zeitschr. Ges. Erdkunde (Berlin) 1921: 123. *V.M. Goupscumipt. Naturwissenschaften 10: 918. 1922. JAN. 18, 1930 GUTENBERG: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARTH 19 of these two parts and the existence of currents between them, and we may suppose that the core of the earth is today in the same state as after its formation. In the outer shell, however, currents might have been caused by thermal and chemical events, which continue today. At an early time when this occurred, the tides of the earth caused by the sun seem to have come into resonance with the period of free vibration of the earth, and, according to the researches of Jeffreys, it seems possible that in this way one tide rose so high that a portion of the earth was torn away and formed the moon. In the region where it was formed, the outer shell of the earth was removed, hot magma rose from the deeper parts to the earth’s crust which had cooled to such a degree that its strength was great enough to prevent currents. Before the formation of the moon, the earth’s crust prob- ably had been nearly in a hydrostatic equilibrium. Now this was disturbed, and from that moment we have one part of the earth’s crust with a sialic shell and another part without it, where the moon was removed from the outer shell. The bottom of the Pacific seems to be the remaining part of this region which was denuded of sial, while other parts are still covered by sial. The sialic part of the earth’s crust must have a higher surface than the region from which the moon has been removed, because the matter of the deeper layers which entered the gap was heavier. ‘These de- pressed parts of the earth’s crust were filled by water which had con- densed and caused a sinking down of the bottom of the ocean and up- lift of the continental parts, so that the difference of height between ocean and continent grew larger.’ Now the forces that tend to bring about equilibrium of the earth’s crust increased. They are given by the following formula: foe — (p — bh) ge h =2-10°-h dynes/cm.? where P = hydrostatic pressure; p = average density of the rocks; g = gravity; and h = average height of rocks above the average height of the bottom of the sea, the water of the latter being assumed to have the depth h and p = 1; the configuration of the coast is with- out influence. At the time before these forces caused an increase of the continental part of the earth’s crust, the height of the continents above the bottom of the ocean was probably greater than today, but even if we accept ‘H. Jerrreys. The Earth. Ed. 2, Cambridge, 1929. °Cf. T. Gesztr. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophys. 22: 353. 1929, 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 5 km., we get Pmax = 10° dynes per square centimeter. The average strength of the earth’s crust (cf. Jeffreys, note 4) today is of the order of 5.10° dynes/cem?. It is therefore to be expected that in the course of time the continental matter in the regions with less strength would flow and spread. ‘This event must have occurred in such a manner that the isostatic equilibrium was maintained, that is to say, for any two arbitrarily chosen columns with a height Z of the order of 100 kilometers, h \ pdZ must have the same value. In the case of a homogeneous layer of sial overlying a homogeneous mass of sima with densities p, and p, respectively, as shown in the accompanying diagram, the following relations must exist: Surface of the earth yo. L N\ ( x{ ( | EEE a ee ES i | | | | | sial sial | | hi 4 Pl Pl ie] ie B © it @*6 (0) 6 \s''9) 0 sie [el'e\/e evan rs sima p2 | hy bp: + hip: = h pi Le ps = pi (hy — hy) Mp2 = pr (he — hy +x +p) wi(x +) = piip, wix = pi: (pe: — pi) Then, since p, is much greater than p,—p,, » is much greater than x; in other words, in places where the layer of sial has grown thinner, this must generally happen in the lower parts where sima must enter. JAN. 18, 19830 GUTENBERG: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARTH 21 Now the researches of Taylor, Wegener, Koppen® and others show that observations of many different sorts are readily explained only with the assumption that all continents were one entire complex in earlier geological times and have moved apart one from the other and do so even today. But contrary to Wegener,’ I think that this happened by flowing as an effect of hydrostatic pressure and not by fissuring.® Figure 1. Development of the continents (+ = Europe) a. Carboniferous; b. Cretaceous; c. Hocene; d. Quaternary We do not know what was the position of the continental block immediately after the formation of themoon. The equilibrium of the earth’s crust was completely disturbed and stresses were caused which tended to come into equilibrium. This must have been a period of great movements. ‘There is not enough climatic evidence that can be used to determine the position of the different parts of the earth’s surface. ‘The first geological epoch in which some quiet seems to have been restored was the Carboniferous. All climatic evidence seems to show, as Képpen, Wegener and others have found, that at this time nearly the whole complex of continents was situated in the southern hemisphere of the earth. (Fig. 1.) Under the action of the hydro- static forces of the earth this block began to drift apart. At the same time the Polflucht forces tended to move the entire block over its base in such a manner that the integral of all these forces became zero, so that'the masses of the continental block situated north of the equator 6 KOPPEN UND WEGENER, Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin, 1924. 7A.WxcGENER. Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. Aufl. 4, 1929. 8B. GutenperG. Gerland’s Beitr. Geophys. 16: 239. 1927; 18: 225. 1927. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 were of the same order as the masses south of it. This state now has been reached with some approximation. The movements must cause high mountains at the borders of the block, as actually observed. In this case we must take into consideration that today the limits of the continental block are given by the western coast of North and South America, Antarctica, New Zealand, the Tonga Islands, New Guinea, the Philippines and Japan. All parts of the earth’s crust between these limits, according toseismological researches, seem to have the same structure, and only the thickness of the layer of sial varies. It is less in the bottom of the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans. On the other hand, the limits of the Pacific are sharply marked by very great absorption of the surface waves.* The varying friction on the base of the block, which surely is of lesser order than the strength of the differ- ent parts, caused variations in the flow. Alsoa great deal of the earth’s crust was too strong to permit flowing at all. In such a manner the difference of the thickness of the uppermost layer was caused. Besides these motive powers there are apparently some kinds of forces which strive to move the earth’s crust westward, but as has been said, these seem to have been small. During the action of these forces, the cooling of the earth’s crust was proceeding, crystallization was going on, and the deeper layers of the earth’s crust (say between 50 and 200 kilometers, as a first approxi- mation) contracted, so that the outer shell had to fit the diminishing base. The stresses arising in this manner accumulated. Only in the outermost parts of the shell can they be equalized by breaking and movements of the broken parts. In the deeper regions, in general, there are movements by flow which begin as soon as the forces exceed the strength, which differs in different parts of the earth’s crust. The smallest strength is in the weak parts of the earth, which are the bound- aries of the different layers, notably the borders of the Pacific. It is there that the movements compensating the stresses caused by con- traction must be most noticeable. These movements of shrinking are accompanied by outflow of magma. Indeed the whole borders of the Pacific are covered by volcanoes and signs of magmatic action have occurred at different geological epochs. But other factors have also influenced the events. There exist a great many other forces!® which cause stresses superimposed upon those caused by cooling. Where all these stresses act in the same direction, movements must reach their maximum. On the other hand * B. GUTENBERG. Handb. Geophys. 4: Lief. 1. 1929. 10 B. GuTenBERG. Handb. Geophys. 3: Abschn. 1. 1930. JAN. 18, 19830 GUTENBERG: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARTH © 23 the strength of the earth’s crust was influenced by different events. Movements of the poles, or movements of the earth’s crust relative to its base, caused regressions and transgressions, as the water at once assumes any new position of equilibrium. Furthermore, sedimenta- tion was greatest in the regions of transgression, and caused new sink- ing of the bottom of these regions. In all places where sedimentation occurred, there must have taken place compensating movements of flow in deeper regions. ‘The masses pressed down reached hotter parts, melting began below such parts of the earth’s crust, and a geosyncline, an extremely weak zone, was formed. One recognizes that in such a manner the weakness and the strength were modified in the different parts of the continental block. Especially is it evident that in certain regions sedimentation was relatively very great, and that even there weak zones were formed. If now the forces assumed greater pro- portions and the strength was exceeded, these zones were pressed out and mountains were formed. During all these events isostasy was maintained as nearly as possible by movements in the deeper layers. On the other hand there originated thick layers of sediments, vast regions of which, with thicknesses of many kilometers, being laterally pressed together to depths of ten or even more kilometers. I think that in this way all attributes of geosynclines are explained in the most simple manner and in connection with the great events of the history of the earth’s surface. The material of these geosynclines being pressed out forms, as we have seen, a smaller but thicker region of rocks. ‘Therefore it is not permissible from the thickness of these layers to draw conclusions about the original thickness, and it is not necessary to base calculations upon sedimentation of so great a thick- ness as has usually been done. After this event the geosyncline has lost its mobility and the weak zone has disappeared. ‘The mountains thus formed are very steep, denudation has abnormally great values, and sedimentation increases near the new coast, the conditions there being then favorable to the formation of a new geosyncline, running nearly parallel to the pre- ceding one. Now we will turn back to the forces that press out the weak zones and form the geosynclines. First we have the stresses caused by shrinking of the earth’s crust. They are superimposed on forces caused by the Poljlucht, which press together the northern and southern parts of the continental block in the neighborhood of the equator, where they tend to produce an elevation with a height of twenty meters. The stresses caused in this way are entirely insufficient to produce any 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 2 motions as they are only of the order of one hundredth of the strength, but they enhance the effect of the stresses caused by the contraction, with the result that these stresses reach their maximum to the north and to the south of the equator and are directed against it. | Generally the first motions caused by these stresses must arise in a geosyncline in the neighborhood of the equator, and must produce mountains nearly parallel to it which extend over large regions. In these regions the geosynclines were pressed out, as has been pointed out. This happens not only at the outside of the earth’s crust, but also on the inside, approximately according to the laws of isotasy. Unterstromungen,—currents in the deeper layers,—were produced to maintain the equilibrium, as nearly as possible. The motion extended over larger regions, but by degrees the stresses caused by contraction became exhausted. The Polflucht forces remained unaltered. They could affect some motions in the disturbed regions, but finally all was solidified, strength reached its normal value, the motions ceased, the initial conditions recurred, an epoch of the revolution of the history of the earth had passed and, during subsequent time, only epirogenic movements took place. In the following epochs the stresses caused by the cooling of the earth accumulate anew and finally a new orogenic period begins, but now according to the changes of the position of the equator and other regions in the neighborhood of the new equator. ‘These parallel changes of the position of the equator and the zones of mountain build- ing can be easily traced in the case of Europe, where both travelled southward during the later geological epochs. My sketch of the evolution of the earth has come toitsend. Ithink I have shown how it can be explained on the basis of forces that must: be expected according to theory, and is in good agreement with a great deal of observation. Let me now put a last question: What will be the further evolution of the earth? The continental block is at present lying nearly symmetrical to the equator. Therefore it is not probable that great movements of this block as a whole will arise. In other words, it is improbable that the poles will make greater move- ments relative to the earth’s crust. Indeed observations of Lambert4 and others have shown that these movements today are very small and that their direction is opposite to that we have found for the preced- ing geological epochs. The changes of climate during the last epoch, the glacial period, have nothing to do with our problem. ‘They are 1W.D. Lampert. Astron. Journ. 34: 107. 1922. JAN. 18, 1930 WHERRY: A LONG LOST PHLOX 25 caused by changes of the astronomical elements of the earth (cf. Képpen and Wegener, footnote 6). The motions caused by hydrostatic pressure continue, though dimin- ishing a little according to the degree of spreading out of the continen- tallayer. The distances between the different points of the continents must increase and the surface of the stretched regions must continue to sink. Probably the sinking of the western coast of Europe is an accompanying effect of these events. Finally stresses caused by the shrinking of the earth and the Poljflucht forces accumulate until a new orogenic period begins and new mountain building sets in, in the neigh- borhood of the equator. It may be stated that there is a great differ- ence between the events in the interior of the continental block,—for example, in Europe, where Polflucht forces and shrinking work together —and in the borders of the block,—the coast of the Pacific, where as in the case of America the shrinking stresses are compensated together with the hydrostatic movements which continue to act nearly un- altered. BOTANY .—A long lost Phlox... Epcar T. WHERry, Washington, DEC: The herbarium of Samuel B. Buckley, now at the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, includes a specimen of Phlox labelled ‘Phlox No. 2, Mts. White Sulphur Springs, Va. June, 1838.’’ This bears a superficial resemblance to P. pilosa, but closer examination shows that Buckley was right in declining to ascribe it to that or any other recog- nized species. How this striking plant escaped the attention of the many botanists who visited the region around White Sulphur Springs (now in West Virginia) during the subsequent three quarters of a century is amystery, but the fact remains that it is not included inany collection made during that period to which the writer has had access, nor is it mentioned in Maillspaugh’s flora of the state. This Phlox was first rediscovered by Miss Marian 8. Franklin of Lewisburg about 1919, and specimens collected by her near White Sulphur Springs are preserved in the Gray Herbarium (September 4, 1920, in fruit) and the herbarium of the University of Pennsylvania (May 22, 1922). It had been labeled P. pilosa, and when I first saw it in the field, during a vacation trip in 1923, the same misidentification was made. Early in June, 1929, on another visit to the region, in the company of Mr. 1 Received December 15, 1929. 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 2 J. E. Benedict, Jr., its relationships were worked out, and several stations for it were discovered. ‘The data obtained justify announcing it as an independent species, which seems appropriately named: Phlox buckleyi Wherry, sp. nov. Plant perennial, with one or more decumbent stems 3 to 20 cm. long, each bearing at the tip a closely set group of long narrow evergreen leaves, from the midst of which arises the erect flowering shoot, 15 to 40 cm. tall, with 3 to 7 nodes below the inflorescence; stem glabrous below and increasingly glandular-pubescent upward; leaves glabrate, or the upper more or less pubescent, opposite, the blades thickish, sessile, acuminate; lower leaves linear to somewhat lanceolate or oblanceolate, often ensiform, mostly 50 to 125 mm. long and 2 to 5 mm. wide, the upper ones ranging from short lanceo- late at the base of the flowering shoot, to linear-lanceolate, up to 80 mm. long and 8 mm. wide, near the middle, and to broadly lanceolate, 40 mm. long and 12 mm. wide, toward the top; inflorescence a small to moderately large corym- bose or somewhat paniculate group of cymes, densely glandular-pubescent; bracts similar to the uppermost leaves, rapidly decreasing in size upwards; pedicels short; calyx 7 to 13 mm. long, the sepals united to about 2/3 their length, tipped with short awns; corolla-limb bright purple, usually near phlox or mallow purple (Ridgway’s 65 or 67 b), the eye somewhat paler and often bearing a purple 5-rayed star formed by deltoid patches of slightly deepened color toward the lobe-bases, the tube purplish violet to gray, glandu- lar-pubescent; petals 25 to 35 mm. long, united to 2/3 their length, the tube thus 17 to 23 mm. long, the obovate to nearly orbicular lobes 8 to 12 mm. long and 7 to 10 mm. wide, terminally truncate and entire, slightly erose, or barely emarginate; stamens nearly as long as the corolla-tube, or one sometimes longer, the average distances from tube-orifice to anther tips being respec- tively 0, 0.5, 2.0, 3.5, and 5.0 mm.; anthers cadmium yellow or essentially so; styles 14 to 20 mm. long, united to within 1 mm. of the tip, the 3 stigmas lying in the midst of the anthers, or slightly exserted; ovules usually 2, but sometimes 1 or 3 per cell; capsule about 5 mm. long, Type locality, White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, West Virginia; type specimen collected by S. B. Buckley in June, 1838, in herbarium of Missouri Botanical Garden. Thus far, six localities for Phlox buckleyi have been found, which, from west to east, are as follows: Greenbrier County, West Virginia,— ? mile southeast of Caldwell, + mile south of White Sulphur Springs station (probably the site of Buckley’s original collection), and 14 miles southeast of White Sulphur Springs village; Alleghany County, Virginia,—1 mile north of Alleghany station, 14 miles southeast of this station, and 1 mile southwest of Longdale Furnace. The maximum diameter of its recognized range is thus barely 40 miles (65 kilometers). The normal habitat at all these places is a thinly wooded slope toward the base of a hill of Devonian shale, the soil being usually a humus- rich gravel of subacid reaction. JAN. 18, 1930 WHERRY: A LONG LOST PHLOX Figure 1. Phlox buckleyi Wherry. 27 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 2 This very distinet species belongs in a different section of the genus from P. pilosa, which it resembles at fitst sight, as shown by thetde- cumbent stems with evergreen terminal leaves, the well-united sépals, and the long stamens and styles. It is actually most closelyirelated to P. ovata, which grows in the same region, but differs in the much narrower leaves, the abundant glandular pubescence, and the double ovules; moreover, even where intimately associated, the two show no tendency to intergrade or to hybridize. Its aspect is brought out by the two photographs reproduced on page 27, the upper representing a habitat view taken at the locality southeast of [Caldwell, West Virginia, June 1, 1929, and the lower a group of pressed specimens from the same place, X i. The highly distinctive tufts of ensiform leaves suggest, as a common name for the species, Swordleaf Phlox. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY The 995th meeting was a joint meeting with the Geological Society of Washington, and was held in the auditorium of the Interior Department building, Wednesday, October 23, 1929, with Vice-President LAMBERT of the Philosophical Society in the chair. The program of the evening consisted of an illustrated address by Dr. BENO GUTENBERG, Professor of Geophysics at the University of Frankfurt- am-Main, on “‘Some hypotheses on the development of the Earth’s crust’ (pub- lished in this number). It was discussed by Messrs. Bow15 and H&cx. The 996th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 9, 1929. The program of the evening consisted of two illustrated communications: P. R. Hey, V. L. Carisuer, and W. F. SnypER. Absorption of sound at oblique angles of incidence.—The effect of oblique angles of incidence upon the sound absorption of a substance is a point concerning which there has been up to the present time no experimental evidence. Parts has published a theoretical discussion leading to a formula which indicates that as we pass from normal incidence to grazing incidence the absorption should increase considerably, being about 50 per cent greater at 60°. Experiments recently performed at the Bureau of Standards appear to show that the absorption of sound is independent of the angle of incidence. It seems probable that the error in Paris’ discussion is due to the fact that sound absorption is produced by friction, converting sound energy into heat. Friction is likely to produce rotational motion in fluids, and where rotational motion exists there can be no velocity potential. In consequence, the cus- tomary differential equation for sound motion, in which the dependent vari- able is the velocity potential, fails to hold in a region of sound absorption. (Authors’ abstract.) Discussed by HumpHreys, Hutsurt, - LITTLEHALES, GisH, PAWLING, and others. \ JAN. 18, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29 E. O. Huxsurt: Jons and electrical currents in the upper atmosphere.— It is assumed that the ionization in the upper atmosphere is caused by the ultraviolet light of the sun and that the ion and electron densities at noon at the equator are those required by the theory of wireless wave propagation. From the laws of recombination of the ions and the diffusion and drift of the ions in the earth’s magnetic and gravitational fields the distribution of the ions over the earth is worked out. This distribution turns out to be that required by the diamagnetic theory of the solar diurnal variation of the earth’s magnetism. The gravitational drift currents are found to flow mainly along the parallels of latitude in the following way: On the daylight hemisphere (1) a current sheet flowing eastward in the levels above 150 km. which at the sunrise and sunset longitudes divides into two sheets; (2) one of these flows westward on the day side of the earth underneath (1) in the levels below 150 km., and (3) the other sheet continues eastward in the upper levels around on the night side of the earth. The current is mainly between the fortieth par- allels of latitude, north and south, and falls to lower values at the higher latitudes. The total currents in the three sheets are about 10’, 8 x 10° and 2 x 10° amperes, respectively. The east and west daytime current sheets sub- tract from each other leaving in effect an eastward current of about 2 x 10° amperes flowing around the earth all the time. This causes a magnetic field agreeing in magnitude and type with that obtained by Bauer in his 1922 analysis of the magnetic field of the earth of external origin. As a result of the drift currents, the sunset longitude of the earth is at a potential of several hundred volts above that of the sunrise longitude. This electric field combined with the earth’s magnetic field causes the ions and electrons on the night side of the earth to drift upward with velocities of order 10? cm. sec.~!. The ions and electrons move into regions of lower pressure and therefore do not recombine as fast as they otherwise would. This removes a difficulty from an earlier calculation which yielded too great a night-time rate of disappearance of the free charges. The upward drift of the ionization causes a rise of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer which is, partially at least, compensated by the fall due to the cooling and contraction of the atmosphere at night, and is complicated by the diffusion of the ions. It is difficult to say how much of the night-time rise of the layer observed in experiments with wireless rays may be genuine rise and how much may be an apparent rise due to delayed group velocities, or to other causes. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Gisu, L. H. Apams, and others. Epa@ar W. Woo.uarp, Recording Secretary pro tem. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 455TH MEETING The 455th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 13, 1929, President Capps presiding. Program: Ki. W. Berry: Arctic climates as indicated by fossil plants, and a possible explanation. Discussed by Davip WHITE. REemiInGToN Ketitoce: Migration of marine mammals in relation to climate. W. J. Humpureys: Factors of climatic control. 456TH MEETING The 456th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 27, 1929, President Capps presiding. 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 2 Informal communications: Davin WHIT called attention to the excellent exposure of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments along 16th Street above Florida Avenue. Program: H. H. Bennett: Contributions by the Bureau of Soils to the problem of erosion. The farm and grazing lands of the country are not in- exhaustible, as vast areas are subject to severe impoverishment and destruc- tion by unrestrained soil erosion. The normal process of soil erosion of un- disturbed land is insignificant compared to the accelerated washing of the land due to the removal of forest and brush growths, the breaking of ground and the matted sod of the prairies, and the destruction of herbage by over- grazing. Erosion, due to the latter causes, operates chiefly on the top soil, the most productive part of the land, and the amount of wastage depends on the soil, the slope, the amount and rapidity of rainfall, the crops grown and the methods of cultivation. On some highly erosive lands as much as one inch of soil may be removed in one year and it is believed that not less than one billion five hundred million tons of rich soil matter are swept out of the fields each year. The amount of plant food washed out of the fields each year is more than twenty times the annual loss by the crops taken from those fields. That lost through crops can be replaced by fertilizers and soil improving crops but that removed by erosion is irreplaceable. Experimental erosion and moisture conservation stations are being established in a number of major regions of varying soils and climate and various structures such as terraces and dams, as well as various types of vegetation, will be tested under field conditions in attempts to slow down the losses. Discussed by GoLDMAN, WHITE, PEPPERBERG, and RUBEY. C. N. Munns: Contributions by the Forest Service to the problems of erosion. Discussed by RuBEy and THOMPSON. C. 8. Howarp: Suspended matter in the Colorado River. Water-Supply Paper 636-B of the United States Geological Survey describes the methods of sampling and the results obtained in a study of suspended matter in the Colorado River from 1925 to 1928. These results, with additional data for 1928-1929, show that the most rapid fluctuations and the largest loads oc- curred during the periods of the summer floods when a large proportion of the flow of the river was caused by rains in the semi-arid portion of the drainage area, The daily load of suspended matter at the Bright Angel station in the Grand Canyon ranged from 3,700 to 20,700,000 tons. The annual load at the same station ranged from 189,000,000 tons in the lowest year to 443,000,000 tons in the highest year. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by BAKER, BEN- NETT, Munns, GOLDMAN, RuBEY, THOMPSON, COLLINS, and ALDEN. 457TH MEETING The 457th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 11, 1929, President Capps presiding. Vice-President G. R. MANsFIELD took the chair during the presentation of the presidential address: Glaciation in Alaska. 37TH ANNUAL MEETING The 37th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn- ment of the 457th regular meeting, President Capps presiding. The annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented his annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1,205.54 on December 10, 1929. The auditing committee reported that the books of the. Treasurer were correct. JAN. 18, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 31 The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows: President: G. R. MANSFIELD; Vice-Presidents: O. EK. M®InzER and F, L. Hess; Treasurer: H. G. Fercuson; Secretaries: JAMES GILLULY and C. H. Dane; Members-at-Large of the Council: W. D. CotLtins, HERBERT INSLEY, H. D. Miser, G. B. Ricnharpson, and W. C. Mansrietp; Nominee as Vice- President of Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological So- ciety: S. R. Capps. A. A. Baktr, JAMES GILLULY, Secretaries. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Mr. and Mrs. W. H. Hoover and Mr. F. A. GreELry have returned in November from their three years’ occupation of the Smithsonian solar observing station on Mount Brukkaros, South West Africa. Professor A. 8. HitcHcock has returned from Africa, where he obtained large collections of grasses. The collections of the Division of Fishes, U.S. National Museum have been greatly enriched by the receipt of a large number of Chinese fishes from Mr. A. DEC. SowERBY and Dr. D. C. GRAHAM. Dr. E. P. Cuark, research chemist of the Interstate Cottonseed Crushers’ Association, and Dr. Hrersert L. J.!HALLER, associate in the department of chemistry of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, have accepted appointment in the insecticide division of the chemical and technological research unit of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. As organic chemists in the field of insecticides, they will investigate the structure of substances occurring naturally in certain tropical plants which are characterized by high toxicity to fish and which are believed to have promising possibilities as insecticides. When the structure of such compounds has been sufficiently investigated, attempts will be made to synthesize them or certain of their derivatives. The effect of all compounds isolated or synthesized will be physi- ologically tested upon fish, tadpoles, insects, and animals, as it is important to know their toxicity to man as well as their effect upon insects. Professor C. C. GHosH, Entomologist in the Agricultural College at Manda- lay, Burma, paid a brief visit to Washington in December during the course of a trip around the world. W. V. Kine, of the Bureau of Entomology, who has been for seven months investigating mosquitoes in the Philippines for the Rockefeller Foundation, has been studying the mosquito collections in the National Museum. » Professor Jos1AH BrinGes, of the School of Mines of the University of Mis- souri, is studying Ozarkian gastropods at the National Museum in connection with the work of the Missouri State Bureau of Geology and Mines and in cooperation with members of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Dr. C. E. Resser has been appointed Curator of Stratigraphic Paleontol- ogy in the National Museum. Dr. Resser has been connected with the Division of Paleontology since 1915. it Duta: aia: COaPate apell Uae AHO ae, ey es eT Menge We, 1 Eenuae uA ania Aovioss oy il, tre waraeae att OF ~ eT 2 a 4 A bs et a 4 P onl Lae le : : is bs ¢ W- “4 } J 7 SRE . 54 Hee, See Bae Baan oii ape ie vie ieien 1S Wixi 20) Seats nk te Ws hh iets oa Aes: 1 dh Flares 5 200 WORT AS reo aol t ‘tea’, or aS neha spose: la wil ‘Al bite tae Mes te Oa aie cei Fe athe bbe tae REY. hata oan SOMA. adetas ee IIH Ve Bi * Cie R QS tee E acim ee iat ad “iia of ly UA) ists AWA A Miah ts Wald | DEH Ae Wa fa Peat at costes Tap Eh, At iat St =e) 1G TS “9 ‘hy ha hae Pviwyy y ine Le wee Mare, a ; . C oy i | 5 ; in te i Lv Glee eee? elie Ab reer pee oe sted rene cal an ‘a a ray $+ rt s see teenls A WA) POE Dene | r AU nent et ee fae 7: ae die re Teo ore ORAL AL yt revi eeergcn; conn Pas ON PA ae cate mye pee toh . ‘ apy ids Ms Fe etesee, PAT LR 4 . Mga beidtd eet? badianwee wed Ay SRR ‘ ha ey * “oe ae ‘Writer yt ty +e ri me % ata ” be ¢ iA arte ee 3 hi ee TE fork, tear kh pi? Lema tn oe arth het cong st ta ; > ae wt the nr | at ite % yey ; 7 Aon s ee ae t , as “petty Ph? Ay Sh PRS wal ail: hy. paca othe t saPt this ae et hh ae te Livni Tine: 3d 265 Aiding ee abt gh ie ean 34% ar: Periieicgnirraye ch ewe hl angel aa eta ieee! : palletes thd Eats Sate Goch. tbc Lain taaa tarnsehins et Fo tes eaptiai tits, she's Ne egESE Br jg Paisrt oi RET Ase At AL ak) £} eee FRR; rrp iy? apfo'sire&: ott pnts ¢ nNOMRe Pha, HS, ciate ois. sate htea gh ei el ae iigl geeaa ‘eek VAST, | actth ha | eiee Hives “let: 745 ape it? hy + Se thes wi iit pS Leek Dp yan tty treitia aig vet dies Hened bk Neco us) pecaireageans a este he. ceeds tend ths Ue aeedaiere Cob oumnecdee. [fv 2h. ol , hike akin gant ot eb: ele Pale fice: ela saoe eee Age: Meigs idee es oe one aaa rh rere gtseiBe edt ei Shine a Ape Ware we oA : OFF “ oh ae. i opeake i pe fae ehasd geite gaat jafatheaadae ROR ein Gear crete et 15k dginct eeu! Fetes Sac loatedase tha ay F A Oi Ness bh path rane GE me pave iT: gs A ey Mey ae tater Roe EE we $35 Hiss min 4 aged is ti tp a td. twa ae os a Bs age bis pee aay Joints Zt Age ees: besegeal tog bic: a Gi tits ¢ Bist et a oe, Cae oi Py Ole bad Bich aah inn ae coahe mr ; Dia ‘— he eee Cin : : : i la a a wig 7 Sree ie Nod sen Pre ae int Ee ae ae roel fe Se ks 5) OO ce a Pr ’ F. 4 vr - f) oF is + = ; Poa’, oy * a4 ” ¥ : oe * a a i = 4 Ke & fs ee. p Lie ny 2 Re : inp wile a : weg “4 f ~ if 4 - ‘ . f ~P® . ‘ ’ ! _ ibe D gol v ay na “y i ry a evs ’ 1 , j = j ge } ‘ ha 5 °. ~ un J ’ _ “2 . ‘ CONTENTS : _ Onietnan Parers i pi 2B Geophysics. —Hypotheses on the development of the earth. B. Gu E Botany.—A long lost Phlor. Epaar T. WHERRY.............2-...0000 oN de . -- Proceepives ; pe i The Philosophical Sbeinby k's tein feck Manabe pug «Last ~ ote ee ge The-Geologioal Sgetetyy: jv. aiwets ngs gece vans hey oss nen eines eee ScIENTIFIC NoTEs AND NEW pat ses ne ik es Sea eanng fo wit pone emt ee This JourNau is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in pub ~ ‘ Se . | OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY - President: Aue’ HrouéKa, U.S. National Museum. = Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckerman, Bureau of Stané Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic § ‘Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey. o cs ~4 Y aN > >> Sis ~~ ‘ “| a . ne ta [ea tity re ae . . 7 ak ual , re. aod FEBRUARY 4, 1930 No. 3 ‘ Bat A ae ae SS "G f » fy * oe Ma ‘he “ip of OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Epaar W. WooLarpD EpGar T. WHERRY C. Wyre: Cooxs GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS L. H. Apams S. A. 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Specia rates, re are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy c. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Von. 20 FEBRUARY 4, 1930 No. 3 METEOROLOGY .—On the effect of vertical convection on lapse rates.? C.-G. Rosspy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Com- municated by EpGarR W. WooLARD.) Because of the dynamic (adiabatic) heating or cooling which ac- companies vertical motion of air in the earth’s atmosphere, the occur- rence of convectional movements will in general result in a modification of the lapse rates that exist prior to such convection. The following treatment of this effect, which is believed to be new, is shorter and simpler, and in several respects more satisfactory, than that customa- rily given.? Let T be the absolute temperature, 6 the potential temperature, p the density, and d7'/dz the lapse rate within an infinitesimal stratum of dry air of thickness dz and cross section g. Suppose the stratum to undergo a vertical displacement, due to convectional movements; and let To, 0, go, po, (aT'/dz)o, dz, denote the values of the preceding quantities before the displacement, and Ji, 6, qi, pi, (dT /d2):, dé, those after the displacement; the potential temperature @ remains constant, the process being assumed adiabatic. Denote the lapse rate before displacement by —ao, that after displacement by —a,; and put y = Ag/c,, where A is the reciprocal of the mechanical equivalent of heat, c, is the specific heat at constant pressure and g is gravity. The potential temperature is given by REA Niles a) & 1 Received November 19, 1929. 2 F.M. Exner. Dynamische Meteorologie. 2te aufl., pp. 57-59, 85-86. 1925. W.J.Humpurers. Physics of the Air. 2ed., pp. 36-37. 1929. 30 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 in which p= is the barometric pressure, P is the standard pressure, and R is the characteristic gas constant. Differentiating this equation, we have dé ed ce acs dz T\d pe & Substituting dp = — pgdz gives pee ‘ea a af de Tld& “ee | whence dé 6 ger Noted Mages 1 (S), = x - (1) Ay 9 le ae ete ae 2 (S),-x- 4, Q) The constancy of mass requires that pogodZo = p1gid2:, or dans Deir ounlls dai Po Wo Po Yo Ts. Now EEE ERAN ek gees (3). dz1 dzy dz, dzp Po Yo T; Multiplying (1) by 2&2 gives, by (3), Pogol' dé 6 Pig To ( — = — — ae 4) 7 oi i Sinica? Po Qo 1 Eliminating dé/dz,; between (4) and (2), we have 6 Pi Qi iE 6 fy = gy) eee eee To y a0) Po Yo T; T; \y ; or Mme el Fees AY. (5) Po Yo In particular, if g. = qo, we get from (5) FEB. 4, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS FAUNAS 35 Seite akin, pen ee eats + Wa — —, Gavin) pe UNd27.0 Ce Gs The explanation of subsidence inversions is apparent from these equations. The equation of continuity furnishes an adequate expression for the variation in dz. GEOLOGY .—The Cretaceous faunas in the section on Vermilion Creek, Moffat County, Colorado... JoHN B. Reestpe, Jr., U. 8. Geologi- cal Survey. Some years ago the writer assisted Messrs. J. D. Sears and W. H. Bradley in studying the unusually complete stratigraphic section along Vermilion Creek, in T. 10 N., R. 101 W., Moffat County, Colorado. Mr. Sears later published? a description of the lithologic units together with correlations based on areal studies, on stratigraphic and lithologic considerations, and on the fossils found. ‘The regional sequence of rocks from pre-Cambrian to Eocene is present. No detailed statement of the species of fossils observed in the section has been published, how- ever, and it is the chief purpose of this paper to record in some detail the collections from the Cretaceous beds. The nomenclature applied to the Cretaceous beds of Vermilion Creek is that derived from southwestern Colorado: Dakota (?) sand- stone, Mancos shale, and Mesaverde group, though only part of the last is exposed, a fault having carried the higher Cretaceous rocks far below the present surface. The locality is close enough to southern Wyoming, however, to show some of the stratigraphic subdivisions generally accepted in that region. As Mr. Sears has noted in the report cited above and in a later one,’ the Mancos shale contains at the base a thin member similar to the Aspen and Mowry shales in its peculiar lithology and its fossil content; resting upon the basal member a thin sandstone similar in lithology and fossil content to beds at some places included in the Frontier formation; and upon it a thick shale member corresponding to the Hilliard shale in position, though including in the upper part shaly marine equivalents of part of the coal-bearing rocks that farther northwest would not be included in the Hilliard shale. 1 Received January 4, 1930. Published with the permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. 2 J.D. Sears. Geology and oil and gas prospects of part of Moffat County, Colorado, and southern Sweetwater County, Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 751: 278-281. 1924. 3 J. D. Sears. Geology of the Baxter Basin gas field, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 781: 15-22. 1926. 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 In terms of the section east of the Rocky Mountains the Mancos of Vermilion Creek includes equivalents of the Graneros, Greenhorn, Carlile, Niobrara, and lower Pierre formations, the last containing repre- sentatives of the Eagle and Telegraph Creek beds. In terms of the European classification it is the Turonian, Coniacian, Santonian, and lower Campanian, possibly extending also into the upper Campanian. The part of the overlying Mesaverde group present is probably equiv- alent to the middle part of the Pierre or upper Campanian, though very few fossils are available as a basis for an opinion. In summary form the section of the Mancos may be interpreted as follows, the unit numbers referring to the detailed section given below: Equiwalent in Feet. European equivalent Plains Region Campanian: Upper(?): No. 1, fossiliferous.......... 100 ) No. 2 (part), fossiliferous.... 489 Noi? Goatt); barren 2.04. 72 735 1324 Lower Lower: No.3, fossiliferous.......... 140 ) Eagle part of No. 4 (part), fossiliferous.... 200 j fits ad eee Pierre No; 4: (@art);pbarren stone 816 1156 shale Santonian: | Upper: y No. 4 (part)> fossiliferous...22..<.- 886 Tel. Creek | | formation J Lower: No. 4 (part), fossiliferous.... 383 | No: S,fossiliferons. 32.46 bss. 75 No4G tossiiterois 7)... as Ls 75 533 | Ni — iobrara Coniacian: No. 7, fossiliferous.......... 320 eo No.8 tossiliterous? 2). 430 INO: 9: TOSsIILErOUS. <a... 106 856 j Turonian: Upper: 1 No. J0ctossiliferous. 4 +... 1 Ne bareene. 0 eis paca 315 ; ING. 12a Damen. wee eget te 2 Carlile shale Noss; barren.e{.- 0.2 ae ee 4 (Frontier of No. 14, fossiliferous......... 55 authors) No. ‘15, barren), 408 25 No: 16; fossiliferous:e4 “oe as 54 No, 17, barren’ Sse 5.0 1 457 FEB. 4, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS FAUNAS BT. Lower: No. 18, fossiliferous......... 34 Now 19>) barren yori. ois uk 3 Greenhorn-Graneros No. 20, fossiliferous......... 118 155 | (Aspen of authors) Total 5367 It is notable that the Turonian Prionotropis woolgari fauna, which should appear between that containing Metoicoceras whiter and that containing Prionocyclus wyomingensis, was not found in this section and that there is little room for it. It is possible that the sediments which represent the time of the woolgari fauna are very thin or lacking, though there is no particular physical evidence of a hiatus. The fauna in the lower part of the Niobrara equivalent (Coniacian), containing Inoceramus deformis, Baculites codyensis, Phlycticrioceras oregonense, etc., is much like that described by the writer from the lower part of the Cody shale of northern Wyoming.’ The very large shells of Inocera- mus (Haploscapha?), mostly represented by fragments coated with Ostrea congesta, are abundant in the Niobrara equivalent and extend above it into the Telegraph Creek equivalent (upper Santonian) only in a scarcer and depauperate development. In some parts of the sec- tion specimens more than four feet in maximum dimension were seen in cross section. In the upper part of the Mancos shale fossils are ex- tremely rare and extended search yielded only a few scattered species, except in the sandstone lenses at the top of the equivalent of the Eagle sandstone (lower Campanian), where a more extensive and significant fauna occurs. | The detailed section is as follows: CRETACEOUS BEDS ON VERMILION CREEK, Morrat County, CoLoRAbDo Feet. Mesaverde group (part): Williams Fork (?) formation: White and gray sandstone; gray and drab shale; coal beds; upper part cut off by faulting against Wasatch forma- DA Orel MAM par tank ocd cheek Marston hs ehbaetole dinate Se cos 500 Iles (?) formation: Massive white sandstone predominant; a little gray shale and carbonaceous shale. At 75 feet above base occur Halymenites major Lesquereux, Inoceramus sp., Cardiwm sp., Mactra formosa Meek andHayden. About....... 1700 *J. B. Rexsipz, Jr. Cephalopods from the lower part of the Cody shale of Oregon Basin, Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 150: 1-19. 1927. 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 Mancos shale: 1. Gray shale, increasingly sandy toward top................. 100 2. Gray to slate-colored shale; at top of unit and 490 feet lower are lines of rusty-brown fine-grained calcareous sandstone concretions several feet in diameter, containing fossils of Montana age. In the upper horizon were noted Pteria nebrascana Evans and Shumard, Baculites sp., Lunatia sp.; in the lower, Inoceramus barabint Morton................ 1224 3. Rusty-brown medium-grained sandstone in short lenses at four horizons, separated by gray shale; most prominent lens, 6 feet thick, at base; next, 2 feet Ah 25 feet higher; third, 1 foot thick, 88 feet above base; fourth, 8 feet thick, at top. In the highest lens occur Inoceramus sagensis Owen, Ostrea sp., Lucina n. sp., Corbula n. sp., Teredo sp., Volutoderma n. sp., Anisomyon aff. A. subovatus Meek and Hayden, Hamites novimexicanus Reeside, Baculites ovatus Say, B. asper Morton, Scaphites hippocrepis DeKay, S. aquilaensis Reeside, S. stantonz Reeside; in the next to lowest, Inocera- mus sagensis Owen and Haresiceras natronense Reeside; in the lowest, Solemya bilix White, Inoceramus sp., Ostrea cf. O. congesta Conrad, Lucina n. sp., Corbula n. sp., Ichthyo- dectes? ‘SP. 0:2 . «0% fara «ph BAe Cees tot eee 140 4. Gray to slate-colored shale, irregular ian a line of gray calcareous septarian concretions at base; thin beds of soft, fine-grained gray sandstone at 647, 657, 1213, 1233, and 1269 feet above base of unit. At 2085 feet above base occur Lucinan.sp., Corbulan. sp., Baculites sp., Hypsodon? radiatu- lus Cockerell; at 1269 feet, Inoceramus sp., Hypsodon? radiatulus Cockerell; at 657 feet, Desmoscaphites basslerz Reeside and Ichthyodectes? sp.; at 150 feet, Pterza gastrodes Meek, Inoceramus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites sp., Scaphites vermiformis Meek and Hayden; at 45 feet, Baculites codyensis Reeside; at 35 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantoni Sokolow; at 25 feet, Lingula aff. L. nitida Meek and Hayden, Veniella mortont Meek and Hayden, Lucina subundata Hall and Meek, Fusus? sp., Baculites codyensis Reeside, Scaphites ventricosus Meek and Hayden. In the lowest 400 feet fragments of a large, thick-shelled species of Inoceramus (Haploscapha?), coated with Ostrea congesta Conrad, are abundant; in the next overlying 800 feet they still occur but are rather rare and of smaller size..............0.+.-..-.. 2285 FEB. 4, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS FAUNAS 39 5. Dark slate-colored shale, including five or six bands of fine- grained gray sandstone that weather to low ridges. At 25 feet above base occur Lucina sp., Baculites sp.; at 15 feet, Ostrea congesta Conrad and Lucina subundata Hall and Meek. Jnoceramus (Haploscapha?) sp. and Ostrea congesta SLeeOUnGaMitNLOUueMOUt .oee. Sls.) kee sy a SS TY. E 6. Light bluish-gray shale, laminated, breaking into flat pieces when fresh; a line of gray calcareous septarian concretions as much as 1 foot in diameter at base. At 20 feet above base occur Lingula aff. L. nitida Meek and Hayden, Nucula sp., Yoldia aff. Y. scitula Meek and Hayden, Arca n. sp., Inocera- mus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Lucina subundata Hall and Meek, Anchura? sp., Anisomyon n. sp., Fusus n. sp., Baculites asper Morton; at base, Inoceramus umbonatus Meek and Hayden, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites asper Morton, Ichthyodectes? sp. Inoceramus (Haploscapha?) and Ostrea congesta are abundant throughout... ......0 2022 .00505.. 7. Dark slate-colored shale with irregular bedding; zones of light- gray laminated shale; many thin layers of shaly sandstone that weather into papery flakes; lines of gray calcareous septarian concretions as much as 1 foot in diameter at 75 and 90 feet above base of unit; reddish sandy streaks with some reddish concretions at 125 and 190 feet above base. At 215 feet occur Inoceramus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Anisomyon n.sp., Baculztes codyensis Reeside; at 190 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow; at 180 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stanton Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Lucina sp., Baculites codyensis Reeside, Helicoceras aff. H. corrugatum Stanton, Echidnocephalus? sp., Leucichthyops vagans Cockerell (?); at 130 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantoni Sokolow, I. undulatopli- catus Roemer, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites codyensis Reeside; at 125 feet, Inoceramus sp., Ostrea congesta Conrad, Sauvagesia cf. S. austinensis (Roemer), Isurus? sp.; at 75 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Baculites sp., Scaphites vermiformis Meek and Hayden; at 55 feet, Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Vanikoro? sp., Baculites asper Morton, Hypsodon? sp.; at base, Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Baculites sp. Inoceramus (Haplo- scapha?) sp. and Ostrea conaesta are abundant throughout.... 320 8. Light bluish-gray shale, laminated, breaking into flat pieces when fresh; a line of gray calcareous septarian concretions at 330 feet above base of unit. In the concretions occur Inocera- ~] Ot ~I Ou 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 mus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Lucina subundata Hall and Meek, Phlycticrioceras oregonense Ree- side, Scaphites sp.; at 325 feet, Inoceramus deformis Meek, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites asper Morton; at 295 feet, Inoceramus deformis Meek, I. aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Pteria gastrodes Meek, Baculites sp., Phlycticrioceras oregonense Reeside, Helicoceras cf. H. corrugatum Stanton; at 285 feet, Cyphosoma n. sp., Solemya n. sp., Inoceramus deformis Meek, Inoceramus aff. I. stantona Sokolow with original color pattern preserved, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Anisomyon? n. sp., Baculites asper Morton, Phlycticrioceras oregonense Reeside, Scaphites ventricosus Meek and Hayden; at 240 feet, Inoceramus deformis Meek, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites sp., Scaphites sp.; at 220 feet, Inoceramus deformis Meek, Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea congesta Conrad, Baculites asper Morton. Inoceramus (Haploscapha?) sp. and Ostrea congesta are abundant throughout................... 9. Dark slate-colored shale with irregular bedding. Near top of 10. i ks 12. 13. 14. 15. unit occur Nodosaria n. sp., Inoceramus aff. I. stantont Soko- low, Lucinasp., Mactra emmonsi Meek, Lunatia? sp., Anchura n. sp., Cerithium? n. sp., Baculites ef. B. gracilis Shumard, Helicoceras aff. H. corrugatum Stanton, Placenticeras cf. P. pseudoplacenta Hyatt. Inoceramus (Haploscapha?) sp. and Ostrea congesta Conrad are fairly abundant throughout... .. Large, dark reddish-brown sandstone concretions containing Inoceramus fragilis Hall and Meek, Ostrea sp., Scaphites warrent Meek and Hayden, Prionocyclus sp., Corax sp....... Dark slate-colored shale with irregular bedding............ White sandstone, stained somewhat brown on surface; makes 2 G@ip Slope... .. 2 bios cee oe Re Gray and brown carbonaceous shale; lens of coal as much as 18 inches»thick:: . 2: .:234.2d66n0e et hee ee Massive fine to medium grained sandstone; upper part white, lower part buff; slightly cross-bedded; a little gray shale present. Near top of unit occur Lingula cf. L. nitida Meek and Hayden, Solemya? obscura Stanton(?), Inoceramus sp., Mactra sp., Corbula kanabensis Stanton, Lunatza aff. L. concinna Hall and Meek, Prionocyclus sp., Petalolepis? fibril- lates Gorkerell (?).....'.... ASE Se eee Guay sandy shale»... Sates. Se ee ee 430 106 315 50 25 FEB. 4, 1930 BERRY: A NEW HYPURAL FAN 4} 16. Gray fine-grained sandstone in layers 1 to 6 inches thick, and eray sandy shale, interbedded. At middle of unit occur Inoceramus fragilis Hall and Meek, Ostrea sp., Scaphites sp., Prionocyclus wyomingensis Meek; at base, Ptychodus sp...... 54 ig tammy shale with cone-in-cone structure. .....0. 6) 04.0.5 0. < 1 18. Hard platy shale; bluish-white to cream-colored on weathered surface, dark brown onfresh surface. Fishscalesabundant. . 34 PERNT OMG ee se tv veer eh tst aes eee eeaIO fat enn Wino o lt bits 3 20. Hard platy shale; bluish-white to cream-colored on weathered surface, dark brown on fresh surface. Fish scales abundant and at 75 feet above base of unit occur Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim, Metoicoceras whiter Hyatt, Leucichthyops vagans Wocleenelll gery Ne Me te ea SE Ah RG Roi Voom at 118 Total thickness.. 5367 = Dakota(?) sandstone: Gray coarse-grained sandstone; gritty and conglomeratic bands.. 50 Peavacwalesand: thimrsamadstONes. eu 0 yh. Stay Gh ae bt ese a 15 White medium-grained sugary sandstone, friable............... 22, MB eet ast ia cea hoe atlas faye ened. oe slats os MEU wean alonethtiare 24 ihemt-eray- shale, ereenish) tinG!. (0s...) ok SY wee oe ee ees 16 White coarse-grained sugary sandstone, friable; contains many CLEKGLS Cape Un Stags RMS rs ou eink A ie Ec LA 3 White and light-gray conglomeratic sandstone; many zones of small pebbles; mostly. of black chert. ......4...45..0.0.. 0: 27 Total thickness. . 157 Morrison formation. PALEONTOLOGY.—A new hypural fan from the Miocene of Mary- land.1 WituaARD Brrry, Ohio State University (Communicated by Joun B. Rexsipe, JR.) While collecting along the Calvert Cliffs of Maryland this past summer the writer found many fragments of fossil bone. Those worth preserving were turned over to the National Museum at Washington. However, in a chunk of material collected to show the lithology of the formation, a rather well preserved hypural fan was later found that seems worthy of record. ‘The material was from the talus at the base of the cliffs south of Camp Roosevelt, and is probably from the Calvert formation of the Miocene. The specimen may be described as follows: 1 Received December 6, 1929. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 Xiphias ? drydeni W. Berry, n.sp. Terminal vertebral centrum moderately concave in front and circular in cross section, its neural and haemal spines fused into a solid fan-shaped body; the anterior haemal spine less completely fused with the next following than are the rest, and separated from it near the point of attachment to the cen- trum by a perforation 4 mm. in diameter passing completely through the fan and connecting with a perforation of equal diameter on the dorsal side of the anterior haemal spine at the point of attachment to the centrum. There is also a smaller perforation extending posteriorly through the fan. There were apparently lateral processes which have been broken off but the bases are still present on either side of the centrum. Figures 1-2.—Dorsal and side views, natural size, of the hypural fan of Xiphias?” drydeni W. Berry, n. sp. This species cannot be referred to Xiphias? radiata, described from the Aquia Formation (Eocene) by Clark,? because of the difference in concavity of the front of the centrum and because of the perforation opening above the anterior haemal spine. The extreme height of the fan is 5.6 em. and the diameter of the centrum is 1.5 em., the ratio of the two differing greatly from those fans described from the Eocene. This species differs also from those found in the Tertiary of South Carolina in having a circular cross section of the centrum. It is named after Mr. A. L. Dryden, who was with me during the collecting season when it was found. Occurrence.—Calvert formation (?), Miocene, Calvert Cliffs, Maryland. The type is in the Geological Museum of The Ohio State University, Ac- cession number 17109. : 7W. B. CuarKx. Eocene deposits of Maryland. Md. Geol. Survey Rept., p. 112. 1901. FEB. 1 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 43 BOTANY.— Plants of the Appalachian shale-barrens.: Epcar T. Wuerry, Washington, D.C. The term shale-barren was appropriately applied by Steele? to a unique type of plant habitat occurring locally in the central Appala- chians, within the area delimited by two heavy lines on the accom- panying map, figure 1. ‘These barrens are developed on shale-slopes,— places where hard shaly rocks of the Romney (middle Devonian) and Jennings (early upper Devonian) formations outcrop on steep hillsides, the surface being strewn with frost-broken fragments. They are typically occupied by a sparse, scrubby growth of pine, oak, mountain- laurel, and other woody plants, with herbaceous ones scattered be- tween, grading into normal woodland wherever conditions permit the accumulation of sufficient soil. A number of endemic species and Fira. 1. Location of the Shale-barren Region varieties have been observed to characterize this shale-barren plant- association, and others no doubt remain to be discovered. As no annotated list of these has ever been published, one is here presented in the hope of encouraging further investigation of the region. The shale-barrens thus far discovered are located as follows: Maryland, at intervals along the National Highway, U. 8. route No. 40, between Cumberland and Indian Springs (20 miles west of Hagerstown). Northern West Virginia; similarly along route No. 50 from south of Keyser to Gore, west of Winchester, Virginia. 1 Received January 4, 1930. 2 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 18: 359. 1911. 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 Southeastern West Virginia, on various hills in the vicinity of White Sulphur Springs, especially the western slope of Kates Mountain, which is reached by a trail from the railroad station; Slaty Moun- tain, north of Sweet Springs. West-central Virginia, along state route No. 39 east of Monterey; on various hills in the neighborhood of Hot Springs; along the Chesa- peake and Ohio railroad near Millboro, Goshen, and Augusta Springs, and its branch line north of Covington; and near U. 8. route 60 west of Covington. In figure 1 the above listed places are indicated by dots, which apparently fall into two separate groups, although the gap between these merely reflects the relative inaccessibility and consequent lack of exploration of the intervening territory. Further northeast as well as further southwest the shale-slopes rapidly diminish in size and bar- renness, owing to changes in physical and chemical character exhibited by these Devonian strata along their strike. Certain formations of other geologic ages, such as the Martinsburg (upper Ordovician) oc- casionally yield superficially similar shale-slopes, but no typical bar- rens. The peculiarities of the shale-slopes which lead-to their being occupied by endemic plants appear to be the sparsity of soil, the way in which the loose rock-flakes creep down the slopes under the influence of the weather, and the limited amount of available moisture and nutrient elements. The rock is made up largely of quartz and clay minerals, and exhibits a neutral reaction. The accumulation of humus in the heaps of loose fragments results in the development of con- siderable acidity, little mineral matter capable of neutralizing the organic acids formed being present. ‘The litter is evidently too porous to permit the accumulation of much available nitrogen, and tests have failed to show the presence of nitrates or ammonia in appreciable amount. The more notable plants of these habitats are here listed in the standard order followed in manuals of botany, notes being given as to the distribution, relationships, history, etc., of the endemic ones. NoTABLE PLANTS OF THE SHALE-BARRENS. Cheilanthes.—The Hairy Lipfern, C. lanosa (Michx.) Watt, grows on various kinds of rock throughout the southeastern uplands, and invades the barrens wherever cliffs are well-developed. The only peculiarity it shows here is a stunted aspect, owing to the general sterility. FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 45 Woodsia Abundant evidence has been assembled by Fernald? indi- cating that during pre-Glacial times Rocky Mountain plants migrated eastward across northern North America, and some of these plants found their way down the Allegheny mountain system. One of the latter was the Rocky Mountain Cliff-fern, W. scopulina D.C. Eaton, which as recently recorded,‘ is now known from six southeastern stations. Two of these, near Covington and Sweet Springs, are on the cliffs of typical Devonian shale-slopes, the remainder being on more or less similar rocks of other geologic ages. The fronds exhibit features differing to some extent from those of the Rocky Mountain occur- rences, and Fernald has suggested that the differences may be of speci- fic rank, although in view of the variability of the species, it seems more probable that this Allegheny Cliff-fern should be classed only as a variety. Selaginella—The widespread Rock Spikemoss, S. rupestris (L.) Spring, varies in aspect somewhat with the nature of the substratum. On the shale-barrens, which it occasionally enters, it is often relatively slender and grayish in color, but the differences are not believed to be of taxonomic importance. Allium.—Nodding Onions, grouped under the general head of A. cernuum Roth, occur nearly throughout the United States, falling into several geographic races, not as yet fully worked out. One of these, A. oxyphilum Wherry, is endemic in the shale-barren region, usually occurring on the more heavily wooded portions of the shale-slopes, though sometimes remote from them. Perhaps it should be classed as only a variety, but this can not be decided until someone makes a field study of the group as a whole. Eriogonum.—This typical Rocky Mountain genus has very few rep- resentatives in the east, but one of the latter, H. allenit Wats., is a highly characteristic member of the shale-barren flora. The Yellow-buck- wheat, as it is locally called, prefers the barest and most sterile situa- tions, its long tough roots penetrating crevices in the shale rocks and holding the clumps in place in spite of the downward creep of the sur- face fragments. Its ancestors presumably crossed the continent and came down the Alleghenies during pre-Glacial times, but subsequent climatic changes destroyed all traces of them, leaving behind this single endemic species. 3 Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 15: 239. 1925. * Amer. Fern. Journ. 19: 101. 1929. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 Polygonum.—One of the dry-soil Knotweeds, apparently P. tenue Michx., is abundant in the more open parts of the barrens. Anychia.—Several members of this genus occur on sterile gravelly soils in many parts of the eastern United States, and naturally invade the shale-barrens. The one which becomes most conspicuous in these habitats, though without exhibiting any consequent morphologic changes, is A. divaricata Raf. This has often been regarded as identi- cal with A. polygonoides Raf., but, as pointed out by Steele,® is un- doubtedly distinct. Paronychia.—Only one Nailwort has been observed on shale-slopes, the Texan species, P. dichotoma (L.) Nutt., which is known in the eastern states in few localities. Silene-—The Pink Catchfly, S. pennsylvanica Michx. or S. carolin- tana Walt., growing as it does in gravelly soil in so many places, could not fail to invade the shale-barrens. So far as known no signifi- cant change results, although the plants are often rather stunted in aspect. One of the many forms of Fire Catchfly, S. virginica L. is also occasional in these habitats; it does not seem to be an endemic type, although the variations of this species remain to be interpreted. Anemone.—On the more heavily wooded shale-slopes one or more members of the section Anemonanthea of this genus occur, but their identity has not been worked out. Perhaps only forms of A. lanci- folia Pursh (A. trifolia of current manuals) are represented, although it seems quite probable that the imperfectly known A. minima DC. is a member of the same flora, and has been largely overlooked owing to the fact that little collecting has been done in these regions in early Spring. Clematis —Members of the section Viorna of this genus are present on several shale-barrens, but their relationships are obscure. In 1814 Pursh had described C. ovata from the mountains of South Carolina, and Britton® concluded this to be identical with the plant of the Kates Mountain shales, although the published description of the type speci- men indicates that it is too incomplete to justify considering this as established. The Clematis of the Millboro barren was described by Steele in 1911 as C. viticaulis, and matters are still further complicated by the occurrence on others of C. sericea Michx., which is usually sup- posed but not known to be the same as C. ochroleuca Ait. of Atlantic lowland regions. Before this tangle can be unravelled it will be neces- 6 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 363. 1911. 6 Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 2: 28. 1890. FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 47 sary to study all of these plants in fresh condition, make sure as to the identity of Michaux’s and Pursh’s species by exploration of the type localities, and find out the extent of variability within the individual colonies. This would make an interesting study for someone who has the opportunity to carry on the necessary field work. Arabis.—An endemic derivative of the widespread Smooth Rock- eress, A. laevigata (Muhl.) Poir., grows on the shale-barrens, being re- markable in blooming in Summer instead of Spring. It has been named A. serotina by Steele, but its relationships to other variants of the species remain to be worked out. Draba.—The little Rock-twist, D. ramosissuma Desv., grows on cliffs of many kinds of rock in the southeastern uplands, and enters the shale-barrens on the more sheltered ees, without exhibiting any resulting morphologic effects. Sedum.—Three of the Stonecrops of the Allegheny region occur to some extent on shale slopes: American Live-for-ever, S. telephiordes Michx.; Triplet Stonecrop, S. ternatum Michx.; and Mountain Stone- crop, S. nevir Gray, the last being most characteristic of these habitats. None of them show, however, any recognizable changes on passing from one type of rock to another, which they do freely. Trifolium.—The most chacteristic endemic of the shale-barrens is the Longleaf Clover, T. wrginicum Small. This is a derivative of the Buffalo Clover, 7’. reflecum L., which grows on the western slopes of the Alleghenies and further west, and was reduced to a variety, 7. reflecum virginicum, by McDermott.? The latter author stated it to be ‘“‘abun- dant throughout the Appalachian mountains’’, although for many years but one locality was represented in herbaria. Up to early in 1929, eight stations for it had been definitely made known,* another since reported in Mineral County, West Virginia, bringing the total to nine. It favors the barest and most sterile situations, withstanding the instability of the surface fragments by sending long tough roots into crevices in the more solid rock below. A stragalus.—A small member of this genus is well developed on a few of the shale-barrens; it has also been found on limestone in Fred- erick County, Virginia, by Hunnewell.? This agrees fairly well with A. distortus T. & G., but may be varietally distinct from the species as developed in the central United States—Texas to Iowa and east- ward, but not coming within 400 miles of the shale-slope region. ’ North American Species Trifolium, p. 273. 1908. ® Torreya 29: 105. 1929. ®°Rhodora 31: 256. 1929. 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 Viola—The Birdsfoot Violet, V. pedata L., is a typical occupant of sterile gravelly soils in many parts of the eastern states, and would naturally be expected to invade the shale-barrens. When it does, its leaves exhibit a distinctive type of cutting, but whether it also differs in other characters has not been ascertained. Oenothera.—Both an unusually small and an unusually large flowered representative of the section Onagra of this genus grow on shale-slopes. The former was suggested by Steele!® to be O. parviflora L., but has not been sufficiently studied. The latter is, however, an endemic species, O. argillicola Mackenzie. When this remarkable Evening-primrose is in bloom in late Summer, its habitats seem rather inappropriately classified as barrens, for it makes a magnificent floral display. It is, however, rather closely restricted to sterile situations, having, for a biennial, an unusually extensive root system. An interesting out- lying occurrence of it has been noted, along the Juniata River opposite Losh Run station, in Perry County, Pennsylvania (marked by a circle on the map, Fig. 1); this has unfortunately been destroyed by the con- struction of U. 8. Highway No. 22. The rock there is a shale of the same geological age as that underlying the more southern shale-barrens, but apparently too rich in lime and other plant-food elements, or too readily weathered into soil, to favor the growth of other endemics. Pseudotaenidia.—P. montana Mackenzie, or, as it may be called, the Mountain-pimpernel, represents not only an endemic species but also an endemic genus, no near relatives being known anywhere. Few localities of it appear to be on record, but it is not uncommon in woods on shale-slopes. The occurrence reported near Luray, Virginia, was no doubt on the shale there, which though resembling the Devonian rock in appearance, is actually of another geologic age, and differs so much in composition as to yield no typical barrens. Asclepias.—Several common milkweeds of sterile gravelly soils enter the shale-barrens, including A. quadrifolia Jacq., A. verticillata L., and A. tubersoa LL. The last named often has abnormally pale corolla- color in such habitats, but no other differences have been recognized. Convolvulus.—The widespread Dwarf Convolvulus, C. spithamaeus L., exhibits considerable geographic variation, the details of which re- main to be worked out. One of its derivatives, which may be termed the Velvet Convolvulus because of the strikingly velvety leaves, ap- pears to be particularly well adapted to shale-barren habitats, where it locally forms vast patches of more or less regularly spaced stalks, 10 Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 13: 366. 1911. FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS 49 to the exclusion of most other vegetation. As recently pointed out," this is apparently C. stans Michx., the type locality of which was in Canada, near Lake Champlain. It is noteworthy that shale rocks, similar in aspect to those of the region under discussion, occur in this vicinity, although for that matter the plant is not entirely restricted to such rocks, for specimens have been seen in herbaria from Ducktown, Tennessee, and Atlanta, Georgia, where very different formations are represented. Further field study of this group is much to be desired. Phlox.—Festoons of Moss-Phlox drape the ledges on many of the shale-slopes, the white or pale lavender flowers with which they are covered in Spring giving them a different aspect from the related material of other habitats, and the name P. brittonit Small has been applied. A detailed study” has shown, however, that in view of the marked variability of this group of Phloxes, the differences can not be regarded as having more than varietal significance, leading to the com- bination P. subulata brittona. Besides growing on shale, this plant extends down the Potomac valley nearly to Washington, D. C., on other types of rock. A highly distinctive species, termed the Sword-leaf Phlox from the shape of its evergreen basal leaves, and recently named P. buckleyi Wherry, is included in this enumeration because, although not growing on barrens, it seems to thrive best in woods near the bases of shale- slopes. It is an endemic relative of the more widespread Mountain Phlox, P. ovata L., which enters the same habitats to some extent without, however, exhibiting any recognizable morphologic changes. Pensiemon.—The Mountain Penstemon, P. canescens Britton, thrives on sterile gravelly slopes throughout the southeastern uplands, and naturally invades the shale-barrens. When it does so, the corolla color seems to be paler than usual, although no other distinctive features are known to have developed. Houstonia.—Several species of Summer-bluets grow in the shale-slope region, and H. tenuzfolia Nutt. becomes particularly abundant in these habitats, showing no differences from occurrences on other formations. Campanula.—The lovely little Allegheny Bluebell, C. divaricata or C. flexuosa Michx., thrives on various types of rocks in the Appala- chians, including the shales here under discussion. Its characters remain, however, essentially uniform throughout. 11 'Torreya 29: 106. 1929. 12 Bartonia 11: 27. 1929. 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 3 Liatris—Gayfeathers are a striking feature of several of the shale- barrens, but their nomenclature needs further consideration. Perhaps the commonest is a derivative of L. spicata (L.) Willd., which corre- sponds more or less to L. spicata montana Gray. Solidago.—One of the several goldenrods of these habitats, an apparent relative of S. arguta Ait., has been described as a distinct species, S. harrisii Steele. Others also deserve critical study. Aster—The widespread A. lowrieanus is represented on the barrens by a plant with creeping rootstocks which adapt it to growth in the heaps of loose shale, and it has received the appropriate name of A. schistosus Steele. Other species of this genus also occur in these habi- tats, but show no recognizable changes there. The latter statement apparently applies as well to the Antennarias, although they have not been investigated closely. 7 Silphium.—Rosinweeds are mostly native to the prairies of the central United States, but a few of them push eastward into the Alleghenies. One of these, S. reniforme Raf., is a striking member of the shale-barren flora, although it grows to some extent on other forma- tions as well. Helianthus.—Several Sunflowers occur on or near shale-barrens, but the only one recognized as showing distinctive characters is a rough-leaved representative of a widespread species, which has been named H. laevigatus reindutus Steele. Senecio.—Three or four Groundsels are known in the shale-slope region, one of them being especially noteworthy. The Everlasting- Groundsel, S. antennariifolius Britton, is a highly characteristic occu- pant of the barer situations, often spreading into large patches, and having been but rarely observed in any other habitats. This endemic, like several others, is most nearly related to a Rocky Moun- tain species, and in the key in Gray’s Manual, ed. 7, the range is actually the only feature used to distinguish it from S. canus Hook. GS. purshianus Nutt.) of that region. In conclusion, two tabular arrangements of the species above dis- cussed may be given to bring out certain interesting points about them: (1) a geographic list, showing the inferred sources of the plants and the type of endemism they represent; and (2) a chronologic list of the arti- cles in which the more pronounced endemics have been described, showing how this interesting flora has been critcally studied only at more or less long intervals. FEB. 4, 1930 WHERRY: PLANTS OF SHALE-BARRENS ol TABLE 1. GEOGRAPHIC LIST OF PLANTS OF THE SHALE-BARRENS!3 Without near relatives: Pseudotaenidia montana Derived from Rocky Mountain species: Woodsia scopulina var.? Eriogonum alleni Senecio antennariifolius Derived from prairie species: Trifolium reflecum virginicum Astragalus distortus var.? Silphium rem forme Derived from surrounding species: Allium oxyphilum (from A. cernuum) Arabis serotina (from A. laevigata) Anemone spp. Clematis spp. Viola pedata var.? Oenothera argillicola (from O. biennis) Convolvulus stans (from C. spithamaeus) Phlox subulata brittonii Phlox buckley (from P. ovata) Inatris spicata montana? Solidago harrisit (from S. arguta) Aster schistosus (from A. lowrieanus) Helianthus laevigatus reindutus Entering without essential change: Cheilanthes lanosa Selaginella rupestris Polygonum tenue Anychia divaricata et al. Paronychia dichotoma Silene pennsylvanica et al. Draba ramosissima Sedum nevii et al. Oenothera parviflora? Asclepias tuberosa et al. Phlox ovata Penstemon canescens Houstonia tenuifolia et al. Campanula flexuosa Aster spp. Antennaria spp. Helianthus spp. Senecio spp. 13This is by no means a complete list of the plants which grow on the barrens, but does include most of the more striking or noteworthy ones thus far observed. Fur- ther study will no doubt result in adding to the list, as well as in shifting of some species from the category ‘‘entering without essential change’’ to other classes. 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 3 TABLE 2. CHRONOLOGICAL List OF SHALE-BARREN ENDEMICS OR NEAR-ENDEMICS 1803. Muicuaux, Flora Boreali-Americana 1: 136. Convolvulus stans. 319. Clematis sericea. 1814. Pursu, Flora America Septentrionalis 2: 736. Clematis ovata. 1841. RarinesqueE, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. n.s.7: 342. Silphium reniforme. 1889. Watson, in Gray’s Manual, ed. 6, p. 734. Hriogonum allent. 1894. Sma, Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 4: 112. Trifolium virginicum. 1898. Brirron, in Britton & Brown Illustr. Flora 3: 478. Senecio antennariifolius. 1900. Smauu, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 27: 279. Phlox brittonit. 1903. MackKrENzIk, Torreya 3: 159. Pseudotaenidia montana. 1904. Mackernziz, Torreya 4: 56. Oe¢enothera argillicola. 1911. Sverre, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 13: 364. Clematis viticaulis. 365. Arabis serotina. 369. Solidago harrisit. 373. Aster schistosus. 374. Helianthus laevigatus reindutus. 1925. Wuerry, THs JoURNAL 15: 370. Allium oxyphilum. 1929. Wuerky, THIS JOURNAL 20: 25. Phlox buckleyr. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The largest single monetary award in America for scientific accomplish- ment has been created by Popular Science Monthly, which, beginning this autumn, will confer an annual prize of $10,000, accompanied by a gold medal, upon the American citizen who has been responsible, during the preceding year, for the achievement in science of greatest potential value to the world. The award will be bestowed under the auspices of the Popular Science Institute, a research organization maintained by the magazine, of which Prof. Coututns P. Briss, associate dean, New York University, is director. The Institute has enlisted the services of twenty-four leaders in American science to serve as a Committee of Award, whose task it will be to select the prize-winning effort. The prize will be conferred for the first time in Septem- ber, 1930, and the initial period of scientific accomplishment to be con- sidered by the Committee of Award will be the twelve months ending June 30,1930. All scientific workers, professional and amateur, academic and commercial, are eligible. The Committee of Award consists of: Dr. CHartes G. AsBsBort, Prof. Couuins P. Buiiss, Dr. Samurt A. Brown, Dr. Gzorcre K. Bureszss, Dr. Witu1amM W. CampBELu, Dr. Harvey N. Davis, Dr. Artuur L. Day, Dr. E. EK. Free, Travis Hoxs, Dr. Frank B. Jewett, Dr. VERNON KELLOGG, Cuarues F. Kerrertne, Dr. ArtHur D. Litriz, Dr. Joun C. Murriam, Dr. Ropert A. Mrurrkan, Dr. HENRY FarrFieLp OsBorn, Dr. ELMER A, SpeRRY, Dr. Samuret W. Stratton, Dr. Etisu THomson, Dr. Epwarp R. WEIDLEIN, Henry HerMAN WEsTINGHOUSE, Dr. ALBERT E. Wuite, Dr. Wiis R. Wuitney, and ORVILLE WRIGHT. The creation of this award, it is expected, will serve to further stimulate ae. and inventive activity in this country, especially along practi- cal lines. NCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES : ay, February 5, The Society of Engineers = The Medical Society Y; feb eaare 6, The Entomological Society February 7, The Geographic Society r, February 8, The Biological Society February 11, The Institute of Electrical Engineers Soe! 12, The Geological Society The Medical Society The Chemical Society ; - The Geographie Society The Philosophical Society __ - The Helminthological Society The Anthropological Society 1S Roa datas The Historical Society February 19, The Society of Engineers ~The Medical Society srams of Fis rhedtines of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if editors. by the es and twenty-fifth day of each month. rae i eee hag . ra CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Meteorology.—On the effect of vertical convection on lapse rates. x c Geology.—The Cretaceous faunas in the section on Vermilion C County, Colorado. Joun B. Ruusrpn, JR........../......0.0008 Paleontology.—A new hypural fan from the Miocene of Maryland. be Botany.—Plants of the Appalachian shale-barrens. ScrentiFic NOTES AND Ms ee This Jovawax. is indexed in the International Indes tol Periodieala ee . curd Secretary: i B. ee uM IAN, B Recording Secretary: Cuartes THom, Bureau of C Treasurer: Henry G. a Coast and Geodetie 1 we ; VoL. 20 Frsruary 19, 1930 No. 4 ees / a Re i whe & i) \ ft, a te Fy. ° ~~ - Qn z My c® Gs x & yy Ime = mf, ‘hee i 1 OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS EpGgar W. WoouaRrp EpGar T. WHERRY C. Wrtue Cooxs GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. E. Merwin Haroup Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Strosz BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GLUOLOGICAL SOCIETY AcGnes CHase J. R. SWANTON © ROTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY RoGeErR C. 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Triangulation is based on the elementary mathematical principle that when the length of one side of a triangle and the angles of that triangle are known the lengths of the other two sides can be computed. In actual practice base lines, varying in length from 4 to 15 miles, are measured on suitable terrain and from such bases chains of triangles are extended across the country to cover areas that are to be investi- gated scientifically or which are to be surveyed and mapped. Neces- sarily, the two ends of a triangle side must be intervisible from the ground, or structures in the form of stands or towers must be erected in order that the observer at one end of the line may see a pole, target, heliotrope or lamp placed directly over the station at the other end. Every nation of the world that is well-developed industrially has at least made a start in extending a triangulation net over its area. In the United States we have about 27,000 miles of are of first-order triangulation and traverse, by which geographic positions are deter- mined, in addition to what is called third-order triangulation which has been executed along our coasts. Then, in the interior of the country, there is a large amount of triangulation of various orders below first-order which has been used in the topographic mapping. 1 Received January 11, 1930. 53 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. FIRST-OROER TRIANGULATION OF NCRTH AMERICA, work eaniioted or for whe reconnassonce has been “ 1| Glock bonds sa Mexico @ ol lhe United States ipdicote work accomps/ished. Hrolched bonds tn Conoda\ ovd fhe Uniled Stotes sAadicote Elwork co Templeted for fhe \/mmediore future, rrow Bonds Mdgrcae fraverse-—— Sonuary /, 19 P Fig. 1.—Triangulation of North America, showing recent work in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. eee ee ee FEB. 19, 1930 BOWIE: TRIANGULATION 55 First-order triangulation which is the framework on which all lower orders are based is now being executed only by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. This bureau will supplement the first-order work with ares of second-order triangulation. ‘The ares of these two classes of trian- gulation will be so spaced that when the network is completed there will be few places in the United States more than about 25 miles from a first or second-order triangulation station. In this high grade triangulation the best available theodolites are used. The tendency has been during the past few decades to reduce the theodolites in size but to increase the accuracy with which the parts are fitted together, to improve the optics and to increase the refinement with which the horizontal circle is graduated or divided. Since the atmosphere is seldom very clear, only in exceptional cases is it possible to make observations on poles or targets, for the lines are in general more than 8 miles long and sometimes reach a length of 100 miles or more. Heliotropes have been used as targets on which to make obser- vations but they can only be employed when the sun is shining and even then only during the latter part of the afternoon when the atmos- phere becomes steady. For several decades the Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey has been making practically all the angle measurements for the main scheme of triangles at night. For this purpose, automobile headlights, each provided with a contracted filament lamp, are used. The beam going out from such a lamp can be easily observed with the unaided eye at distances varying up to 40 miles if the atmosphere is at all favorable. In some parts of the country, notably the southwest where the atmos- phere is generally quite clear, the light from the signal lamp has been seen with the unaided eye over distances of more than 100 miles. Thirty-two pointings are made over each line of the triangulation during the angle measurements and the average of the results is used as the direction to be employed in computing the angles of the triangles. Necessarily in the computations the spheroidal shape of the earth’s surface must be taken into consideration. If the lines are only a frac- tion of a mile long the curvature of the earth really does not affect the measured angles, but the spherical excess, the amount that the sum of three angles of a spherical triangle exceeds 180 degrees, is in some cases more than one minute. The closing error of the triangles as observed for first-order triangula- tion averages slightly under 1”. This accuracy is all that is required for any except the most special scientific work. 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 20, No. 4 The base lines of the triangulation are measured now with 50-meter invar tapes and the probable error of the derived length is seldom greater than one part ina million. The actual error is believed to be seldom or never greater than 1/300,000. The principal purposes of the triangulation are eminently practical. In the subdivision of our country into states, counties and even smaller political units, it is essential that the boundary lines be known in their proper geographical positions. The triangulation of the country fur- nishes just the information that is needed in the accurate location of such political boundary lines. It is also essential that the boundaries of private property be easily recoverable. This can be assured whenever geographic positions or plane coordinates are determined for the angle points of the boundary of a farm or of a city lot. When such coordi- nates have been given and they are referred to the general triangulation system of the country, it is possible to relocate the boundary corners even though all of the monuments set on them may have been de- . stroyed. Triangulation furnishes information of value in connection with the alignment surveys of highways and railroads and in bridge and tunnel location and construction. Also it furnishes the basis for the surveys made along rivers for flood control or river improvement. Its most important practical value is in connection with the charting of the coasts and the topographic mapping of the country. Commercial and naval vessels must have accurate charts. There are few important human activities that do not depend for their successful execution on exact knowledge of geographic positions, distances, directions, eleva- tions and the configuration of the ground. All of this information is furnished by the modern topographic map. That map in turn depends on the triangulation system of the country in order that the various adjoining sections of it may be accurately fitted together. When the triangulation system of the whole country is used in mapping there will not be those gaps, overlaps and offsets where two maps meet which oiten bother the cartographer who constructs them and others who use them. ‘Triangulation is used extensively in military surveying and mapping. ! Triangulation also has very important scientific values. It is only by means of connected ares of triangulation with the astronomic latitudes and longitudes determined at some of the stations that one can determine the dimensions of the earth. From gravity data alone the shape of the earth can be obtained, but triangulation by which dis- FEB. 19, 1930 BOWIE: TRIANGULATION 57 tances across wide areas are measured is necessary for the determina- tion of the size. The shape and size of the earth have already been determined a number of times but in each case the data used covered only a comparatively small part of the earth’s surface. With more extensive data over greater areas closer approximations to the true figure of the earth can be made. The shape and size of the earth are needed in all surveying and mapping operations which are executed on a large scale, in navigation, and in explorations. The figure of the earth is needed as well as the distances between widely separated points in connection with certain astronomical observations, especially in the determination of the parallax of the moon. It has been found that the combination of astronomical and triangu- lation data enable one to learn much in regard to deviations from nor- mal density in the outer portion of the earth. In fact it is by means of astronomical and triangulation data that the first comprehensive quan- titative test of isostasy was made. It was found that the material under continental areas is lighter than normal while the material under ocean areas is heavier than normal. The deviations from normal density were found to be sufficient to balance the topographic features. This condition of balance or equilibrium of prisms of the earth’s crust is called isostasy. : While the application of the principle of isostasy to triangulation an astronomical data brought these data into very close agreement it was found that there were some outstanding differences. Further inves- tigation in the field of isostasy involving values of gravity led to the rather definite conclusion that the abnormalities or residuals in the geodetic data resulted from the presence of extra heavy or extra light material near the geodetic stations, both horizontally and vertically. It seems to be reasonably certain that the deflections of the vertical, as differences between triangulation and astronomical data are called, can be used for the purpose of disclosing buried structure. There is now available in the United States a large amount of geodetic data in the form of deflections of the vertical which can be used in connec- tion with geological studies. Now that isostasy has been substantiated as a scientific principle we are able to use triangulation and astronomical data to show the devia- tions of the geoid or water surface of the earth from the spheroid or mathematical surface which most nearly fits the geoid. A surface can be passed through the astronomical stations at right angles to the direc- 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 tion of gravity and also through the derived directions of gravity at places where triangulation has not been executed or astronomical observations made, but where the deflection of the vertical on the isostatic principle has been computed. What might be called a geoid contour map could be constructed which would show the deviations of the geoid from the spheroid. One of the most notable cases of the use of triangulation in a scien- tific problem was the measurement, by means of a base and triangula- tion, of the distance between San Antonio Peak and Mt. Wilson in southern California for the use of Prof. A. A. Michelson in the deter- mination of the velocity of light. The length of the base was about 22 miles while the distance between the two peaks was about 23 miles. Every possible correction was applied to the triangulation in order to eliminate the effect of systematic errors. The base line was measured with a probable error of about one part in 10 million, while the probable error of the distance between the two peaks was about one part in 6 million. It seems reasonably certain that the distance furnished Prof. Michelson was not in error by as much as one millionth of the distance. Triangulation has been used in this and other countries in the deter- mination of the distortion of the earth’s surface during earthquakes. Already rather extensive investigations have been made in California by means of triangulation, and plans are now being formulated for an extension of the tests. Ares of triangulation are being extended across areas where there are fault zones which have been active in his- torical or at least in late geological time. It is planned to have this triangulation repeated at intervals of ten or some other number of years to see if any strains have taken place in the earth’s material. Should an earthquake occur along any of the faults or in fact anywhere in the vicinity of this triangulation the work will be repeated in order to learn how much movement of the ground had occurred at different distances from the fault, and how far from the fault one must go in order to find undisturbed points. These tests by triangulation in regions of seismic activity are of particular importance to the geologist for by them he can obtain an idea as to whether an earthquake is a local or a general phenomenon. | The Coast and Geodetic Survey has in the last few years made a readjustment of the triangulation net of the western half of the United States involving about 13,000 miles of are. The bureau is now engaged in the computation and adjustment of the net of the eastern half of the country. The latter work will be completed in the next two or three FEB. 19, 1930 REESIDE: CRETACEOUS PELECYPOD 59 years after which standard or final geographic positions can be furn- ished for the triangulation stations to engineers, scientific workers, or others who may need the data. Of course there is no such thing as a final position for there is abundant evidence that the earth’s surface during geological time has undergone changes both vertical and hori- zontal, but it seems reasonably certain that very few of the triangula- tion stations of this country will be affected by geological processes to an extent that will vitiate the data in a few hundred years at least. Regions of considerable seismic activity will of course have triangula- tion stations whose positions are likely to change during earthquakes and even between such earthquakes but such areas form only a small portion of the total area of the country. The accuracy of the triangulation, as shown by the adjustment of the western net, is quite remarkable. ‘There were 16 circuits with peri- meters averaging about 1200 miles. ‘The average closing error of these circuits was about one part in 430,000. There were only two of the circuits for which the closing error was greater than about 1/200,000. While it is doubtful if the length of a line of triangulation is known with an accuracy greater than 1/100,000, yet where there is a series of such lines combined to measure a distance across country, the errors of the individual lines tend to balance out according to the law of AGENT Er tion of accidental errors. The scientific and practical needs for triangulation data are increas- ing from year to year. The demands for such data have led the Presi- dent of the United States to include in his budget for the fiscal year 1931 a substantial increase in the money to be devoted to geodetic surveys, including triangulation. It is hoped that the triangulation net composed of first and second order work will be finished within the ' next ten or twelve years. PALEONTOLOGY .—A Cretaceous pelecypod with color markings. JOHN B. ReEsipg, JR., U. 8. Geological Survey. Color markings are so rarely preserved on fossil shells that the ex- ceptional case of their preservation seems always worthy of record, particularly where the genus concerned is extinct. The writer here presents a note and figures descriptive of a species of Jnoceramus re- lated to Inoceramus stantoni Sokolow from the lower part of the Mancos 1 Received January 4, 1930. Published with the permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 shale of Vermilion Creek, Moffat County, Colorado.2 The specimens are completely flattened in a calcareous shale and the original sculp- ture and outline may be only guessed at. The fossils in adjacent lay- ers, however, show that the age of the beds is that of the lower part of the Niobrara limestone (Coniacian). The markings on these shells show as light-brown, nearly straight bands radiating from the beaks and gradually increasing in width toward the basal margins. The width of the individual bands differs much, though there seems to be a wider band near the middle of each shell and narrower bands on each side of it. What the original color of the bands may have been seems scarcely worth conjecture, but it is beyond doubt that the pattern preserved is that of the coloring of the shell in life. Figure 1.—Jnoceramus aff. I. stantoni Sokolow, from the Mancos shale of Vermilion Creek, Colorado. Three individuals showing color markings. U.S. National Museum cat. No. 73736. PETROGRAPHY.—Pacificite, an anemousite basalt.1 Tom. F. W. BartTu, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton. (Communicated by L. H. Apams.) Introduction. In many lavas the amount of silica is insufficient for the formation of feldspar, and consequently minerals undersaturated in silica are formed, among them the feldspathoids. Microscopic investigations of the undersaturated lavas of the Pacific island volean- oes have shown that nephelite occurs throughout the area, forming 2 See Tu1s JOURNAL, 20: 40. 1930. 1 Received January 18, 1930. FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 61 nephelite basanite, as well as phonolitic trachyte and, rarely, phonolite, these lavas being in much smaller amount than the basalts. The minerals of the sodalite graup and analcite, as well as melilite, occa- sionally occur, but the feldspathoid leucite is never met with at the Intra-Pacifie volcanoes. It has been noted, however, that there occur certain purely feld- spathic basalts, without nephelite and usually with olivine, the analyses of which show the presence of very considerable amounts of nephelite in the norm, although none of this appears in the rock. A number of these rocks have been studied by me and the conclusion has been arrived at that much of what is apparently a normal plagioclase is in reality anemousite. Anemousite is a plagioclase with carnegieite in solid solution, carne- gieite being the triclinic form of the molecule Na;Al,8i.03, which ordi- narily occurs as the hexagonal nephelite. Anemousite was first described by Washington and Wright? on specimens from the island of Linosa, in the Mediterranean, this being, so far, the only known occur- rence. Carnegieite has been made artificially,? and it appears to be the abnormal nephelite described by Esch from the Kamerun.‘ Bowen: has studied the system, nephelite (carnegieite)-anorthite. The possi- bility of the presence of anemousite or carnegieite instead of nephelite in lavas, dependent on the conditions of solidification, was pointed out in the paper. on the feldspar from Linosa, in which it is said (p. 64): “With identical chemical composition of the rock, we would have in the one case a nephelite tephrite, and in the other a feldspar basalt, but the norms of both would be the same and would show normative nephe- lite.’ The pacificites are an example of this. We have in these lavas a rock that, under other conditions, would have contained very considerable nephelite, whereas this molecule actually enters a triclinic plagioclase. Under the former conditions the rock would be a nephelite basanite or tephrite, while it has the mineral composition of a feldspar basalt. Recognition of this difference seems to be called for, so that I propose the name pacificite for this group of anemousite basalts. If olivine is present in abundance the rock would be called olivine pacificite. This name is appropriate inasmuch 2 WASHINGTON and WriecutT, Am. Journ. Sci. 29: 52-70. 1910. ’Tuucutt, Neues. Jahrb., Beil. Band 9: 561. 1894; WasHinaton and Wria«xt, op. cit., p. 64; Bowrn, Am. Journ. Sci. 38: 564. 1912; Bowrn and Greta, Ibid., 10: 204. 1925. 4H. Escu, Sitzb. Berl. Akad. 18: 400. 1901. 5 BOWEN, op. cit., pp. 551-573. 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 as such anemousite-bearing lavas would seem to be widely scattered throughout the Intra-Pacifie basin, as is shown by the descriptions and analyses published by Lacroix, Washington, and others. For example, in discussing the lavas of Maui, it is remarked® that the alkalic tend- ency of these rocks is indicated “by the constant presence, modal or normative or both, of nephelite in the andesites and basalts of Halea- kala.”’ Although the feldspar of the pacificite is undersaturated it can not be called feldspathoid, and consequently the rock can not be reckoned with the tephrites or basanites, because according to the definition of these the presence of a feldspathoid is essential. ‘Therefore pacificite is to be classed with the basalts. Mineral composition. A quantitative description of two pacificites follows. 1. Pacificite. Three miles from Rest House, Haleakala, Maui, Hawaiian Islands. Analyzed by M. G. Keyes, under name of nephelite andesine basalt.7 This rock is somewhat trachytoidal in texture. Abundant thin laths of plagioclase grade on the one hand into larger phenocrysts (labradorite), and on the other hand into an interstitial groundmass (anemousite). Very few phenocrysts of euhedral olivine, and many of grayish brown pyroxene are present. In the groundmass very minute augite grains and much ore are met with. Olivine (2 per cent’). The axial angle is very close to 90°, some grains probably show a negative character. The composition is consequently about 15 fayalite.® 7 Pyroxene. The phenocrysts and microphenocrysts of pyroxene make up 15 per cent of the rock; the amount in the groundmass is probably somewhat lower. The axial angle is 2Vy = 56°+ 3°, dis- persion p > v, the extinction angle is c : y = 48°. The refringence shows some variation, indicating a different composition of the various grains; an average value is 8 = 1.705. The value of 2V indicates that no appreciable amount of either clinoenstatite or acmite can be present, and the value of 6 indicates an amount of about 50 per cent of the diopside molecule, the rest being chiefly hedenbergite. 6 WasHINGTON and Keyes, Am. Journ. Sci. 15: 216. 1928. ‘ WASHINGTON and KEYEs, op. cit., p. 21C. 3 This is the volumetric percentage found by the Rosiwal method. * This is approximately the composition of the olivine of Kilauea, as shown by AvURovssEAU and Merwin (Am. Mineral. 18: 560, 1928). — a ae ee eee FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 63 Ore (8 per cent). The percentage of ore shown in the thin sections is less than that shown in the norm. This is because much of the norma- tive magnetite and ilmenite is modally present in the augite. It was not possible to determine the relative amounts of magnetite and ilmen- ite in the thin sections, but the norm indicates that the amount of ilmenite is equal to that of the magnetite or that the latter is very titaniferous. Feldspars. The phenocrysts show the following properties: The lowest index of refraction, a = 1.557 : 55 An Maximum extinction in zone L (010), a’:(010) = 33° : 58 An Positive axial angle, 2V = 75° : 55 An Extinction angle in section Ly, a:a = 28° : 53 An. This feldspar may be an anemousite, for the data correspond fairly well with those given by Wright? for the anemousite from Linosa. How- ever, the above data also fit in very well with a normal labradorite, and since no further proofs of the presence of carnegieite are obtainable, the feldspar of the phenocrysts may be regarded as a normal plagioclase of about 50 An. TABLE 1.—Ca.tcuLATION OF THE MINERAL COMPOSITION OF PACIFICITE FROM HALEAKALA Anemousite Labradorite Ola Ore ee Can ae a (15 Fa) Pyrox.| Apat. | Total oy Diy, Shel one ee oie 6.9 6.7 | 14.5 4.6 0.8 | 2:1 45.6 SO PES Ao hk, ort oe 4.3 0.8 Sek JN Sal pene a naa 1.9 on 4.1 3:9 0.6 16.2 Fe,03 nb ORES CACORE OORT OEE OPS Bt) 0.9 4.4 CIO ree ial yee es nehikes 9.0 0.3 1.9 7.0 BUM ee Sh pits ae hoce & OR on 4.1 CAO he aes, Dy i on Gea 8.5 1 ic Oc ee 3.5 7D 0.1 6.1 LG) Ce ee ae Cone 1.8 1.8 OO tee a 0.5 0.5 “TRG SGST DOR ee eae 2k ee an oe one fe 1 Sron tO 2Gn) lor On Ze Oe6 ugile eee) 12 | 10020 The more sodic feldspars of the groundmass, however, certainly ex- hibit optical properties that do not correspond with those of any normal feldspar series.!° The shading of the feldspar laths into an interstitial groundmass is accompanied by a lowering of the refringence. A common value of the mean index is 8 = 1.550 +, while a still is higher 10 This was referred to andesine or oligoclase-andesine by WASHINGTON and KeEyrEs, who determined the optical characters only approximately. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 than 1.545; the axial angle of such grains is (+) 2V = 60° + 3°. It is hardly possible to detect any grains with 6 lower than 1.550, obviously indicating that neither nephelite nor ordinary alkali feld- spars are present. There does not exist any known mineral with the above stated optical properties. But since the aspect is very much like that of a feldspar, and since the chemical analysis of the rock shows that some undersaturated mineral has to occur, a plausible explanation is that this mineral belongs to the anemousite series. The calculation of the rock analysis is shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the mode compared with the norm. TABLE 2.—MoprE AND NorM OF PACIFICITE FROM HALEAKALA Mode | Norm IMETHOUSILG : 04. Ske eck oe eae) AS” | OTe aha. toy 02's 5 ss oh ee 10.6 Prariociase (o0"An)<..5. 2 aoe5s6. ee TOMAR aro Ss. Oe a ek eee 21.0 Ameen 117 PPT ORENE 42 ci tstes Steals ae ds C2) ee 20 WN INGp a aa dd woesuig ets acl: wah eer 16.5 SmnenC a Pa) ses ti. ok opie. oe ee DPD... eas sa. ets sha cae oe ZL. 3 ORM 2 RO eee ie (0) 1 Dobe Nags a Re I I ee DS | I te ok oe pace, ate os ote eh Se ee 6.5 Lh en 9.7 re ee TE DAD. ne Anne 13 A pyroxene from Haleakala has already been studied by Washington and Merwin." A comparison of the composition of this pyroxene!” with the calculated composition of the pyroxene in the pacificite gives a further proof of the correctness of the interpretation of the rock analy- sis. The molecular compositions (by weight, with titanium dioxide reckoned with silica) are as follows. Analyzed Augite from augite pacificite AD OSTAG es is Came ts en ee 66 PCCeR DEL OIGe 00:5 ee Ee A Se 2 a 2a TMS eles a nes, oe Mee ee pn 5 3 Pes Cathe tor). ph). SE eet be 2 Besqmmom@es (0/29/22), Sarr ta Oy 9 5 For the analyzed augite: 6 = 1.706, c:7 = 48°, 2V. = 60°: for the pacificite augite: 8 = 1.705, c:y7 = 48°, 2V = 56°. 11 WASHINGTON and MEerwIn, Am. Journ. Sci. 3: 117. 1922. 12 This pyroxene was found along the trail from the Rest House to Red Hill. FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 65 The slightly higher content of hedenbergite in the augite of the pacificite is probably due to the admixture of the groundmass pyrox- enes which presumably are richer than the phenocrysts in iron. The anemousite is not homogeneous but consists of a series of solid solutions. The average composition by weight calculated from the chemical analysis comes out as follows: Orunoclasen soe eee. ME aD ANIC TUG Saag Sabiltaldee Maou ies se AME! ans Charge 30 ENMIOEUNTLCR 0/4 See eee. eee ee te 1D Warnemielie le ees: MEME eee cys Bo This composition must correspond with fair accuracy to that of the average feldspar of the groundmass of the rock. No serious alteration of the figures is possible, and since the optical properties of the ground- mass exclude with certainty any ordinary undersaturated mineral, the fact that this rock represents a new lava type has been established, and in all probability the undersaturated mineral must be looked upon as an anemousite feldspar. 2. Olivine pacificite. Kaula Gulch, above Ookala, Mauna Kea, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands. Analyzed by H. S. Washington and by him called chrysophyric basalt.18 This lava contains abundant phenocrysts of olivine in a very fine grained, grayish groundmass consisting of small crystals of pyroxene, a little ore and some feldspar laths that partly grade into an inter- stitial feldspar-like mineral. Olivine (17 per cent). The negative axial angle is 85°, the mean index of refraction, 6 = 1.703, corresponding to 26 Fa. Pyroxene (34 per cent) shows somewhat variable optical properties. The positive axial angle is around 58°, and the mean index is about ee 1000. The index indicates an amount of not less than 40 per cent diopside, and the axial angle shows that no clinoenstatite or acmite molecules are present in appreciable amount. ‘The residual 60 per cent must consequently be chiefly hedenbergite. The amount of sesquioxide is presumably small, but can not be accurately stated. Ore (6 per cent) is a mixture of ilmenite and magnetite. Feldspars. Very few phenocrysts (much less than 1 per cent) of labradorite-bytownite (about 72 An) are present. 13 WASHINGTON, Am. Journ. Sci. 5: 499. 1928. 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 Some of the well developed thin feldspar laths in the groundmass have a mean index of refraction, 8 = 1.555—-1.550; they are optically positive with 2V about 85°, and may consequently be regarded as normal plagioclase with the composition of a calcic andesine. The more sodic feldspars, however, are anomalous," a great many of them show the following properties: 6 = 1.545 + 0.002, (+) 2V = 84° + 4°. Some feldspar powder of the rock was obtained by magnetic separa- tion and was embedded in different index liquids. On grains lying normal to an optic axis the following measurements were made: 1.545 (+)84 1.550 (+ )85 1.552 1.540 | 1.535 (+)85 (+)75 | (+)80 Variations of the axial angle from +10° to +65° were observed on grains of low refringence (8 < 1.540). That the relation between the refringence and the axial angle in these feldspars is very different from that in the plagioclase series is shown graphically in Fig.1. Since all the potash feldspars and also the nephe- lite are optically negative, they can with certainty be excluded, and thus the only possible explanation again seems to be that these feld- spar-like minerals belong to the anemousite series. TABLE 3.—MopeE Anp Norm OF OLIVINE PACIFICITE FROM KauLa GutcH, Mauna KEA Mode Norm JN Onn ST th he ee ie = 34 | ORs Stee oh ie hie ee ee 5.6 Prraciacse (45 An) | si. ec eee Fe | CADE oe be Oe ooo ae ee 19.9 AMe Potash sf bs%cn eon ee ee 6.1 LEE Crs |p ge ae id ek ae eee Sp Ne. 2 244 DSP De. eee 10.8 treme Bayes 2. dc iiycee hich Oe cla pe 18.9). Dike cco ue gk abored ob etews eee 30.9 Ole on bk dine Se ee neg 17.3 on Eyes cy De Oe ed oy a COMB as cds snk Se ee eee 4.9 Y). a0 ee eee 4.3 A pesee ieee TE Sayan BANE i) Apy .5 ai.) << Sates See ee eee 1.3 The mode and norm of this rock are entered in Table 3. The method of calculation is the same as that which was used for the rock previously described. ‘The figures are in perfect agreement with the microscopic observations. 14 The colorless substance of the ground mass was doubtfully referred to nephelite by WASHINGTON, who remarks that its amount is much less than that of the nephelite in the norm. ~ FEB. 19, 1930 BARTH: PACIFICITE 67 The calculated average composition of the pyroxenes is as follows: DAO OSIO Hee ass ss sane 61 IbfedemochetGa |. te a oe ee PME TING Cater SO8 SW Soya ols... AMEE, Soe ane 4 The calculated average composition of the anemousite is: Ort mnoc Se Pe. es ek I ee ae IG ty id a 9 PIGOS eee Ce heen a «Dee eh ell 54 GA ROTRUGL GTI Fc ie SRC rn eR A spe ne a ee a IB CAME OTOIUC eos See ee Rade MURS ome S oo 8 24 Ba 155 1 5y 153 Fig. 1.—The axial angle plotted against the mean index of refraction for the plagio- clase series and for the series of feldspar-like minerals occurring in the pacificite. The value at 8 = 1.559 is taken from Wright’s (Washington and Wright, Am. Journ. Sci. 29: 52-70. 1910) measurements on anemousite from Linosa. The preceding pages contain all the information on this anemousite feldspar available by analytical and optical methods. Several vain attempts have been made to obtain pure anemousite from the rock for a chemical analysis. But these lavas are too fine grained; very fine 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 4 dust and minute grains and skeletons of ore and pyroxene are mixed with the colorless minerals in such an intricate way that even if the rock is ground down so extensively that the powder sticks together like clay, and all methods of mechanical separation are carried out very slowly, it has been impossible to get even approximately pure material. Of course it is possible to concentrate the colorless minerals, but so much of the dark minerals is always admixed that the calculation of the composition of the colorless phases can never be very accurate, because an estimation of the proportion and nature of the colored contamina- tions in such a finely ground powder would always be a mere guess. If the calculation is based directly on the chemical analysis of the rock, however, both the amount and composition of the colored minerals can be obtained by optical analysis. It is hoped that a study of the system nephelite-albite will throw more light on the nature and properties of anemousite. In connection with such a synthetical study the genesis of the pacificites will also be discussed. I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. H. S. Washington of this Laboratory for the free ‘use I have had of his large rock collection, for his furnishing me with data of the petrology of the Pacific Islands, and for his very welcome criticism of this paper. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 225TH MEETING The 225th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, April 4, 1929. Program: AUSTIN H. Cuarxk of the U. 8. National Museum delivered an illustrated address on Evolution. Any tenable theory accounting for the development of animal forms must take into consideration three distinct, but interrelated, sets of facts. These are: First, indubitable evolutionary lines, such as those found in the horses; second, breaks or gaps in the continuity of these lines, and especially between the lines themselves, as between the cat and the dog lines; third, the fact that all fossils, including the very earliest, fall at once into their respective phyla as the phyla are defined on the basis of the data derived from recent animals alone—in other words that in all geological history there has been no change in the interrelationships between the phyla. Perhaps the term evolution might be so restricted as to cover only development of animal types within the phyla, the word mutations being used to indicate the gaps, and primagenesis might be used to cover the original formation of the phyla by different paths of development from the single cell; the entire concept of the development of animal forms might be called zodgenests. FEB. 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 69 The evolutionary history and present interrelationships of animal types are a reflection of the possibilities for variation afforded in the early stages. These are least in the birds, which form the most unified of.any of the verte- brate groups. Indeed, all of the vertebrates together show scarcely more structural diversity than is seen in certain individual species of insects or crustaceans in the course of their life history. The relationship between man and any one of the apes may be compared to that between the greyhounds and the bull-dogs, which differ physically and mentally both from each other and from the wolf from which they are derived and do not intergrade either with each other or with the wolf. These dogs thus illustrate perfect continuity of descent coupled with abrupt dis- continuity of form and mental attributes. The ancestor of man is not known, but probably was not an ape as we understand that term. (Author’s abstract.) 226TH MEETING The 226th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Friday, May 10, 1929. Program: Epwarp W. Berry of Johns Hopkins University delivered an illustrated address on The history of the Andes. Among the major tectonic features of the earth the Andes are unique in their continuous great elevation over 65 degrees of latitude; in that they overhang a coast with several great deeps near shore; and in that they cross much of the equatorial and south temperate zones and hence lie across the paths of the two most continuous and most important wind systems of our planet—the southern trades and the south temperate westerlies. Nearly all of the apparent anomalies of South American climate are explained by this fact, which is also the clue to the most important method for arriving at the amount and date of uplift of the present mountains. In the central and northern Andes the present coastal region lies in the rain shadow of the moisture-carrying trade winds, gets little moisture from the Pacific because of the cool Humboldt or Peruvian current, and is consequently a desert or semi-desert. In the southern Andes, Patagonia lies in a rain shadow of the moisture-carrying ‘‘roaring forties’’ and is consequently arid. The evidence furnished by late Tertiary fossil plants, which have been col- lected from a great many localities on both sides of the mountains as well as from great elevations within the montane belt, shows that the major elevation did not take place until near the close of the Tertiary period, or slightly later. Traces of wet lowland tropical forests, whose existing relatives are confined to the basin of the Amazon, are found at elevations of from 11000 to 13500 feet along with petrified woods showing no seasonal rings, and similar floras are found fossil in the Peruvian desert. Similarly, fossil floras indicative of a heavy rainfall, and with coal measures, are found not only along the West Coast in southern Chile, but also east of the present mountains in the, at present, arid belt of Argentina. These prove that the amount of vertical elevation since Pliocene time amounted to over 5000 feet as a minimum figure. This is corroborated by the present physiography with its discordant stream profiles, by the great topographic maturity of the more elevated as compared with the less elevated parts of the terrain, by the finding of marine Pliocene fossils in the southern Andes at elevations of over amile, by observed changes in the drainage pattern, and by the distribution of the present life—especially the plants, birds, and freshwater fishes. 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 20, No. 4 The general geologic history of South America was shown to have con- sisted of sedimentation in a series of geosynclines extending approximately north and south, the western margins of these geosynclines lying progressively farther west during the Paleozoic. The major periods of folding, according to our present information, were in supposed pre-Cambrian rocks, in pre- Carboniferous rocks, in the pre-Mesozoic rocks, and in the pre-Cenozoic rocks. Igneous activity appears to have reached a maximum during the Cenozoic, and the major uplift was many millions of years subsequent to the folding of the rocks. The antecedent times when the Andean segment was above sea level were early Cambrian, and earlier, part of the Ordovician, late Devonian and early Carboniferous, during the Permian (maximum earlier emergence) and most of the Triassic. The address was illustrated by diagrams and maps showing the main tectonic lines, the climatic elements, etc., and views illustrating the types of country developed in the various climatic zones and in the rocks of various geological ages. (Author’s abstract.) 227TH MEETING The 227th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on the evening of Tuesday, November 26, 1929. Program: The meeting was devoted to a symposium on The 1929 Scientific Explorations in Alaska. Brief addresses on the various phases of the work were given by ALES Hrpui¢éKa for Anthropology, H. B. Cotuins for Archeol- ogy, R. Y.Sruart and E. E. Carter for Forestry, PHitip Smits for Geology, and W. R. Greae for meteorology. Abstracts of most of these addresses follow: The 1929 anthropological researches of the speaker in Alaska were devoted to the Yukon River, throughout its extent (2300 miles). Their main objects were to secure anthropometric data on the remaining full-blood Indians and Eskimo along the river; to collect whatever older skeletal remains might still be found along the river; and to advance as far as possible our knowledge of the earlier settlements or migrations along the Yukon River. Substantial and interesting progress was made in all these directions, notwithstanding the inclement season. The expedition resulted in the securing of valuable data as well as much of the older skeletal material, and due to good fortune brought also a large series of specimens belonging to the fossil ivory culture of the northwestern Bering Sea and northeastern Asia. (Author’s abstract.) Archeological investigations of the past four years around Bering Strait have revealed the existence of an ancient phase of Eskimo culture more highly developed, especially in regard to art, than any since known to the Arctic regions. This old Bering Sea culture is apparently ancestral to the extinct Thule culture, the most ancient Eskimo culture of the eastern regions. However, there may possibly have been a late return migration which super- imposed certain Thule traits on the older Bering Sea culture. A vague simi- larity in art and other general resemblances in material culture may indicate an ancient connection with the Indians of the Northwest Coast, although this cannot be determined until some knowledge is had of the archeology of the latter region. Therich curvilinear art of the old Bering Sea culture has been traced through a transitional stage, much less elaborate, into the still simpler patterns of the modern Eskimo. The early stages have not been found. Evidence of a direct and indirect nature points to Northeastern Siberia, between the Anadyr and Kolyma Rivers, as the probable place of origin of the old Bering Sea culture. (Author’s abstract.) FEB. 19, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS all There is great need for continued employment within the Territory. The activities there are largely seasonal. The fishing season is quite short and the timber and mining work must be curtailed in the open during the more rigorous months. The largest opportunity for building up a twelve months pay roll seems to lie in the establishment of forest industries in the Territory, such as the pulp and paper industry, which could operate their plants throughout the entire year. There is also a large opportunity open for the development of trade in fur-bearing animals, if the proper protection is given to the range available to them. The need for protection in this respect is much greater in interior Alaska than in southeastern Alaska because the fire hazard is more acute in the interior. (Author’s abstract.) Five projects were undertaken by the Geological Survey, namely, (1) in cooperation with the Forest Service inducing the Navy Department to send a detachment of airplanes to southeastern Alaska to photograph 12,000 square miles for mapping and study and participating in the conduct of the work in the field; (2) a reconnaissance of the Alaska Range at the head of the Copper River valley and extending northward into the Tanana Valley; (3) an ex- ploration of the western slopes of the Alaska Range west of Cook Inlet and north of Lake Clark; (4) a scouting trip into parts of the Yukon-Tanana region of central Alaska, with a view to visiting tracts that had not heretofore been studied and making a comprehensive correlation of the geology of that general region; (5) the installation of a new seismograph at Dutch Harbor, Unalaska Island, and the rehabilitation of the seismograph at Kodiak Island and the placing of observers at each of these stations. In addition, the Geological Survey carried on its usual investigations of the general develop- ment of the mineral resources of the Territory and its technical administra- tive duties relating to the operations under leases and permits granted for mining certain mineral deposits on Government-owned lands. (Auwthor’s abstract.) In 1927 the Alaskan Legislature requested codperation and assistance from the Federal Government in the development of facilities for safe and efficient flying in the Territory. One of the aids specially requested was the organiza- tion of an airways weather service. A definite start to this end was made early in 1929. Fairbanks was chosen as the organization center largely because it is the point from and to which there is the greatest amount of flying. Five substations have been established, at Anchorage, Crooked Creek, Dillingham, Golovin and Ketchikan. These regularly report by Signal Corps radio twice daily, or oftener if necessary, to Fairbanks. In addition, reports are received from twelve other stations which had previously been established. The observations are used not only for the information they give as to current conditions but also as the basis for flying-weather forecasts. In addition, permanent records are kept and these will be used in statistical and other studies of conditions in this region,—one of the most interesting, meteorologically speaking, in the world. (Author’s abstract.) Water D. Lambert, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Geological Society of America, together with its affiliated organizations, the Mineralogical and Paleontological Societies, held their annual meetings from December 26th to 28th in Washington, celebrating the fiftieth anni- 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 4 versary of the creation of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Most of the sessions were held at the Wardman Park Hotel, but some at the National Museum. Thursday evening the retiring President of the Geological Society, Professor HernricH Riks, gave an address entitled Some Problems in the Non-metallics, pointing out how much remains to be learned as to the origin, significance, etc., of many deposits of non-metallic minerals. In all about 125 papers ona wide variety of subjects were presented. A series of five illustrated lectures relating to The evolution and cultural history of mankind is in progress under the auspices of the Anthropological Society of Washington. They are being given in the auditorium of the U. 8. National Museum and are open to the public. Dr. Fay CoorrrR-CoLe spoke on January 7 on The coming of man, and Dr. ALES HrpiicKa on January 21 on The differentiation of man into races and his spread over the earth. The remaining lectures are as follows: February 4, Dr. CLarK WisstER, The culture area; February 18, Dr. Hnerpert J. Sprinpen, The Civilizations of Middle America; March 4, Mr. Neitz M. Jupp, Prehistoric pueblos and cliff- dwellings of the Southwest. Mr. Herpert J. Krrecer, of the National Museum, is continuing field work in Santo Domingo, where he has been carrying on anthropological re- searches during the past two years. Mr. Henry B. CoLuuiins is inspecting excavations at village sites at Vaughan, Miss., where work is being carried on by the University of Mississippi. Mr. Grorces G. AINSLIE, of the Bureau of Entomology, is spending several months at the National Museum in a study of certain groups of moths. Mr. Kurt TricHertT, who has a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship in paleontology for 1930, is studying American Ordovician and Silurian fossils in the National Museum for comparison with those of Europe. Dr. F. DREVERMANN, Director of the Senckenbergische Institution at Frankfort, Germany, recently visited the department of geology of the National Museum to examine methods of preservation and exhibition of collections. The second half-year of the Bureau of Standards Educational Courses has recently begun. In addition to the continuation of most of those announced in This JouRNAL 19: 442, there are to be courses in advanced pas theory and the theory of elasticity given during this period. The second semester of the Department of Agriculture Graduate School has also opened. New courses comprise: Physiology of plant growth and development, Russian for beginners, and business cycles in relation to agri- culture. fee NP EMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES es : Wednesday, February 19. Thursday, February 20. Friday, February 21. a Saturday, February 22. | Wednesday, February 26. Friday, February 28. Saturday, March 1. _ Tuesday, March 4. The Academy The Society of Engineers The Medical Society The Academy The Geographic Society The Biological Society The Geological Society The Medical Society _ The Geographic Society The Philosophical Society The Botanical Society The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Page Geodesy.—The scientific and practical value of triangulation. Witu1am Bowie.. 53 Paleontology.—A Cretaceous pelecypod with color markings. JouNn B. Remsips, JR. 59 Petrography.—Pacificite, an anemousite basalt. Tom. F. W. BARTH............... 60 PROCEEDINGS The AGADEMY .. veevice ccs os cece ne PUREE UC Es at ob soba dea bet. hae .. 68 Scrmentiric NOTES AND NEWS . ..¢ oibga cic we eae ewok snacvank a ca cuepaes aaa 71 This JourNAL is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in public libraries OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Witu1AM Bowte, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckERMAN, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: CHARLES THOM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. < Vou. 20 Marcu 4, 1930 No. 5 fan SON. JOURNAL “e,’% so 4, ze? “= Museum fH OF THE Sashes WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Epear W. Woorarp Epq@ar T. WHERRY C. Wytu: Cooxn @BORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS U. &. GEOLOGICAL BURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. E. Merwin Haroutp Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY . EH. A. GoupMAN G. W. 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Ra *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3. 00. - Special rates are en to members of scientific societies affiliated with the jee: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 20 Marcu 4, 1930 No. 5 GEOPHYSICS.—WNote on a comparison of sunspot numbers, terrestrial magnetic activity, and long wave radio signal strength L. W. Austin, Bureau of Standards. The figure shows a comparison of the monthly averages of sunspot numbers, terrestrial magnetic activity (horizontal range) measured at Cheltenham, Md., and the daytime ratio field strength of signals received in Washington from the trasmitting stations at Bordeaux, France (FYL) (f = 15.9 kc, } = 18900 m,) and at Nauen, Germany (DFW) ( = 23.4 ke, \ = 12800 m). The resemblance of the sunspot curve to the other three is not close, but the similarity in the changes in magnetic activity to those in day- light signal strength seems to be unmistakable. The resemblance of the Bordeaux signal curve to that of the magnetic activity seems closer even than the resemblance between the two signal curves. The deep drop of both the magnetic and signal values in November (more rarely in December) is especially striking. This early winter drop in signals has often been noticed, and in the case of transmission between Europe and America, has been sometimes ascribed to the proximity of the signal path to the area of Arctic darkness. It now appears that this and other seasonal variations both in magnetic activity and East-West long-wave signal strength may be due to common causes. 1 Received January 22, 1930. Publication approved by the Director of the Bureau of Standards. 73 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 5 As NUM BE, MAGNETIC ACTIVITY (HORIZONTAL RANGE) GAAMIAS % Ss) 780 S/G/VAL FIELD STRENGTH ie BORDEAUX (F YL) fi /40r} teal Li /20 | x Q\/00 V y Qq Q 60 S/GNAL = FIELD STRENGTH Ss NAUEN (OF W) \ 50 9 S S 40 ‘h Woh: Spi eet Se Rey Res ee Be Ko eS Ke SR STS SSIS Seyyrs sys sss escn eee 1924 JIZ5 1926 192 1/928 1929 Fig. 1.—Curves of sunspot numbers, magnetic activity, and radio signal strength. BOTANY .—The identity of the South American fish poisons, “cube” and “‘timbé.”! E. P. Kiuurp, U. 8. National Museum, and A. C. SmirH, New York Botanical Garden. Recent investigations by chemists and entomologists, members of the Department of Agriculture staff, and others have shown that the roots of a plant called “‘cube’”’ contain a substance of value as an in- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS 79 secticide.2 The plant was brought to the attention of the Department of Agriculture through the suggestion of William J. Dennis, an Ameri- ean resident in Peru, who obtained a patent (U. S. No. 1,621,240) on its use. The roots first tested came from Huancayo, a city of the high cordillera of Peru; a second lot of roots was obtained later from Iquitos, in the low-lying Amazon region of northeastern Peru. The plant was said to be a shrub about five feet high. Little additional information was available. On a trip of botanical exploration which we have just made into the interior of Peru and across Amazonian Brazil in the interest of the Smithsonian Intitution and the New York Botanical Garden we saw thousands of plants of ‘‘cube’ in cultivation on plantations, and in a wild state in the dense forest occasional plants that appear to be nearly or quite identical. The name cube’ was applied to it in the region about Huancayo and southward. Farther to the north in Peru the plant was referred to locally as “‘cofiapi’”’ or ‘‘pacai,’”’ the most commonly used names, however, being ‘‘barbasco legitimo’”’ or simply “barbasco,”’ which is the general name given to fish poisons in Spanish America. In Brazil the word ‘‘timb0’’ is used for fish poisons in general, the ‘‘bar- basco legitimo’ of Peru becoming “timb6é legitimo.’ In British Guiana cube and other fish poisons are known as “‘haiari;’ in French Guiana the word “‘nicou” is similarly employed. We found that although several kinds of plants were used as fish poisons, such as Cracca toxicaria, Cracca nitens, and one or more species of Clibadium, and in Brazil, certain species of Lonchocarpus, one plant alone (cube) was most commonly cultivated and almost everywhere was said to be the most powerful. Curiously we never discovered this plant in flower or fruit, a circumstance giving rise to interesting speculation. Inasmuch as the roots are dug up at the end of the third or fourth year and we rarely saw individuals that were more than six or seven years old, it is possible that the plant flowers only with age. Or, cultivated for centuries as a fish poison, the present plants may represent a selected strain in which the content of the roots is at a maximum and the production of inflorescence at a minimum state. From the vegetative characters it seems clear that the plant in question is Lonchocarpus nicou (Aubl.) DC., described! by Aublet in 1775 as Robinia nicou from a plant cultivated in French Guiana. 2 See Dept. Agr. Bull. 1201: 6-7, 10-20, 34, 58, 54. 1924; Science 70: 478-479. Nov. 15, 1929. ’ Pronounced coo’bay. Sometimes called cubi (coo’bee). ENING HIGR TANG D. (il. ple ose, Leto. 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 5 Le STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM XPLORATION IN PERU Fig. 1. Lonchocarpus nicou (4 natural size). MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS Cth In shape and size the leaflets correspond almost exactly with those figured by Aublet; in both cases the tips are caudate-acuminate and the bases show variation from subacute to subrotund. Portions of our material were submitted to the British Museum (Natural History) for comparison with the type specimen of Lonchocarpus nicou, and the comparison has confirmed our identification. The striking appressed pubescence noted on the under surface of the leaflets in recent material is matched in the original. Aublet states, moreover, that his plant was used as a fish poison under the name “‘nicou.”’ From our field observations and from study of the herbarium mate- rial collected the species may be described thus: Loncuocarpus Nicovu (Aubl.) DC. Prodr. 2: 261. 1825. Robinia nicou Aubl. Pl. Guian. Franc. 771, pl. 308. 1775. Shrub or small tree, up to 3 meters high,® with a main stem 4 to 8 cm. in diameter, with branches borne near summit, the trunk and the branches becoming scandent with age, the trunk sometimes climbing upon nearby shrubs or trees often to a height of 10 meters; leaves alternate, odd-pinnate, the base of rachis and petiolules thickened, the leaflets opposite (2 to 4, usually 3, pairs), oblong, occasionally lance-oblong or oblanceolate-oblong, 12 to 25 cm. long, 4 to 10 cm. wide (average size about 17 x 8 cm., extremes up to 35 cm. long, 17 cm. wide), caudate-acuminate at apex (tip averaging 2 em. long), subacute to subrotund at base, entire, coriaceous or subcoriaceous, above dark green, sublustrous, and essentially glabrous, beneath paler, sometimes glaucescent, usually densely covered with straight appressed reddish- or golden-brown hairs,* pinnate-nerved, the midnerve sometimes impressed above, prominent beneath, the lateral nerves 7 to 10 to a side, ascending, arcuate toward margin, the venation closely reticulate. Aublet describes the inflorescence as: “Calix; perianthium monophyllum, turbinatum, quinquedentatum. Co- rolla, papilionacea, purpurea, vexillo amplo, erecto. Pericarpium; legumen longum, acutum, gibbosum, glabrum, rufescens, uniloculare, bivalve. Semina tria aut quatuor, subrotunda, compressa, marginibus valvarum affixa,.”’ The type specimen was collected in a clearing above the home of M. Budet, at Orapu, French Guiana. Specimens examined :’ > Our notes show the following variation of the height with age: Plants 1 year old, 0.75-1.3 meters; plants 2 years old, 1-1.3 meters; plants 4 years old but recently cut back, 1-1.7 meters; plants 2 years old, 1-1.7 meters; plants 2 to 3 years old, 2.5-3 meters; plants 3 years old, 3.7 meters; plant 2 years old, 2.2 meters high, the main stem bending toward a tree and climbing up its trunk to a height of about 8 meters. 6 In the case of forest plants and those in overgrown abandoned plantations, the in- dument was invariably paler and less dense, owing presumably to the greater amount of shade. 7 Unless otherwise stated the collections here cited are of cultivated plants collected by the writers. \ 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 Peru: Dept. Ayacucho: Kimpitiriki,s Rio Apurimac, 400 meters, nos. 22913, 23053. Dept. Junin: Near La Merced, 1300 meters, no. 23878; Santa Rosa, on Pichis Trail, 650 meters, no. 26200; Puerto Yessup, 400 meters, no. 26369; Puerto Bermudez, 375 meters, nos. 26490, 26597, 26612; El Trionfo, on Rio Pichis, 350 meters, no. 26692; Cahuapanas, on Rio Pichis, 340 meters, no. 26712. Dept. Loreto: Puerto Leguia, 290 meters, no. 27504; Masisea, 275 meters, no. 26837; Iquitos, 100 meters, nos. 26886, 26893, 26895, 26945, 27096, 27135, 27159, 27278, 27362, 27369, 27380, 27487; Mishuyacu, near Iquitos, nos. 29917, 29957; Pefia Blanca, on Rio Itaya, near Iquitos, 110 meters, no. 29668; Yurimaguas, lower Rio Huallaga, 135 meters, nos. 27565, 27566, 27994, 27997, 28211, 28812, 29061, 29066; Balsapuerto,135-350 meters, nos. 28158, 28255, 28300, 28325 (wild), 28458, 28586 (wild), 28621 (wild); Lower Rio Marafion, 150 meters nos. 29279, 29280; mouth of Rio Santiago, Tessmann 4447 (in Berlin herbarium; fragment U.S. N. M.). Fig. 2. Plants of Lonchocarpus nicou. Fig. 3. Lonchocarpus floribundus. Braziu: State of, Amazonas: Mandos, 25 meters, no. 30026, 30038, 30137, 30177 (apparently wild). State of Pard: Gurupa, lower Rio Amazon, no. 30608 (apparently wild); Breves, Amazon Estuary, no. 30576; Para, no. oe State of Matto Grosso: Santa Izabel, F. Lima (Herb. Mus. Goeldi 10863). British Guiana: Demerara, Parker (in Kew herbarium). 8 At this locality alone the name ‘“‘cube de almidén’’ was sometimes used, ‘‘almi- dén’’ meaning starch. MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS 79 From this list it may be seen that we found the plant most exten- sively cultivated in the region about Iquitos (100 meters altitude). Many of the plantations contained several thousand trees. Yurima- guas, on the Huallaga River, a few miles above its mouth, is also a center of cultivation. Doubtless this is also the plant used by the natives of eastern Ecuador. Our stops in Brazil were few, but we found Lonchocarpus nicou, both in the forest and in cultivation, at Mandos and Gurupd, and in cultivation at Paré. In material recently lent us through the courtesy of the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, there is a specimen of a cultivated fish poison from Demerara, British Guiana, that clearly is Lonchocarpus nicou. A more-detailed account of South American fish poisons, including descriptions of the native method of use, is in preparation for future publication. At present it seems advisable to mention two other plants, the roots of which serve for poisoning fish. Along the south bank of the Rio Negro above Mandos we found a large plantation of a second species of Lonchocarpus, L. floribundus (Killip & Smith 30041). This was a low shrub, 1 to 1.5 meters high, in fine flower and fruit. ‘The roots were of a softer, more porous tex- ture than those of Lonchocarpus nicou, but were said to be quite as effective as a fish poison. Samples of these are being analyzed. At Gurupa, a settlement on the lower Amazon River at the mouth of the Rio Xingt, several plants of ‘a third species of Lonchocarpus were obtained, the roots of which were reported as a fish poison even more effective than Lonchocarpus nicou, which also is grown in that vicinity. This exceptionally powerful plant had been identified? by Dr. Adolfo Ducke, the Director of the Museu Nacional of Rio de Janeiro as Lonchocarpus nicou. Although at the time of our visit, Nov- ember, the plant was neither in flower nor in fruit, excellent flowering and fruiting material has generously been deposited in the U. S. National Herbarium by Dr. Ducke. Comparison of this with Aub- let’s description and illustration of Lonchocarpus nicou leads us to the conclusion that it represents a distinct species. In this Gurupa plant the leaflets have short tips, not over 1 cm. long, and the fruit is broadly ovate to oblong-ovate; whereas, as already noted, the leaflets of Lonchocarpus nicou are long-acuminate (tip 2 to 4 em. long) and the fruit, as shown in Aublet’s illustration, is linear-oblong. The Gurup4 plant may be known as: * Archiv. Jard. Bot. Rio de Janeiro 4: 88, 89, 139. 1925. 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 Fig. 4. Lonchocarpus urucu (type specimen, 3 natural size). MARCH 4, 1930 KILLIP AND SMITH: FISH POISONS 81 Lonchocarpus urucu Killip & Smith, sp. nov. Robust, much-branched shrub, the upper branches slightly scandent, the bark of the larger branches grayish, that of the smaller branches brown, lenticellate, and usually puberulous; leaves 5- to 9-foliolate, the rachis sub- terete, longitudinally striate, 12 to 25 cm. long (leaves of scandent portions much smaller), puberulous with dark brown or grayish, often gland-tipped hairs, the base (about 1 cm.) very fleshy; petiolules fleshy, sparingly puberu- lous; leaflets broadly ovate, obovate, or oblong, 10 to 17 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. wide, abruptly short-acuminate at apex (tip 5 to 10 mm. long), rounded at base, pinnate-nerved (nerves prominent beneath and covered beneath with a dark brown or blackish indument, the midnerve impresed above, the sec- ondary nerves 9 or 10 to a side, ascending, arcuate toward margin), thick- coriaceous, essentially glabrous and lustrous above, appressed-hirtellous with reddish-brown hairs beneath; racemes axillary, 3 or 4 borne near the ends of stout branchlets 8 to 18 em. long, the rachis 10 to 20 em. long, rufo-sericeo- tomentose; flowers in short-peduncled, closely approximate fascicles, the pedicels about 3 mm. long, densely rufo-sericeo-tomentose; bractlets orbicu- lar-ovate, 0.7 to 1 mm. long, acute; calyx cylindric-campanulate, 4 to 5 mm. long, 2 to 2.5 mm. in diameter, densely rufo-sericeous, 5-toothed, the teeth triangular, 2 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at base, the two vexillar teeth connate into a broad lobe 5 mm. wide at base; petals reddish violet, pubescent without (especially distally), with short, appressed, pale hairs, the wings and carinal petals conspicuously ciliate at apex; standard suborbicular, bilobulate at apex, rounded at base to a narrow claw 3 mm. long, the blade about 10 mm. long, 12 mm. wide; wings obovate-oblique, rounded at apex, tapering at base to a narrow claw about 4 mm. long, the biade 9 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; carinal petals falcate, auriculate, obtuse, the claw 4 mm. long, the blade 9 mm. long, 5 mm. wide; staminal tube glabrous, slightly dilated at base, the filaments about 13 mm. long, free for the ultimate 3 mm.; ovary sessile, linear, minutely pale-puberulous, 4-ovuled; style about 7 mm. long, glabrous or slightly pubescent, arcuate; stigma capitellate, slightly broader than the slender tip of the style; legume broadly ovate to oblong-ovate, 4 to 9 cm. long, 2.5 to 3 em. wide, rounded or subacute at apex, subacute or bluntly acuminate at base, strongly flattened, minutely hirtellous with subappressed hairs, 1- (rarely 2 or 3) seeded, the vexillar margin faintly ridged, the carinal margin rounded; seeds cochleate-reniform, about 2 cm. long, 2 em. wide, dark brown. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,040,936, from a plant culti- vated at Gurup4, State of Para, Brazil, September 29, 1916, A. Ducke (Museu Goeldi no. 16561, flowering specimen). Description of the fruit is based on a specimen collected by Dr. Ducke at the same locality in November, 1923 (Jardin Botanico Rio de Janeiro no. 11708; U. S. National Herbarium no. 1,442,506). Represented also by Killip & Smith 30585, from the same locality. The name “‘timbo uructwi”’ is given this plant by the natives because of the reddish indument of the inflorescence. 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 ZOOLOGY .—A new raccoon from Lower California. E. W. NELSON and E. A. GotpMAN, Biological Survey. Study of the raccoons of Lower California has indicated differential characters for a hitherto unrecognized subspecies inhabiting the south- ern half of the peninsula. The new form may be described as follows: Procyon lotor grinnelli,? subsp. nov. Lower California Raccoon Type-—From La Paz, Lower California, Mexico. No. 147181, @ adult, U.S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by Nelson and Goldman, February 15, 1906. Original number 19139. | General characters.—A large, pale subspecies with a rather broad, high, evenly arched skull. Similar to Procyon lotor pallidus but slightly darker and cranial characters, especially the more evenly arched profile of skull, distinctive. Compared with Procyon lotor psora, general color paler, more grayish, less deeply suffused with buff, the long black guard hairs over dor- sum less in evidence; top of head grayer, less heavily mixed with black; black areas at posterior base of ears smaller; skull with frontal region more highly arched. Color.—Type: Upper parts in general coarsely grizzled iron grayish, the median dorsal area faintly suffused with pale buff, becoming pronounced on back of neck, rather thinly overlaid with black; top of head gray, mixed with black, producing a grizzled effect; face with solid black mask and white markings usual in the group; under parts in general overlaid with very pale buffy grayish, the brown undertone showing through; throat patch blackish; ears grayish, with rather small black patches at posterior base; limbs about. like under parts, but becoming whitish on feet; hind limbs with a small, pure brownish area on outer side near heel; tail with the usual annulations and black tip, the light rings pale cream buff and the narrower dark rings (six in this specimen, varying to seven in others) consisting of black-tipped hairs with an underlying buffy suffusion; dark rings less evident on under side of tail and scarcely complete, tending to fade out on median line, except two near tip. Skull.—Similar to that of P. l. pallidus, but braincase and interorbital region broader; frontals rising higher anteriorly, the upper outline a more evenly convex curve (anterior frontal outline descending in a more nearly straight line from apex immediately behind postorbital processes in pallidus); dentition about the same. Compared with that of P. 1. psora the skull is less flattened, the frontal region more highly arched; braincase rather broad and other cranial details much as in psora. Measurements.—Type: Total length, 913 mm; tail vertebrae, 335; hind foot, 132. Skull (type): Greatest length, 122.1; condylobasal length, 115.5; zygomatic breadth, 77.9; interorbital breadth, 24.3; least width of palatal shelf (between last molars and interpterygoid fossa), 16.7; upper canine- molariform toothrow (alveolar length), 44.1. 1 Received January 27, 1930. 2 Named for Dr. Josep GRINNELL, Director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, in recognition of his extensive contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of Lower California. MARCH 4, 1930 SHAMEL: OPOSSUM FROM ARGENTINA 83 Remarks.—Two subspecies of raccoons enter northern Lower California. These are Procyon lotor pallidus Merriam, of the Colorado desert in the north- eastern part of the peninsula, and the animal described by Mearns as Procyon lotor californicus from the ocean beach near the last Mexican boundary monument, San Diego County, in the southwestern corner of California. The latter inhabits the comparatively humid northwest coast region of Lower California south to San Quentin. Some specimens from near the type locality of calzfornicus suggest gradation toward pallidus, but general com- parisons indicate that calzfornicus can not satisfactorily be separated from P. l. psora Gray, from Sacramento, California. Raccoons are dependent upon water for existence, and owing to exceed- ingly arid conditions in the central section of Lower California their general range is interrupted for considerable distances. ‘The form here described, occupying the southern half of the peninsula differs rather markedly in com- bination of characters from both of the more northern subspecies. It re- quires no very close comparison with P. 1. mexicanus of the adjacent main- land of Mexico, which in general, is paler, with the black postauricular spots obsolescent, and skull notably depressed in frontal region. Specimens examined.—Kight, all from Lower California, as follows: La Paz (type locality), 2; Mount Miraflores, 1; San Ignacio, 5. ZOOLOGY .—A new murine opossum from Argentina.: H. Haroup SHAMEL, U. 8S. National Museum. (Communicated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.) In 1920, Dr. A. Wetmore visited southern South America in the interests of the United States Biological Survey to make a study of the present status of northern migratory birds, particularly shore birds, which winter in the southern portion of the southern’ hemis- phere. While engaged in this work he incidentally made a collection of 120 mammals, which is now in the U. 8. National Museum. In this collection I have found a small opposum new to science. | Marmosa muscula sp. nov. Type.—Adult male skin and skull, No. 286330 U. S. National Museum, collected by Dr. A. Wetmore in Formosa, Kilometro 182 (Central Formosa), Argentina, August 9, 1920. Diagnosis.—A very small member of the genus, the smallest so far known, distinguished by its mouse-like coloration and its comparatively short tail. Color.—This little animal is brownish in general tone of color. The hairs everywhere dark slate for the greater part of their length, this area followed by a subapical ring of colonial buff (Ridgway 1912). On the back the ends of the hairs are tipped with mars brown (Ridgway 1912), which gives to the 1 Received January 28, 1930. 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 5 back a mixed buff and brown appearance, neither element strongly pre- dominating. On the sides the buff is nearly clear and the dark tips are few and inconspicuous. Underparts clear colonial buff, the dark bases of the hairs showing through inconspicuously. ‘There is a dark-brown eye ring, also a dark streak from the corner of the eye to the nose. Cheeks, sides of head, and shoulders are reddish brown, which changes into buff on the sides of the body. ‘The tail is dark brown above, much paler below. Skull.—In the skull the sides of the frontals are expanded, but unridged; in the interorbital region this swelling extends well down into the orbit; nasals pointed at juncture with the frontals, a portion of frontal coming down wedge fashion between them; the premolars are spaced closely together, all touching, the second (pm?) being longer than the first or third. Measurements.—T ype: Total length, 123; tail, 55; foot, 11; ear (moistened) from crown, 9; total length of skull, 21.5; condylobasal length, 19.6; zygoma- tic width, 11.5; interorbital width, 3.5; length of nasals, 8.5; width of brain- case, 8.5: maxillary tooth row (including incisor), 8.2; mandibular tooth row, 8.5; height of mandible, 6.5. Remarks.—Marmosa muscula is next smaller than M. bruchi in general size, but the pale color and much longer tail (89.0 mm) of the latter will readily separate them. It is very mouse-like in appearance and even smaller than some specimens of Mus muscula in this collection from Buenos Aires, thus representing one of the smallest marsupials known. This specimen was examined by Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum of Natural His- tory who said, ‘“The Marmosa is a very distinct little species, quite unlike anything I have seen, , , M. bruchi has a white belly and the body mark- ing of the M. marmota group.”’ PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 737TH MEETING The 737th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 19, 1929, with President WETMorE in the chair and 55 persons present. The President announced the membership of the standing committees of the Society as follows: Committee on Communications: W. B. BEL, Chairman, V. Battey, W. H. Wuitst, Lewis Rapcurre, W. R. Maxon, W. L. Scumitt; Committee on Zoological Nomenclature: G. S. Mrusr, Jr., Chairman, A. C. Baker, Paut Bartscu, E. A. Cuapin, H. C. OBERHOLSER; Committee on Publications: Cuas. W. Ricumonp, Chairman, J. H. Ritey, F. C. Lincoun, W. H. Wuite. A. WETMORE announced that the Pinchot expedition to the South Seas, although its collections have been received only in part as yet, has already sent a dozen forms of birds new to the National Museum. Program: J. M. Aupricu: Notes on the life zones of northern Europe (illustrated).—The speaker collected flies at Aare, Sweden, last July, and while there ascended the mountain called Aareskutan, just back of the hamlet. The railroad station beside the river has an altitude of about 1500 feet, while the summit of the mountain reaches about 5000 feet. The first 500 MARCH 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY 85 feet of ascent is in spruce forests, corresponding to the Canadian Zone in North America. The spruces end abruptly and are succeeded by a narrower zone of birches, perhaps 300 feet in vertical width; these begin with a few large, scattered, old trees, changing into smaller and more crowded growth, then into dwarfed forms. All tree growth ends within 1000 feet elevation above the river. The birch zone is thought to represent the Hudsonian of North America; the rest of the mountain above is Arctic. (Author’s abstract.) HERBERT FRIEDMANN: Parasitism in birds (illustrated).—Parasitic breed- ing habits are found in five groups of birds—the cowbirds, cuckoos, honey- guides, weaver-birds, and ducks. The habit must have arisen independently in each, and the causative factors were probably different in the different groups. The cowbirds are the only group in which all the species have been studied and the evidence put together into a coherent story. The most primitive cowbird, the bay-winged cowbird of Argentina, is not parasitic but uses other birds’ nests in preference to building for itself. The others are all parasitic. The results of a careful survey of the habits of all of them show that the immediate case of the parasitic habit was the loss of the territorial protecting instincts of the male, leaving the female in a condi- tion where it lays eggs in nests which it has not built, and with no great desire to protect them once they are laid. (Auwthor’s abstract.) 738TH MEETING The 738th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 2, 1929, with President WrTmMorE in the chair and 100 persons present. S. F. Buake reported that a freshly dead specimen of Solitary Vireo was found in Clarendon, Virginia, by H. A. ALLARD on November 1, 1929. I. Horrman stated that C. F. Drenty, who has a pheasantry near Washing- ton, had succeeded during the past summer in raising three Elliott Pheasants, the first to be grown in this country. He also raised about 16 other species of pheasant. Program: A. H. Howe: Recent notes on birds and mammals of the Ever- glades (illustrated).—The speaker described the bird and mammal fauna of the southern tip of the Florida peninsula, illustrating his talk with specimens and slides. He prefaced his remarks by a description of the topography and plant life of the region, showing that the flora of the hammocks along the southeast and southwest coasts and in the Cape Sable region is composed mainly of tropical trees and shrubs of West Indian origin. The insect and land snail faunas are likewise considered by those who have studied them to have been derived in large part from the West Indies. . Only about 6 species of birds of this region, however, are of tropical origin, these being confined mainly to the Florida Keys and to the mangrove forests on the coast of the mainland. There are no terrestrial mammals of tropical affinities found in Florida, the only tropical species being the manatee. A number of specimens of the rarer birds of the region were exhibited and suggestions made regarding the need for more rigid protection of certain disappearing species. (Author’s abstract.) HK. F. Cor, Chairman Tropic Everglades Park Association: America’s own tropics (illustrated).—The speaker, after referring to the rapid destruction of wild habitats by man, made an eloquent plea for the preservation of about 2500 square miles of the Cape Sable region of southern Florida, which is still in a practically unspoiled condition and which represents practically the only tropical habitat in the United States. The talk was illustrated by numerous colored slides showing scenery and plant and animal life. 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 739TH MEETING The 739th meeting was held November 19, 1929, with Vice-President JACKSON in the chair and 35 persons present. New members elected: CLARENCE CoTttTaM, BENJAMIN MILLER. S. F. Bake reported the observation on October 20, of what seemed to be a contest between two female English sparrows for possession of a birdbox. The birds fought vigorously inside the box, while a male sparrow perched nearby without taking part in the quarrel. Program: L. V. CoteMANn, American Association of Museums: Museums in South America.—The speaker described his recent trip to South America for the purpose of visiting the principal museums there. Besides mentioning the museums visited, he gave many interesting side lights on the countries and people visited. C. W. Stites: Proposals Submitted as Amendments to International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature.—The speaker presented a paper summarizing the propositions which have been submitted to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature as amendments to the International Rules. With each proposition, he discussed the theoretical background. A brief summary of the proposed amendments will appear in Entomological News, December, 1929. S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. 740TH MEETING The 740th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 30, 1929, with President WETMORE in the chair and 44 persons present. New member elected: J. W. BULGER. FRANK THONE called attention to several recent biological publications. A. WETMORE commented on birds new to the National Museum collections received from the Pinchot South Sea Expedition. Pau B. JOHNSON gave a brief review of the life and work of the Rev. FrANcIS TonporF of Georgetown University, a distinguished seismologist . and biologist. VERNON Baitey called attention to the fact that the natural food supply of squirrels is scanty this year and urged that steps be taken to provide food forthem. E. P. WALKER suggested a series of letters to newspapers to keep this need before the public. P. B. JoHNson reported seeing a black squirrel captured by a red-tailed hawk in the Zoological Park. A. WETMORE reported the capture of sharp-tailed sparrows at Ocean City, Maryland, last year, as well as the recent capture of two more specimens, one at Ocean City, the other at Cornfield Harbor, Maryland. Program: E. R. Katmpacu: Notes on waterfowl sickness in 1929 (illus- trated).—In 1914, 1915, and 1916, Dr. ALExANDER WETMORE made a study of the malady that had killed many thousands of ducks at Great Salt Lake, Utah. Certain soluble salts in the “‘alkali,’”’ prevalent in the shallow waters and on the mud flats of that area, were found to be the causative agents. Since that time “‘duck sickness’ has been noted in many other areas, some of which are quite different in character from the Great Salt Lake region. Although alkali in some form is almost always present at the scene of such outbreaks, its chemical composition varies greatly, and in some instances, “duck sickness”’ has occurred in areas in which the salts found to be the cause at Great Salt Lake are comparatively rare. MARCH 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 87 A study of this ‘‘disease’’ was resumed during the past season in the general vicinity of Klamath Falls, Oregon, where a number of bodies of water fur- nished varied environments in which the sickness occurred. In discussing this work the speaker pointed out some of the unsolved aspects of the trouble, the progress that had been made, and explained that the study would be con- tinued next season. (Author’s abstract.) REMINGTON KutLtoca: The migration of whales (illustrated).—See Smithsonian TES Report 1928: 467. 1929. W.B. Betu, Recording Secretary pro tem. T41ST MEETING 741st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 14, 1929, with President WETMORE in the chair and 120 persons present. New members elected: HERBERT FRIEDMANN, F. A. WARREN. President Wetmore was nominated to represent the Biological Society on the council of the Washington Academy of Sciences. C. W. Stiuus discussed the nomenclature of the South American fox-tailed wolves. Program: O. J. Muri: Elk studies in the Jackson Hole region (illustrated). The elk is largely a grazing animal but also utilizes browse to a considerable extent. In some of the so-called waste-land on the winter range are found certain shrubby plants which are very palatable for elk and help to augment the winter food supply. One of the most important phases of the study is the question of disease. Squirreltail grass in the hay and perhaps other rough feed produce abrasions in the mouth of the elk, resulting in an infection with necrotic stomatitis. This causes an annual loss of elk which can perhaps be remedied by suppression of squirreltail hay and scattering the herds. Condi- tions on the summer range are very favorable for the elk. (Author’s abstract.) The speaker also showed motion pichaues of elk, moose, and other wild animals of Jackson Hole region. Discussed by V. Battry, who stated that he considered the ‘“‘fluting”’ of the elk to be a sort of song: by M. C. Hatt who considered that ticks and scabies are probably of real importance under wild conditions, but that inter- nal parasites are scarcely so; also by L.O. Howarp, C. W. Stites, W. B. BELL, and EK. A. GOLDMAN. Maurice C. Hau: Parasites of elk and other wild ruminants.—The para- sites of wild ruminants are of interest in connection with their actual or potential transfer from these ruminants to domesticated livestock, especially sheep, goats and cattle, and as forms which have transferred from domesti- cated livestock to wild ruminants. The evidence available points definitely to certain parasitic species as having made these transfers. Thus the common sheep stomach worm, Haemonchus contortus, has been found in at least 10 species of wild ruminants in North America, whereas such species as Ostertagia bullosa, first found in sheep and later in the pronghorn antelope, and Cooperia bzsonzs, first found in the bison and later in domesticated cattle, are evidently normal parasites of wild ruminants transferring to domesticated ruminants. The common sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, has been found occasionally in wild ruminants, while the large liver fluke, Fasciola magna, normally a parasite of American deer, has become a rather common parasite of cattle in some areas. The fringed tapeworm, Thysanosoma actinioides, is evidently a normal parasite of American wild ruminants which has become accustomed to sheep as hosts. 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 5 Another feature of interest is the fact that parasites in unusual hosts may behave differently from the way they behave in their usual hosts. Thus Fasciola magna forms large cysts in the liver of cattle, apparently with no communication to the exterior whereby the eggs could leave the host and con- tinue the life cycle; little is known about this parasite in its deer hosts, but the present assumption is that it occurs in the bile ducts and thus is able to complete its life cycle in the usual way. The fringed tapeworm has been reported regularly from the small intestine of deer hosts, except in one instance where the writer found it in the fourth stomach of an elk, the worm being coiled in a ball with the head at the center, but in sheep the worm is frequently present in the bile ducts. The question as to what can be done to control parasites in wild ruminants presents several rather interesting and difficult problems. It is probable that these problems will increase in importance as wild animals are confined in smaller areas with a resultant concentration of parasitic infection. (Auwthor’s abstract.) S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Louis A. Bauer, Director of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington since the establishment of the Department on April 1, 1904, retired from this position on January 1, 1930, with the title of Director Emeritus. Provision is also made whereby if his health permit he may carry on studies during the coming year as a Research Associate of the Institution. Mr. Jon A. FLEMING, associated with Dr. Bauer as chief assistant in the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism since 1904, as Assistant Director for observational and administrative work during 1922 and 1923, and as Assistant Director in charge of operations since 1924, continues in charge of the work of the Department with the title of Acting Director. @bituary Dr. WiLu1AM ALLEN OrTOoN, Director and General Manager of the Tropical Plant Research Foundation, and a member of the AcaDEmy, died on January 7, 1930. He was born at North Fairfax, Vermont, February 28th, 1877, and studied at the University of that state, receiving the degrees of B.S. in 1897 and M.S., in 1898; and in 1915, the honorary degree of Sc.D. After spending two years as Assistant Botanist at the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, he was appointed as Plant Pathologist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, where he remained until 1924, holding important positions including that of vice-chairman of the Federal Horticultural Board for 12 years. In 1924 he resigned from the government service to take up the position he held until the time of his death. For some years he was also Chairman of the Committee on Tropica] Research of the National Research Council. He was a member or fellow of numerous scientific societies, serving as President of the Phytopathological Society in 1927. Besides being an eminent authority on plant diseases and quarantines, he made a study of diets adapted to use in diabetes, a disease from which he suffered for many years, and which finally led to his death in his 53rd year. e : OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES — ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS Tuesday, March 4 The Botanical Society Wednesday, March 5 The Engineering Society ee The Medical Society Thursday, March 6 The Entomological Society Friday, March 7 The Geographic Society Saturday, March8 — The Biological Society Tuesday, March 11 The Electrical Engineering Society Wednesday, March 12 The Geological Society | The Medical Society Thursday, March 13 ‘The Chemical Society Friday, March 14 The Geographic Society Boe eeearay; March 15 The Helminthological Society aia The Philosophical Society | Tuesday, March 18 ‘The Anthropological Society Bee Se The Historical Society GEES Wednesdey, March 19 The Engineering Society Fe The Medical Society ae we The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. ‘ Pecdent: Wituiam Bowtie, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Corresponding Secretary; L. B. TucKERMAN, Bureau of Standards. Recording Secretary: CaarLes THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. ee conte Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ORIGINAL PAPERS | ‘ Geophysics.—Note on a comparison of sunspot nemieee ke ix aS 3 tivity, and long wave radio signal strength. L. W. AusTIN..... a : Botany.—The identity of the South American fish poisons, “cube” j E. P. Kruure and A. C. Sarre. <0... ssa ogee eee ‘ Zoology.—A new raccoon from Lower California. E,W. Nuwson | and Zoology.—A new murine opossum from “Argentina. foo 3 : PROCEEDINGS * * oes ’ ‘ F . ae The Biological Society... ccsevecesereeecesececereesnetesssereeean, Screntiric Norges AND Wabi ea se Sk _ ©. Wire Cooxe -§. 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Gee wield x cmt ian kate Nia e ich aot tg a t Remiitances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Scien _ addressed to the Treasurer, H. G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washing Exchanges.—The JouRNAL does not exchange with other publications. rs Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided ey cae within thirty days after date of the nae ir issue. “ioe i * *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will te sent for $3.00. Special rates. are given to members of scientific sotieties affiliated with the is emy ' % Mine hin JOURNAL OF THE a WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 20 Marcus 19, 1930 No. 6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the stratigraphic features of the “‘Upper” Everglades and correlation with environmental changes.1. ALFRED P. DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, U. 8S. Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. INTRODUCTION In the following an account is given of the structural features of the Upper Everglades secured through a method of field work described elsewhere (5). The profile studies were made in the hope of deter- mining the origin and past history of this vast area of sedge peatland, probably one of the largest sub-tropical low moors in the world. The material was for the greater part collected in the winter months of 1920, 1928, and 1929. The field work in 1920 was made possible by the codperation and aid of G. V. Scott, engineer in charge of the Ever- glades State Drainage District, in whose company the more inacces- sible parts of the Everglades were sounded. In 1928 and 1929 the studies in the field have been supported by codperation from the Agri- cultural Experiment Station of the University of Florida. Their prose- cution was greatly facilitated by R. V. Allison of the Everglades Experiment Station at Belle Glade. The horizontal and vertical con- trol data and lines of elevation above sea level are due to assistance in 1929 from engineers of the State Drainage District. The writer wishes to convey his sense of deep obligation to Dr. Wilmon Newell, Dean and Director of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations, to Dr. R. VY. Allison, and to Mr. G. V. Scott for the special facilities provided for studying in detail many parts of the Everglades. 1 Received February 3, 1930. 89 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 “eplopy ‘ovo wed qSoOM ‘JOLIISIC, OSVUIBIC, 0} BIG SOPB[GIOAY OY} JO UOISIAIP Sul1o90UISuO oY} Aq porvdoig ‘§Z6T JO ADAANS ooURSSTBUUODII oy} Aq pol0A0d BpPILOL] JO Sope[si0Ay oY} UT SSurpunos o[yoid yeoed jo sioquinu puB UOT}ROOT SuTMoYysS deyy—'T] “317 ST7/bV OML = HOM! FINO DIIb+0IsS £2L-62-7 $Z-OZ- vr &F-SZ-7 eee —_—_——_ hee pot Rice A 1 / \y Be GU Be 4 % a & ut ONY 75/ owreh ) N 8 a) VOL LLY Q 8 MARCH 19, 1980 | DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 91 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING THE STUDY OF EVERGLADES PEAT PROFILES The present paper does not pretend to reconstruct conditions in all parts of this region but aims to present briefly the profile record of the Everglades south of Lake Okeechobee and a consideration of the con- sequences of changes in water level and shore lines. The profiles used are representative of a much larger number ob- tained by the writer. The locations of the profiles along the several lines of traverse are indicated on the map Fig. 1 and the general rela- tions of the peat layers to each other and to the configuration of the bedrock are shown in Figs. 2 to 7. The large number of soundings plotted to scale has made it possible to check the several layers of the SR) RR 8a 8 EB se066 Pear Eh SEOIMENTARE PLAT Fig. 2.—Peat profiles from Lake Okeechobee at Canal Point, Florida, northwest to southeast along the West Palm Beach canal, showing rock-bottom topography and dia- grammatic details of the structural features of the Everglades. Surface variations are due to shrinkage, compression, and fires following drainage. Numbers at top of sec- tions and distance apart between cross-sections correspond to locations shown on map of Fig. 1. Elevations are based on one common geodetic datum of sea level. stratigraphic sections. The data from excavations made along the face of canals and from pits dug in differently situated parts of the same region show excellent correspondences wherever the exact location above sea level of the respective layers was determined. In Fig. 2 are reproduced in graphic form the results of soundings made with an American peat-sampling instrument. ‘The cross sec- tions illustrate a transect profile running from Lake Okeechobee at Canal Point southeastward along the West Palm Beach Canal to the eastern border of the Everglades. The contour of the bedrock of lime- stone is well shown and it is evident, despite the decrease in number of soundings going eastward, that the structural features of the profiles show marked uniformity. The same conclusion applies to the profiles 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 in Figs. 3 to 5 which were taken parallel to the Hillsboro, North New River, and Miami canals. In the profile transect of Fig. 7 which combines the results of soundings along canals of two subdivisions of ; § Sd bs xe 18 I g : " ® 748 q /e ~ Ny $s — = xh wF /é- 4 = = = SE 15+ > == 1S /#> § PS = Sf =|= 72 == 42 / = = un 70 = V2) 2 NE : a 3 ‘hg Fig. 3.—Peat profiles extending from Lake Okeechobee northwest to southeast across the Everglades along the Hillsboro canal, showing form of the bedrock contour and the sequence of the major layers of peat, the character of which was influenced by changes of water level and shore lines. Locations of cross-sections are given on the accompany- ing map in fig. 1. 9 * a ‘a y 4 /7 ne a 16 = = +16 /s = = 1s /4 = “t /s = “3 la = “2 “/ = 4/4 10 = lo 9 = 9 8 = 8 7 7 Fig. 4.—Cross-sections along the North New River canal showing rock-bottom con- figuration, contrasts in the sequence of peat layers, and transition of stratigraphic fea- tures from Lake Okeechobee to Okeelanta and southward. Changes in water level and shore line are recorded by the character and succession of the major layers of peat. Number and location of each profile are shown on the map of fig. 1. the Drainage District, the sudden apparent greater simplicity of profiles near the western as well as the eastern border (Fig. 2), where they merge into higher land commonly called the rim of the Ever- glades, is particularly noticeable. MARCH 19, 1930 |= DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 93 Before drainage began the Everglades presented the appearance of a broad, level, grass-covered prairie, sloping gently toward the south at the rate of about three inches per mile. Extensive drainage opera- tions have caused, however, compression of the canalward edge of the Everglades, often changing the characteristic position above sea level of the main layers of peat. ‘The profile sections along the south shore of Lake Okeechobee and the canals of the Everglades, it will be noted, show the discrepancy due to settling from drainage and the differences in the surface contour which now conform partly with the bedrock topography, but are chiefly the result of fires and oxidation. A striking and important feature of the Everglades is the raised form of the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee. In cross section the sur- face forms a curve, abrupt at the margin of the lake, sloping gently southward from twenty-one feet just south of Lake Okeechobee to about six feet above sea level west of Miami. ‘This slope is shown in the profile diagrams (Figs. 2 to 7) and on the charts of the main canals which accompany the reports to Congress of the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture (7) and of the Florida Everglades Engineering Commission (8). The cause of the raised and convex form of many peat deposits and the presence of lakes and ponds on them has received frequent con- sideration. It is well known, for example, that Sphagnum mosses and marsh vegetation by their growth and the clogging up of drainage channels, raise the water level to considerable heights. The high- moors in Maine and in Europe, with ponds of standing water on the elevated surface, the presence of Lake Drummond within the Dismal Swamp near Norfolk, Va., and the ponded water of the present Lake Okeechobee are examples of such results. The interlacing net-work of roots and rhizomes from sedges and herbaceous perennials, constantly compacting under the increasing weight of accumulating plant remains, greatly hinders water from flowing out of the matted and felty-fibrous mass of peat to a lower level. Periodically changing in height under wet years and shrinking in drier times, the formation of areas of raised peat is generally attained best in humid climatic belts where the supply of water is abundant for the growth, of native vegetation and where layers of peat, more or less impervious, impound drainage water at varying elevations. Lake Okeechobee represents the height at which a layer of dense, finely divided sedimentary peat, superimposed upon a basal layer of fibrous sedge peat can pond a large body of water at the margin in a hydrostatic condition. Prior to drainage operations 94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 the lake did not rise to a higher stage than 223 feet because the lake overflowed its banks along the entire south shore. During prolonged periods of rainfall a sheet of water covered large portions of the Ever- glades, retarded in its movement by the dense growth of the saw-grass and the buoyancy of the water-soaked fibrous peat. For the attempt to reconstruct from the profile soundings some of the important physical conditions which prevailed in the past of the Everglades, the clue is taken in the succession of peat layers from the basejof the bedrock upward. Peat-profile studies carried out with uniform methods, as described by Lundquist (12), correlate and har- 9d % ) /9 i 9) > N SEB N y = /7 = = /é = = = 5 = Jt 13 /2 YW /O 3 8 Fig. 5.—Peat-profile traverse along the Miami canal, showing bedrock topography and cross-sections through the Everglades from north to south. The locations of the peat profiles are given on the map in fig. 1. monize results and increase greatly the knowiedge of past vegetations and the growth of plants. Series of peat profiles furnish not only the best material for historical studies regarding the character of the ancient vegetation, but they serve also as a record for the study of changes in environment. The general profile studies of the Florida Everglades furnish independent evidence and confirm the same con- clusion. The position of peat layers above sea level at one locality with the position of similar layers at other localities identifies them as the record of the same period and conditions. The profiles record without doubt geologically recent changes in the water level and shore line of Lake Okeechobee. : MARCH 19, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 95 LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF TYPE PEAT PROFILES It may at first thought appear undesirable to use the detailed field records available for representative type profiles. But in order that the reader may judge conclusions with a fuller knowledge of the nature of the evidence available, it is believed that the original data for at least three peat-profile soundings may be pertinent in connec- tion with later discussions of the origin and history of the Florida Everglades. A description is given, in the following, of the profile sections which were measured on the banks of the West Palm Beach Canal. The sequence of peat layers obtained along this canal affords as good a basis as any from the other main diagonal canals, of inferring the en- vironmental conditions which prevailed during the deposition of the chief layers of peat. 1. Lake Okeechobee Area F-29-33. At the lake shore, 300 feet north of the U. 8S. Sugar Cane Breeding Station at Canal Point, northeast of the entrance to West Palm Beach Canal. Elevation of ground surface and water in the lake 15.5 feet and of bedrock 2.9 feet above sea level. 1. Black, compact, sticky, wet sedimentary peat, sandy at the surface with thin band of shells (species of Planorbis and Physa) at 16 to 17 inches below the surface. Based upon sea level measurements the marly material appears to be identical with that in a profile sounding 2,000 feet from Lake Okeechobee, on the south side of the ridge of dune-like sand which borders the shore of the lake. The sedimentary material is finely divided, dense, and more or less colloidal between the 2 and 3-foot level below the surface; at the 4-foot level are 6 to 8 inches of brown, fibrous, laminated, compressed sedge peat mottled with yellowish, flattened rootstocks from Pontederia and other herbaceous plants. Below this continues to the 54-foot level a very dark brown to black sticky sedimentary peat. 2. Dark brown partly sedimentary and fibrous sedge peat, stringy from coarse rhizomes of Cladium and Scirpus; the material is reddish-brown, moist, fibrous-matted, and poorly decomposed sedge peat at the 7-foot level below the surface; it gives off a fairly strong odor of hydrogen sulphide. Marsh gas is escaping in slight amounts. Between the levels of 7 and 9 feet from the surface the layer shows two to three alternating bands of dark brown sedimentary-fibrous sedge peat fol- lowed by reddish-brown poorly decomposed saw-grass peat. The limits of the bands are indistinct. Below the 9-foot level the sedge peat is predomi- nantly reddish to yellow-brown, coarse, partly decomposed, matted to felty fibered and chiefly the network of roots of Cladium with culms of grass-like plants. The material is porous, spongy, and wet, and has a distinct odor of hydrogen sulphide. 96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 At the 12-foot level appears a grayish oozy shell and Chara marl with the remains of roots and rhizomes from sedges. The marl varies in purity and thickness; it becomes cream-colored toward the bottom and rests on bedrock of white limestone. MUM ~ 23 47 TN A228 - 3.3 Sawa “29 5 7 onal ~~. ———3 ——— ae ——a _--. -_-— _— ~ -— ate ee - —_-+-— to _-_ —_—_— ewe —_-— ime se ~. eo ~. Fig. 6.—Peat profiles in a traverse from west to east across the Everglades along the Bolles canal, showing the development of peat layers by marsh and aquatic groups of vegetation in response to changes of water level and shore lines. A. Miami canal to Hillsboro canal. B. Cross-State Road canal from Hillsboro canal to West Palm Beach canal. Location of sections shown on map of fig. 1. Essentially the same structural features were observed more typi- cally in the peat sections on Torry Island in Lake Okeechobee, and in belts of different width bordering the lake shore at the Hillsboro, North New River, and Miami canals. The Okeechobee peat profiles are a typically two-layered series. MARCH 19, 1930 §DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 97 2. Upper Everglades Area F-20-13. Opposite Lateral A, about 10 miles southeast of Lake Okeechobee and 50 feet west of West Palm Beach Canal on Conners highway. The section was first measured in 1920 when saw-grass vegetation and a high water table extended on all sides to the horizon line, relieved in a few places by clumps of low shrubs. The surface elevation at present is 15.10 feet, lower by 11 to 13 inches than formerly, due partly to fires and drainage. The bedrock stands at 7.3 feet and the water level in the canal is at 12.85 feet above sea level. The record below refers to the field notes of 1920. 1. Dark brown, wet, fibrous matted sedge peat, darkened by fires in the upper two inches, ‘contains charred debris; scattered over the surface are thin lenses of small pond snails, plants of Chara sp., and small calcareous pellets of blue-green algae. This is followed by brown fibrous crumbly saw-grass peat, mottled with dark-brown, finely-divided debris; between the 12 and 18- inch level below the surface the sedge peat is coarser, ‘reddish to yellow-brown and more firmly matted. 2. Blackish-brown sedimentary-fibrous peat approximately 8 to 10 inches in thickness; dense, sticky, plastic and rather impermeable at the lower level, the fibrous components are more abundant at the limits of the layer. 3. Reddish-brown, felty-fibrous, matted sedge peat from about 38 to 50 inches below the surface; the material is firm, tough-fibered and has a moder- ately strong odor of hydrogen sulphide; at depths of 50 to 74 inches occur al- ternating bands of dark-colored sedimentary and fibrous mixtures followed by reddish to yellowish-brown, poorly decomposed, felty-fibrous sedge peat; the limits of the bands are indistinct and the upper one appears to separate into two thinner bands. This is followed by reddish to yellowish-brown fibrous moist saw-grass peat, spongy, poorly decomposed, odorous, in a compressed condition at the lower level; contains spicules of fresh-water sponges at the bottom and rootstocks of water-arum with needle-like raphides. Odor of hydrogen sulphide fairly strong below. At depth of 96 to 102 inches is found a grayish-white soft marl with rootlets of sedges, oozelike on bedrock. The individual measurements, which were made in dugout pits and excavations along the main canals in addition to the soundings with the peat sampling device, show excellent agreement with each other. The Everglades series of profiles is distributed over a very large por- tion of the interior. The peat profiles are uniformly three-layered. 3. Marginal Area of the Upper Everglades F-29-43. Approximately 22 miles southeast of Lake Okeechobee, along West Palm Beach canal, and 150 feet from north side of highway. Large areas in this neighborhood have been burned over severely. It was formerly a border zone of shrubs such as wax myrtle, swamp bay, magnolia, willow and a Baccharis. Wooded islands or hammocks 98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 of cypress (Taxodium distichum) occur from 2 to 4 miles farther east, invading the saw-grass. Surface elevation 15.1 feet, bedrock elevation 8.1 feet above sea level. Water level in canal at 11.49 feet. © 1. Thin horizon of charred granular debris, chiefly from saw-grass peat, with yellow ash. Below it the plant remains consist of poorly decomposed brown, coarse-fibered roots and rhizomes from saw-grass and unidentifiable grasses and sedges. The material is very compact and firm near the surface but porous, moist, and felty at the lower level. Toward the bottom, about 36 to 60 inches below the surface, the layer shows a scattered admixture of her- baceous plant remains and includes lenses of sand probably of windblown origin. Elongated veins contain black finely divided material, and rest on ZA S W ZO bs . 9 8 7 S 61 Fig. 7.—Peat profiles of belts extending from sand bars, bordering the margins of the Everglades, toward the Miami canal, and showing variations in the sequence of peat layers near the eastern and western end of the drainage canals. Locations of profile sections are indicated on the map of fig. 1. gray sand with rootlets of sedges at the contact; the underlying sand rests on bedrock of porous limestone. The peat profiles of the Ridge series are typically one-layered units, relatively young, and not of very extensive occurrence. They are abundantly distributed over the eastern and western border of the Everglades and occur also in some of the sedge marshes of the east and west coast. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS DURING THE FORMATION OF THE EVERGLADES From the sequence of the peat layers in the profile sections described above it is not difficult to reconstruct the history of the “Upper” Everglades. MARCH 19, 19830 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 99 It may be inferred from the conditions summarized by Sanford (13) that the lowest coastal plain, the Pensacola terrace within which the Everglades are included, was formed during comparatively recent Pleistocene time. Following an uplift of the mainland, the Kissim- mee River and its tributaries flowed southeastward through a broad flat valley cut mainly in the bedrock of limestone. It was during this period of erosion that the major features of the present rock-floor configuration with its irregular and jagged ridges, deep fissures, hol- lows, and scattered Keys were produced. Hills of sand were deposited, probably by a southward drift along the outcrop of bedrock around the border of the Everglades, and widespread beach sands, driven inland through the central part of the plain, assumed their present form. Concerning the geographic extent of the emergence, which may have been intermittent, there is still some doubt. The details that connect the geographic character of the country with its Pleistocene geology and with other natural features, are emphasized in the publications of the Federal Government (2, 7, 8), and the reports of the Florida State Geological Survey (10), the State Drainage District (6) and the State Agricultural Experiment Station (1). The events which are primarily responsible for the history of the “Upper” Everglades may be set forth as follows: Subsequent to the period of erosion a change came in the relative level of land and water. The change brought the surface of the bed- rock of the Everglades to or near its present level, and, where formerly there was an effective drainage, now shallow waters occupied small blocked depressions, hollows, and potholes in the rock. Aquatic vegetation began to invade the ponds and deeper axes of the drainage-valley bottoms where the bedrock sloped off more steeply. Reference to Forsaith’s (9) microscopic and comparative studies of the plant remains in the lakes and ponds of Florida shows the charac- ter of most of this type of vegetation. Submerged aquatics were represented by cosmopolitan but essentially northern species com- prising Vallisneria, Navas, Potamogeton, Utricularia and others; the floating aquatics included Nymphaea, and possibly Pistia and Piaropus, with detached masses of Scirpus scattered along the shores. - Large mats of Chara and blue-green algae together with numerous water snails and bivalves which fed on submerged roots and stems, yielded gray limey oozes and shell marl. Bordering them, a fairly uniform saw-grass marsh, very much as to- day, with gras8es, sedges, ferns, and herbaceous semi-aquatics having 100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 fleshy rcotstocks, slowly encroached upon the exposed rocky floor. Many northern species, both of plants and animals, had extended their range southward to this region or were represented in the sedge marsh by varieties which take the place of northern types. They spread over sands and muddy oozes, and covered wide expanses of bedrock including large areas now occupied by the present Lake Okeechobee. Fig. 8.—Upper portion of a profile section in a lateral canal showing on the face of the bank a surface horizon of saw-grass muck (the residue derived from decomposition of saw-grass peat) and a dark band of sedimentary-fibrous sedge peat between layers of brown fibrous saw-grass peat. Photographed by R. V. Allison, March 29, 1929. Brown fibrous sedge peat, spongy and watersoaked, formed a continu- ous layer over the limestone. The fact that no true sedimentary layer of peat is discovered at the bottom of most of the soundings is sufficient proof that at no time during this early period of peat formation did the general water level occupy a high elevation or was it rising rapidly enough to destroy the growth of the saw-grass and initiate the accumu- lation of a different type of peat on the rock floor of the Everglades. MARCH 19, 1930 | DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 101 The effect of sand blown from dunes upon the marsh is shown in the extremely sandy peat material encountered in those soundings which are nearest the peat-covered dunes and bars. That the rock floor of this region was not occupied at first by an inland sea or body of open water as Matson (13) and Harshberger (11) contend, is evidenced by F-29-33 which recapitulates the general history of Ritta and Torry islands in that lake (3). The profiles in Figs. 2 to 7 also present features incompatible with the interpretation of them as products of a basin-like depression or of the filling up of an inland lake; they are too strongly suggestive of their autochthonous origin. The east-west profiles along the Bolles Canal and its extension eastward to the West Palm Beach Canal (Fig. 6A and 6B) serve as a useful check since in places they cross certain of the significant profiles of the main diagonal canals and confirm the developmental features shown on the northwest-southeast series of transects. The origin of Lake Okeechobee did not take place until a later period. It came into existence probably through springs or the effects of subterranean drainage and solution. The dense growth of sedges and their matted network of roots and rhizomes held back the water of heavy rainfalls and at first a chain of narrow lakes was probably ponded off between Kreamer and Ritta islands (Fig. 1). The exact position of the original series of lakes between the islands is not yet known. On the north side of Lake Okeechobee floodwaters from the mouth of the Kissim- mee River carried in suspension mineral material and deposited silt and sand over the bedrock bottom. ‘This deposition may have pro- ceeded for a considerable length of time, but the mineral sediments do not appear to be very thick. In contrast to this the evidence col- lected from profile soundings on the south side of the lake and in the Everglades proper indicates the presence of a basal layer of fibrous sedge peat. Minor overflows occurred from time to time, causing the water to encroach over the saw-grass marsh of that period and to per- sist for moderately long intervals. The admixtures of sedimentary peat, aquatic in origin, found embedded in the brown fibrous sedge peat at various levels, obviously are equivalent to the amount and length of overflow submergence. LHspecially at depths represented by tide elevations of 7 and 11 feet above sea level (Fig. 2), quantities of sedimentary material embedded in poorly decomposed sedge peat, differing in morphological characteristics from plant remains above and below these levels, must be credited to the agency of fluctuating water levels. The formation and deposition of both organic and silty 102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 material at the higher levels are proof of the existence of initial shore lines of a temporary lake, and an indication that a change to higher water levels had affected the region. Subsequent to the minor overflows, and as the water level fell, saw- grass vegetation again advanced northward beyond the present shore line of Lake Okeechobee. The plants continued to build up an accu- mulation of sedge peat, holding water to surface level by capillarity. In addition to the saw grass, Cladiwm effusum (Mariscus jamaicensis), the most common component of the fibrous peat layer, the plant re- mains denote the presence of species of Rhynchospora, Panicum, Andro- pogon, ferns such as Osmunda regalis, Acrosticum sp., and herbaceous plants as elements of the ancient marsh community. The only species found as seemingly pure bands of peat are Peltandra with Sagittaria and Pontederia which occupied ancient lagoons and sloughs. The water appears to have oozed slowly southward, on the east side toward the southeast and on the west side toward the southwest. The most extensive submergence by overflow, greatest in amount of sedimentary peat deposition and bringing the layer farthest out over the interior of the Everglades region, occurred later. All the measurements strongly affirm the interpretation that a rapid change due to the release of large masses of water marks the period when the accu- mulation of fibrous sedge peat had reached elevations between 12 and 13 feet above sea level. In its inundated condition the region was covered with water, probably to a foot or more in depth, fluctuating in level from time to time but enduring for a relatively long period. Both the upper and lower edges of the sedimentary peat of that time are rather sharply demarked, and the continuity of the layer is traceable the entire distance from Kreamer Island in Lake Okeechobee to a line north of the Tamiami Trail, between Miami and the west coast, where the layer has the form of thin projecting lobes. A preliminary study of the plant remains seems to indicate a general and great change in surface vegetation. The whole aspect of the peat profiles is such as to justify the assump- tion of fluctuating and long-standing high water conditions. But the factors are yet to be determined that caused the water level to rise and stand. The problem is exceedingly complex since some of the factors such as bedrock topography, rainfall, evaporation, run-off, and perco- lation in the Everglades are not well understood. The underground water supply through porous or probably cavernous limestone is also an unknown and vitally important factor which will require study and observation. MARCH 19, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 103 When the waters again fell and withdrew to a lower level, the present Lake Okeechobee came into existence. Lowering of the water table exposed a narrow zone of sedimentary mud flats on the south shore of the lake, and was accompanied by the rapid invasion of deciduous broad-leaved trees and shrubs. A dense growth of custard apple trees (Anona glabra) became dominant and formed a forest in which other tree-like vegetation was scant. Many of the older trees had enlarged bases induced by the influence. of submergence in water. The location and width of the ‘‘custard-apple belt,’’ previous to its destruction coincident with drainage and cultural operations, are shown on the phytogeographic map published by Harshberger (11). A comparison of the peat profiles in the “‘custard-apple belt’’ between the shore of the Lake and the interior of the Everglades suggests more differences than correspondences in the upper and recent layer of peat. The disagreement, however, is essentially due to fluctuation in water level. Woody peat is lacking entirely. Readvances of the shore line are marked by readvances in aquatic vegetation and corresponding deposition of sedimentary peat; periods, short in duration, of lower water supply are correlated by the development of saw-grass vegeta- tion and herbaceous plants which were favored and pushed forward over the exposed mudflats. Some of the bands of shell marl below laminated, platy, yellowish-brown, fibrous peat derived from Pon- tederia and semiaquatic members of the Naiadales and Arales surely record a wide re-entrance of saw-grass vegetation over sedimentary peat, and a corresponding drainage of the lake and of the Everglades. The extent and the number of oscillations in water level seem to have been small, for the bands are disturbed and alternate irregularly at several localities. Although thin layers of fibrous and herbaceous sedge peat extend beyond the present lake margin, they have only moderate thickness and indicate effects of an unstable shore line. This supposition is strongly supported also by the fact that in the interior of the Everglades and in the bays of Lake Okeechobee the correspond- ing layers of sedge peat record more uniform conditions. As already noted in another connection (4) they suggest that during the last few thousand years there has been no major differential submergence and no appreciable change in the relative positions of water level. The evidence indicates that custard-apple hammocks established them- selves only recently upon the mud flats along Lake Okeechobee, and the record of the peat profiles leads toward the conclusion of an essen- tially stable coastal plain in historic time. 104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 A ridge of fine silicious sand occupies the northeast and east shores of Lake Okeechobee. The sand ridge at Canal Point is about six feet high, varies in width from about 25 to 200 feet and rests on sedimen- tary peat along the entire southeastern shore of the lake. Prior to drainage operations it was clothed with bald cypress (Taxodium disti- chum), maple (Acer carolinianum), ash (Fraxinus caroliniana), holly (Ilex cassine), strangling fig (Ficus aurea), palmetto (Sabal palmetto), many shrubs, and herbaceous undergrowth; the stand was almost im- penetrable in many places. These low dune-like ridges and mounds of sand are not directly related to the present shore line, although they occur near the shore of Lake Okeechobee and are not found in- land on the saw-grass peat of the Everglades. From their position they may be in part the work of winds and in part due to wave action, particularly southward-setting currents; they were probably formed more or less recently, but at a time when water level conditions favored sand drift. The present vegetation of the Everglades has been described in great detail by Harshberger (11). Consultation of the phytogeographic map which accompanies his monograph will show the limits of the saw-grass vegetation and diverse plant communities, but not of the actual accu- mulation of saw-grass peat. Harper (10) has listed the constituent plants of the principal types of vegetation and has given many sources of information in his bibliography. To complete the picture it is necessary to keep in mind that broad-leaved shrubs and trees belong- ing to types essentially southern in range and characteristic of the belt of cypress-tupelo-red gum swamps have been invading the Everglades only recently. As yet layers of woody peat derived from them are lacking. In the interior of the Everglades are scattered hammocks or islands of hardwood trees and shrubs with vines, ferns, and epiphytes. Where fires do not suppress it, this group of vegeta- tion is displacing the saw-grass more or less rapidly. In a not-distant future hammock vegetation will be typical where the saw-grass is still in evidence. CONCLUSIONS AND NEW PROBLEMS In the present paper the primary object has been to treat in a pre- liminary fashion the general origin and nature of the upper portion of that large stretch of sedge moor, the Everglades of Florida, one of the largest subtropical peat areas in the world, extending from Lake Okee- chobee to the Gulf of Mexico. MARCH 19, 1930 | DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 105 Three distinct but genetically related series of peat profiles are pointed out. (1) the area of profiles in and bordering Lake Okee- chobee; (2) the area of profiles in the main interior portion of the Ever- glades; (3) the area of peat profiles bordering the highland. ‘The general relations of these three series of profiles to each other are shown dia- grammatically in Figs. 2 to 7. The morphological features and bo- tanical composition which characterize representative soundings of each of these series of profiles have been described and the effects of oscillations of water level upon the stratigraphic origin and form of the profiles were considered. It is concluded that the salient features of the Everglades do not find an explanation in the geologic structure, or in the configuration of the bedrock as an inland lake; the peat profiles show a remarkable dependence upon inundations and oscillations of water level and corresponding changes in shore line during a time rela- tively recent. The Upper Everglades of Florida present the aspects of a eutrophic sedge moor characterized by series of one-, two-, and three-layered telmatogenic profiles. A number of special problems possess more than ordinary interest. It is in the wide bearing not only on practical agriculture but also on fields of science, particularly Pleistocene geology, geography, botany, climatology and even archaeology that their scientific value and im- portance are to be found. If a sufficient number of profile measurements can be secured to- gether with their elevations above sea level, the successive positions of ancient Lake Okeechobee, the several stages and forms of the re- ceding and advancing shore line can be mapped. It is hoped that such a valuable list of accurate measurements as that obtained through the cooperation with the Everglades State Drainage office will be made for a large number of points along lines of traverse in an east-west and north-south direction. They have a high scientific and practical value. There is a scarcity of trustworthy data for solving certain difficult problems in regional peat investigations, or on which to base reliable estimates of the rate and amount of shrinkage and decomposi- tion of peat deposits under different climatic conditions and agricultural practices. | A closer treatment requires also biochemical analyses of the profile series, including the mechanical and chemical character of both the shore peat (littoral gyttja) and lake peat (limnic gyttja) as geographical types of sedimentary peat. Of considerable interest should be de- tailed quantitative and stratigraphic studies of pollen and other plant remains in the succession of peat layers. 106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 It would be pertinent also to inquire into the causes of the inunda- tions to which the region has been subject and which determined the primary characteristics of the Everglades peat soils. Determination of the extent, number, and duration of the overflows and changes in water level, the amount of fall and rise recorded by the peat profiles, should be of great interest in problems connected with the control of intermittent, impounded surface waters. The factors that caused longstanding high-water-level conditions and changes in the shore of Lake Okeechobee are yet to be determined. The theory of relatively recent oscillations of the coast, involving both emergence and subsid- ence of the Floridian mainland, is apparently disproved by the character of the Everglades peat layers and the absence of tidal-marsh peat. An estimate of the length of time required for the formation of this interesting peat region with its flooded and ponded lake and shifting, complicated shore lines should be another aim in studies like this, especially if correlated with contemporaneous periods in the ice retreat in North America. Correlation tables already published (8) are only a beginning of the task of constructing a continuous record. The complexity and difficulty of the whole problem of possible changes of level requires contributions from different aspects, and the light of fuller knowledge than now at our command. Particular attention should be given to comparisons with northern coastal regions serving to clarify the relationship between stratigraphic features and environ- mental changes. Studies to correlate the effects of drainage and of special chemical salts, applied to promote the growth of crops, are under way on fields representing each profile series.- REFERENCES (1) Auuison, R. V., Bryan, O. C., and Hunter, J. H. The stimulation of plant re- sponse on the raw peat soils of the Florida Everglades through the use of copper sul- phate and other chemicals. Univ. Florida Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 190. 1927. (2) Batpwin, M. and Hawker, H.W. Soil Survey of the Fort Lauderdale area, Florida. Field Operations, U. S. Bureau of Soils, 1919. (3) Dacunowsk1, A. P. The correlation of time units and climatic changes in peat de- posits of the United States and Europe. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 8: 225-231. 1922. (4) Dacanowsk1-StToxgs, A. P., and Atuison, R. V. A preliminary note on blue-green algal marl in southern Florida in relation to the problem of coastal subsidence. This JouRNAL 18: 476-480. 1928. (5) Dacunowski-Stoxss, A. P. The botanical composition and morphological features of ‘“‘highmoor’’ peat profiles in Maine. Soil Sci. 27: 379-388. 1929. (6) Extiot, F. C. Bienn. Rept. Everglades Drainage District, Tallahassee, Florida. 1925-1926. MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 107 (7) Everglades of Florida. U.S. Senate Doc. 89, 62nd Congress, 1st Session, Washing- ten. DCs. Ott: (8) Florida Everglades: U.S. Senate Doc. 379, 63d Congress, 2nd Session, Washington, D.C. 1914. (9) Forsaitu, C. C. Report on some allocthonous peat deposite of Florida. Bot. Gaz. 62: 32-52, 1916, 63: 190-208. 1917. (10) Harper, R. M. Natural resources of Southern Florida. Eighteenth Ann. Rep. Fla. State Geol. Survey, 27-206. 1927. (11) Harsupercer, J. W. The vegetation of South Florida, south of 27°30’ north, exclu- sive of the Florida Keys. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 7: 49-189. 1914. (12) Lunpauist, G. Methoden zur Untersuchung der Entwicklungsgeschichte der Seen. Abderhalden’s Handbuch der biologischen Arbeitsmethoden. Abt. 9, T. 2, (fig. 173), 427-462. 1925. (13) Matson, G. C., and Sanrorp, S., Geology and ground waters of Florida. U.S. Geol. Survey, Water Supply Paper 319. 1913. ZOOLOGY.—Descriptions of two new amphipod crustaceans (Tali- tridae) from the United States.1 CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, United States National Museum. (Communicated by Mary J. RATHBUN.) While sorting a small collection of crustacea which was sent to the U. 8. National Museum for identification by the U. 8. Biological Sur- vey in May, 1929, I noticed a species of Orchestia which was new to science. The specimens, one male and two females, were collected by Mr. F. M. Uhler, and in answer to my inquiry as to the exact locality, he says in his letter, ‘“The specimens were taken on the north side of a small lake or pond located on the northwest side of Lake Monroe, and were found under a board on a rather sandy gently sloping margin, 2—4 yards from the water’s edge. This spot apparently is in Volusia County, Florida, very close to the Seminole County line, and Sanford is the nearest town of any importance. This pond is located about 1-14 miles from the bridge across the outlet of Lake Monroe, and is separated from the lake only by a strip of semi-dry marsh covered with vegetation. The water of the pond is supplied by a large sulphur spring, a sulphurous artesian well, and by high water from the main body of Lake Monroe. Lake Monroe is merely a broadened portion of the St. Johns’ River, and although the water apparently is fresh, it contains such marine vertebrates as the sting ray (Dasyatis sabina) which frequently enters fresh water.” I have designated this new species Orchestia uhleri in honor of its discoverer. 1 Received February 7, 1930. 108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 In 1905, Dr. James E. Benedict took some specimens of an Orches- tordea at Pacific Grove, California, which upon examination proved to be a new species. Mr. E. M. Chase collected further examples of this species on April 27, 1918 at Anaheim Bay, Seal Beach, California. Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, during his investigations of spiny lobsters, procured additional material from kelp hold-fasts on the beach at La Jolla, California. Mr. Frank F. Gander has presented the National Museum with specimens which he took in 1927 at San Diego, California. Mr. Gander states that he took this species both in the littoral marine and at Balboa Park, which affords another example of a member of the family Talvtridae extending from the coast to a considerable distance inland. This species I have named Orchestoidea benedictt in honor of its discoverer. Orchestia uhleri, n. sp. Figures 1 and 2 Type-locality—Near Lake Monroe, Volusia County, Florida, collected by F. M. Uhler, March 22, 1928; 1 male holotype (Cat. No. 62956, U.S. N. M.). Male.—Kyes black, round, and of moderate size. Antenna 1 extending slightly beyond the fourth joint of antenna 2, flagellum composed of four joints and slightly longer than peduncle. Antenna 2 very nearly as long as the head and first four body segments, fourth joint of peduncle about three- fourths the length of fifth, flagellum composed of thirteen joints and as long as the fourth and fifth joints of peduncle combined. Mandible, cutting edge rather narrow and oblique and armed with two large and three smaller teeth, secondary plate well developed, two stout plumose spines and one or two smaller ones in spine-row, molar large and strong, bearing many trans- verse ridges on its slightly concave surface, and having at its base near the spine-row a dense brush of plumose setae. Maxilla 1, inner plate long and narrow and bearing on its distal end three plumose spines, outer plate bearing 9 serrate spine-teeth, palp very small with second joint about one-third the length of first. Maxilla 2, inner plate very nearly as long as outer and bearing on its obliquely truncated extremity many plumose spines and setae, outer plate evenly rounded distally and bearing many curved spines. Maxil- lipeds, inner plates reaching very nearly to the end of the first joint of palp, broadened distally, and bearing four short spine-teeth on their truncated ends, outer plates short and broad, reaching about one-third the distance along the second joint of palp, palp very short and broad, all the joints being wider than long. Lower-lip about normal. Gnathopod 1, side-plate very slightly concave in front and evenly rounded below, fourth joint with shallow lobe on lower margin, fifth with prominent lobe on lower margin, sixth joint about two-thirds the length of fifth, lower margin produced distally into a soft tumid lobe, palm short, transverse and armed with a row of long slender spines, seventh joint as long as palm, bearing about one-third the distance from the apex several slender setae, and armed on inner edge with three short blunt spines. Gnathopod 2 large and powerful, second joint four-fifths as MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 109 Fig. 1.—Orchestia uhleri, new species. Male, a, Entire animal. 6, Right mandible. c, Maxilla 1. d, Maxilla 2. e, Maxillipeds. jf, Maxilliped with palp flattened out to show entire width of joints. g, Lower lip. h, Gnathopod 1. 7, End of sixth joint and seventh joint of gnathopod 2, enlarged. 110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 long as sixth, produced at the lower anterior corner into a rounding lobe, third joint produced anteriorly into a prominent rounding lobe, sixth joint over half as wide as long, narrowing distally, with upper margin convex, and the entire lower margin which is about straight forming the palm, two rounding protu- berances on palm adjacent to the hinge of seventh joint, palm armed on distal two-thirds with short spines which are more thickly clustered on the protuber- ances, seventh joint very long and curving inward toward the end, greatly overlapping palm and when closed against palm the apex extending nearly to the upper margin of fourth joint, a large tooth or protuberance on inner sur- face fitting between those of the palm. Peraeopods 1 and 2 about normal except that the seventh joints are rather small. Peraeopods 3 to 5 increas- ing consecutively in length and having all joints normally expanded. Uropod 1 projecting farther backward than uropod 2 which projects considerably farther than uropod 3. Uropod 1 with peduncle slightly longer than the rami which are very nearly equal in length. Uropod 2 with peduncle equal in length to outer ramus which is a little shorter than the inner. Uropod 3 with peduncle and ramus nearly equal in length, ramus about three times longer than wide, bearing four long spines on outer margin and a cluster of three spines on apex. Telson a little longer than wide, with the slightly concave sides converging toward the apex which is divided into two shallow lobes by a slight central notch, two long spines on each lateral margin, two extending backward from each lobe, and two shorter spines on upper surface near apex. Length.— Male, 14.5 mm.; female, smaller. Gnathopod 1 of the female is very distinctly subchelate, the palm being slightly oblique and armed near the defining angle with a row of five or six long slender spines, and the seventh joint bearing near its apex several setae and on inside margin two short blunt spines. Gnathopod 2 of female with second joint moderately expanded, sixth joint produced considerably beyond the very short seventh joint into an evenly rounded soft tumid lobe. Although the genus Orchestia is mostly confined to marine beaches, a number of its members, in widely separated parts of the earth, are known to occur in moist earth and amongst decaying vegetation, at considerable dis- tances from the coast and at times at elevations of 2000 to 3000 feet. Fritz Miller described a species (O. darwiniz) from Brazil, of which he says, ‘“The animal lives in marshy places in the vicinity of the sea, under decaying leaves, in the loose earth which the marsh crabs throw up around the en- trance to their burrows, and even under dry cow dung and horse dung. If this species removes to a greater distance from the shore than the majority of its congeners, its male differs still more from all known species by the powerful chelae of the second pair of feet.’””’ The present record, I believe, is the first of the occurrence of this genus in North America at any locality removed from the coast, Lake Monroe being twenty miles from the nearest point on the east coast of Florida and about 120 miles from the sea by way of the St. Johns River. MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 111 Fig. 2.—Orchestia uhleri, new species. a, Gnathopod 1, female. 6, Gnathopod 2, female. c, Palm of sixth joint and seventh joint of gnathopod 2 of male, enlarged. d, Right mandible, enlarged. e, Telson and third uropods, male. 112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 Orchestoidea benedicti, n. sp. Figure 3 Type-locality—San Diego, California (littoral marine), collected by Frank F. Gander, April, 1927; 1 male holotype (Cat. No. 62962, U.S.N.M.). Male.—Head about as long as first thoracic segment, eye of medium size, very nearly circular, black and composed of many small elements. Antenna 1 scarcely reaching to the middle of fourth joint of antenna 2, flagellum half the length of peduncle and composed of four joints the last of which is very small. Antenna 2 very short and stout, fourth joint about twice as long as wide, fifth joint twice as long as fourth and only four times as long as wide, flagel- lum a little over half as long as fifth peduncular joint, first four joints of flagellum coalesced forming one long joint about equal in length to the re- maining seven. Mandible, cutting edge with three large stout teeth and three or four smaller ones, secondary plate well-developed, four plumose spines, two of which are larger than the others, in spine-row, molar well- developed, and bearing a brush of plumose setae at base. Maxilla 1, inner plate long and slender and bearing two plumose spines on apex, outer plate longer than inner and bearing nine serrate spine-teeth on the obliquely trun- cated end, palp very small consisting of a slender basal joint and a very minute terminal joint. Maxilla 2, inner plate narrower and slightly shorter than outer, distal end very obliquely truncated and bearing a long plumose seta at lower obtuse angle, outer plate evenly rounded distally and armed with many long curved spines. Maxillipeds, inner plates long and slender, | reaching to or a little beyond the middle of the outer plate, and armed on the transversely truncated end with three short spine-teeth and row of plumose setae, outer plate small and short, reaching to about the middle of the second joint of palp, the rounding apex bearing several plumose setae, and the inner edge bearing a row of closely set short spines, palm short and broad, the inner distal angle of second joint produced into a broad lobe, lower lip with lateral lobes short and broad. Gnathopod 1 about normal, fifth joint bearing on lower margin a short rounding lobe, sixth joint bearing at the lower posterior angle a low soft lobe which gives the joint the appearance of having a very short palm. Gnathopod 2, sixth joint very large and powerful and roughly oval in outline, the oblique palm consisting of a large spinose tooth and a deep depression adjacent to the hinge of the seventh joint, the palm is de- fined by a low rounding angle and a short stout spine, the oblique surface of the large tooth bears several additional stout spines some of which project forward on either side of the seventh joint when it is closed against the palm, seventh joint very stout and strongly curved and slightly overlapping palm, inner edge bearing a row of very short spinules. Peraeopod 1 much longer than 2. Peraeopod 3 about equal in length to 2, second joint broadly ex- panded. Peraeopods 4 and 5 subequal in length, second joint of 5 more widely expanded than that of 4. Abdominal segments 1-3 with lower pos- terior corners slightly produced into short acute points. Uropod 1 extending farther back than 2 which is farther produced than 3. Uropod 1, peduncle longer than the rami, the outer of which is the longer, peduncle and rami bearing spines on all their edges. Uropod 2, peduncle equal in length to outer ramus which is slightly shorter than inner, the edges of both peduncle and rami bearing spines, those of the peduncle being longer than the rest. Uropod 3, peduncle shorter than ramus. Telson about as wide as long, the sides converging to a narrowly rounded apex, several spines on the upper sur- face and a cluster on the rounding apex. MARCH 19, 1930 SHOEMAKER: NEW TALITRIDAE 113 77 Fig. 3.—Orchestoidea benedicti, new species. Male, a, Entire animal. 06, Antenna l. c, End of fifth joint and flagellum of antenna 2. d, Right mandible. e, Maxillal. f, Maxilla 2. g, Maxillipeds. h, Lower lip. 7, End of sixth joint and seventh joint of gnathopod 2, enlarged. j, Gnathopod1, female. k, Gnathopod 2, female. J, Uropod 3. n, Telson and third uropods from above. 114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 Length.—Male, 13 mm.; female, somewhat smaller. Material examined.— 53 specimens; Pacific Grove, California, James E. Benedict, coll., June, 1905. 1 specimen; Entrance to Anaheim Bay, Seal Beach, California, E. M. Chase, coll., April 27, 1918. 27 specimens; La Jolla, California, from kelp hold-fasts on beach, W. L. Schmitt, coll., August 17, 1918. 9 specimens; San Diego, California (littoral marine), Frank F, Gander, coll., April, 1927. 5 specimens; San Diego, California (Balboa Park), Frank F. Gander, coll., May, 1927. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 413TH MEETING The 413th regular meeting was held October 3d, 1929, in Room 43 of the National Museum. The president, Mr. J. E. Graf, presided. Mr. Roy E. CAMPBELL, Alhambra, California, and Mr. A. M. Vancz, Hyéres, France, were elected to membership. The Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. Ronwnmr, read a communication from Prof. EK. N. Cory, of College Park, Md., chairman of the Eastern branch of the American Association of Economic Entomologists, announcing a meeting of that organization in New York City beginning on November 21st at 9:30 A.M. The chair reported the death of Dr. FRANK HuRLBUT CHITTENDEN of the Bureau of Entomology on September 15th, 1929, in his 71st year, at his home in Washington, D.C. After a few remarks, by Dr. Howarp, dealing in a reminiscent way with his associations with the deceased, a committee, con- sisting of WHITE, QAUINTANCE, and Howarp, was appointed to recommend. action at the next meeting. Program: J. M. Atpricu: Recent entomological experiences in Europe. The speaker spent some three months in Europe the past summer. He studied the types of American muscoid flies in the British Museum, and the museums in Stockholm, Copenhagen and Paris. He also collected Diptera in Northern Sweden (Aare and Oestersund) for the purpose of getting material to compare with the northern flies of America, in order to get further informa- tion about the species common to the holarctic region. Lantern slides were shown to illustrate the life zones of northern Sweden. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Howarp. F, L. CAMPBELL: How do insects grow? 414TH MEETING The 414th meeting was held November 7, 1929, in Room 48 of the National Museum. The President, Mr. J. E. Graf, presided. Mr. James I. HaMBLE- TON and Dr. J. W. Buutcer, both of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, were elected to membership. The following communication was read: MARCH 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 115 “Your committee recommends that the following paragraph be inserted in the minutes of this meeting: “<The Entomological Society of Washington feels that the death of Dr. Frank Huruput CHITTENDEN has taken from us a devoted and accomplished entomologist whose long term of working years in Wash- ington has enriched entomology in its biologic, taxonomic and economic aspects; that we feel his loss deeply and that we sympathize sincerely with his surviving sister.’ “Your committee further recommends that it be empowered to prepare and publish in the Proceedings of the Society a short account of Doctor Chitten- den’s life and activities.”’ Signed: W. H. WHITE A. L. QUAINTANCE L. O. Howarp Program: R. E. SNoperass: How Insects Fly. Insect wings probably were developed from paranotal lobes. The oldest known insects were fully winged—some with flexor apparatus and some with- out. Wing muscles comprise the dorsal longitudinal muscles, vertical tergo- sternal muscles, pleural muscles, and the flexor muscles. Wing movements of flight consist of up-and-down movements, forward and rearward move- ments, and partial rotary movements. Up-and-down movements are pro- duced by the dorsal longitudinal and the tergo-sternal muscles, with strong depressor adjuncts in the posterior pleural muscles. Forward, rearward, and rotary movements are produced by the anterior and posterior pleural muscles. Movements by the flexion are produced by the flexor muscles; extension is produced by the anterior and posterior pleural muscles. Flight involves a driving and lifting force; both are produced by the wing movements which create an area of decreased air pressure before and above the insect (DEMOLL). Steering, sidewise and rearward flight, and hovering are func- tions controlled by the pleural muscles. Organs of equilibrium are not known in insects generally; a few species have organs that are possibly of a static function. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by McInpoo, Curriz, Mann, Howarp, and THONE. _ Atrequest of Dr.S. F. Buaxs, Recording Secretary of the Biological Society of Washington, a notice was read by the Recording Secretary of an address to be delivered by Dr. CHARLES WARDELL STILES on Some Recent Developments in Zoological Nomenclature at the next regular meeting of that Society to be held at the Cosmos Club on November 16. Remarks were made on invitation by a visitor, Father O. PirL, a mission- ary to China, who was introduced by Doctor Howarp, and who greeted our Society, expressed his pleasure at being with us, and spoke briefly of his recent travel contacts in this country and abroad. Mr. Rouwemnr recorded the recent discovery of the pink bollworm of cotton in the Salt River Valley of Arizona, and the amendment to the quarantine effective on October 31, including within the regulated area Pinal and Mari- copa Counties, Arizona. Specimens of this insect were collected in gin trash at two gins on October 24 and forwarded to Washington for final identification. Immediately on this discovery additional scouts were sent to the area and at this time specimens of the pest had been collected in ten different fields and in trash from four different gins. All points where infestations have been dis- covered are within a comparatively limited area of approximately five miles 116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 southwest of the towns of Mesa and Gilbert. In some fields approximately 85% of the bolls were infested and within the general area in which the larvae had been found the infestation ranged from 5 to 85%. Mr. Rouwer also referred very briefly to the work done on the Mediter- ranean fruit fly and stated that no specimens of infested fruit had been dis- covered at any point within the State of Florida since 'August 27 nor had any - adults been taken in traps since August 14. The apparent absence of fruit fly is very encouraging. During the summer intensive scouting has been done throughout the State of Florida. In addition to the scouting done within this State the States within the cotton belt have been intensively scouted and intensive scouting has also been done in California and the south- western States. No infestations of the fruit fly have been discovered as the result of this work. Discussed by Wess, McINpoo, and THONE. 415TH MEETING The 415th meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was held December 5th, 1929, in Room 48 of the National Museum. The President, Mr. J. E. Grar presided. The first item of business was the annual election of officers of the Society for 1930. All of the following were then reelected: Preszdent, J. E. GRAF; First Vice President, A. C. Baxkmr; Second Vice President, F. C. BIsHopP; Recording Secretary, J. S. WADE; Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer, S. A. RouwWER; Editor, W. R. Wauton; Executive Committee, the officers and C. T. GREENE, A. N. CAUDELL, and T. E. SnypErR; Representing the Society as vice president of the Washington Academy of Sciences, A. G. BOVING. Remarks were made on invitation by the following visitors and non-resident members: Dr. C. C. GHosH, entomologist of the Agricultural College of Mandalay, Burma, India, greeted the Society and spoke appreciatively of his early personal contacts years ago with the officials of our Department of Agriculture and of the aid received from studies of its entomological publica- tions, of his previous associations with Dr. Howarp, and of his pleasure at opportunity of visiting Washington. He also spoke briefly of the official organization of Agriculture in India and of the character and scope of some of the activities now under way in that country. Dr. W. V. Krna, of the Malaria Mosquito Laboratory at Mound, Louisiana, also addressed the meeting, expressed his pleasure at being with us, and referred briefly to some of his recent work in the Philippines on mosquitoes and flies, specifically, an outbreak of considerable magnitude at Manila last year brought about through an accumulation of decaying algae along a lake shore near the City. He also described in a general way some work of the Philippine Health Service. Mr. A. F. Burgess, of the Gypsy and Brown Tail Moth Laboratory at Melrose Highlands, Mass., greeted the Society and referred humorously to some phases of the just completed election of our Society’s officers, gave some reminiscences of other meetings attended years ago, and dwelt appreciatively on the work accomplished and the publications issued by our Society. Program: F. W. Poos: Leafhopper injury to legumes. (Illustrated). The study of leafhopper injury to legumes was started in 1928 by the Division of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology, in co- operation with the Division of Forage Crops, Bureau of Plant Industry, at Arlington Farm, Virginia, where plantings of the various varieties of forage MARCH 19, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY DE? crop legumes are maintained by the latter Division and where laboratory and greenhouse facilities are also furnished for these studies. ‘The work has been largely confined to the disease-like injury which is due to some intimate specific relationship other than that of purely mechanical punctures and depletion of plant food and water. About 30 species of leafhoppers, Ci- eadellidae, occur on forage crops in this section. Twenty of these species have been tested for the disease-like injury to date. Empoasca fabae and some of the new species of this genus are the only species in which no indi- viduals have been found that are free from the infectious principle. Occa- sionally individuals from two other genera of Cicadellidae have been found which apparently caused the disease-like injury similar to that caused by E. fabae. Theinterrelationship of these species, the various responses to their host plants, and the study of their comparative biology makes up a very complicated but interesting field of work. Observations on the injury and relative susceptibility of various varieties of alfalfa, red clover, sweet clover, white clover, cowpeas, soybeans, peanuts, and potatoes, have been made as well as on many other beans and clovers not mentioned above and on numerous other cultivated and wild hosts. The degree of susceptibility in relation to the amount and type of pubescence is being studied and gives promise of some very interesting results. The disease-like injury has not been found to be systemic. The infectious principle or toxicity has been found to be inherited through six generations with no apparent loss of virulence. The degree of injury to an individual plant is more or less directly proportional to the number of leafhoppers which are placed upon the plant. If the leafhopper’S are removed before the plant is too seriously injured, recovery follows. Studies on the loss in quality and yield of hay caused by EF. fabae to alfalfa planted during the spring of 1929 were made in cages one sq. rod in area and covered by tobacco cloth. The hay was carefully harvested, dried, and weighed and then submitted to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics for grading. All the hay taken from infested cages was graded No. 2 whereas all the hay taken from the uninfested cage, both cuttings, was graded No. 1. Based on the weights obtained and the average price for this hay in Kansas City during 1928 and 1929, the loss was 33%. Preliminary work indicates that control will be largely ecological in that a rearrangement of certain crops may be advisable. A better use of existing varieties and the further development of varieties which best lend themselves to the situation should have due consideration. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by BRIDWELL, GRAF, Kinc, Rohwer, Howarp, BaLpur, and EWING. Notes and exhibition of specimens: Dr. ALDRICH exhibited copies and dis- cussed briefly a number of recently issued scientific and other books, notably: The Witchery of Wasps, by Rutnenart; Instinct and Intelligence, by KING- ston; Handbook of the Dragonflies of North America, by NEEDHAM and Haywoop; A Manual of External Parasites, by Ew1ne; Principles of Systema- tic Entomology, by FrrrR1s; and An Orphan of Eternity, by HzrnricH. These remarks were discussed by Howarp. J. S. Wavn, Recording Secretary 118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 6 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 997TH MEETING The 997th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on November 23, 1929. Program: H. B. Brooxs, The sensitivity of a galvuanometer as a function of its resistance. Maxwell stated that for the maximum deflection of a gal- vanometer connected to an external circuit containing a given electromotive force, the galvanometer resistance should bear to the external resistance the ratio, diameter of bare wire (in the galvanometer coil) to its diameter over the insulation. Ayrton and Perry stated that the ratio of these resistances should be unity. Heaviside found that both statements were correct for the respec- tive assumptions, Maxwell having assumed a constant absolute thickness of insulation, Ayrton and Perry a thickness having a constant ratio to the di- ameter of the bare wire. The Ayrton and Perry theorem has become an established tradition. It appears, for example, in a 1928 textbook on electri- cal measurements, and in the current catalogue of a prominent instrument maker. An extension of the analysis of the previous writers shows that for each case the curve of relative sensitivity as a function of galvanometer-coil resistance has such an extremely flat maximum that one may largely depart from the traditional optimum condition with only small loss in sensitivity, and with a considerable gain in most cases because considerations of proper damping forbid the use of modern moving-coil galvanometers on an external circuit of resistance equal to that of the coil. Because of the extreme flat- ness of the maxima, galvanometer makers need to construct, and users need to purchase, galvanometers of relatively few values of coil resistance, in order acceptably to cover all but very unusual requirements. (Author’s Abstract.) Howarp 8S. Rappueye, Observers’ patterns. This paper constitutes a brief review of the material presented about a year and a half ago on Obser- vers’ Patterns, or the personal equations of observers engaged in the first- order leveling of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In addition to the review of the first paper additional data were presented on the progress of the investigation since the first presentation. A piece of test apparatus was shown which was designed with the idea of compressing a “pattern test’’ into a sample of 100 separate estimations by having them distributed uni- formly throughout the range of observations but presented to the observer in a random order. In its present form this apparatus, while it provided some useful sidelights on the whole matter, failed to provide a proper test. Addi- tional work with it may possibly reveal the cause of the failure and make it, when properly modified, a useful adjunct to the test apparatus and program. A “1,000 test’”’ in which the readings are taken at random on four separate positions of rod and instrument but the readings in each group being scat- tered up and down the rod in an accidental manner, was reported upon and a sample tally sheet shown. It was noted that the groups of 250 observations in éach position exhibited the same general characteristics, which seems to further substantiate the belief that a sample of 1,000 to 1,500 observations taken at random is a large enough sample to bring out a characteristic pat- tern for an observer. A series of patterns were shown illustrating the beha- vior of an observer throughout a series of tests when the results of each pre- ceding test were known to him. Also patterns were shown illustrating the behavior of the same observer after he had taken the field on actual leveling. MARCH 19, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 119 Another series of patterns illustrated the “shaking down” process of a new observer by exhibiting a gradual change in his pattern throughout the first half of a field season and a practically constant pattern or personal equation during the last half of the season. (Author’s Abstract.) Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS According to the Journal of Agricultural Research the tobacco plant shows specific symptoms of a deficiency of magnesium and of calcium in some light- sandy and sandy-loam soils. Fertilizers for such soils should contain small quantities of calcium and magnesium; 180 pounds of magnesium sulphate per acre in the drill or 500 to 1000 pounds of dolomitic limestone broadcast will effectively prevent symptoms of magnesium deficiency. JoHN C. REEp, recently appointed Senior Scientific Aid on the Geological Survey, is at present assisting the Chemical Laboratory in the determination of mineral specimens. In addition to such determinations made in the course of its regular work,the Survey identifies over 2000 specimens a year for the public. L. W. STEPHENSON has resumed his duties as Chief of the Section of Coastal Plain Investigations in the Geological Survey after a four-months furlough for field work in Venezuela. Miss JuLIA GARDNER, who has spent the winter in examining collections of Tertiary and Cretaceous fossils in foreign museums and in visiting outcrops of fossiliferous strata in England and Denmark, returned to Washington early in March. Dr. N. Ernest Dorsey, having completed his work as associate editor of the International Critical Tables, has returned to the Bureau of Standards. Mrs. AcNES CuHAsE, Associate Botanist in the Grass Herbarium, writes from Brazil that she had a severe trip ascending the mountain peak Caparaé in company with a botanical companion, Mrs. Mexia. She was assured ‘St would be impossible for the senhora to climb Caparaé,” but after much insistence arrangements were made. Rain fell most of the time and every- thing was soaked. The first night out was to be spent at a cave which was reached about 4:30 p.m. It looked very inviting at first as it was dry, but the guide commented on the pulgas (fleas). She and her companion finally made camp in the rain rather than endure the fleas. They had dry clothes for the night but got back into wet clothes at day break. The trail became very steep through the bamboo zone. At last about 3:30 they struggled out of the bamboo into the campo. Antonio (the guide) said something about ‘muita corajosa’ [very courageous] for senhoras to make that ascent. He said no woman had ever done it before and very few men. Mrs. CHASE at Vicosa visited Professor Rours, who is an American in charge of a large and important agricultural school. Traveling alone, she collected at Har- greaves and Bello Horizonte. Mr. Marrurw.W. Stiruine, Chief of the Bureau of Ethnology left Wash- ington January 13 for a cruise among the Ten Thousand Islands between Char- lotte Harbor and Cape Sable, Florida, where he hopes to discover evidences of 120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 6 the former occupancy of this area by the Caloosa Indians. He will be aided by Mr. Lee Paris, of Tulsa, Okla., whose 85-foot yacht, Esperanza, will furnish transportation. After his explorations in the Ten Thousand Islands region Mr. Stirvine will excavate a large sand mound on the west Coast of Florida, located south of Tampa Bay. Obituary Capt. James Percy AvuLt, who was killed on November 29, 1929, when an explosion destroyed the non-magnetic ship Carnegie in the harbor of Apia, Western Samoa, was born on October 29, 1881, at Olathe, Kansas, and educated at Baker University where he received an A.B. degree in 1904. Even while studying in the University he took an active interest in the work of the then newly established magnetic observatory of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey at Baldwin, Kansas, where he served as observatory assistant from January 1901 to June 1904. In the latter month he was appointed as magnetic observer in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution, and the next year, after receiving the necessary preliminary training on the U. 8. Coast Survey vessel Bache on a cruise from Baltimore to Panama, he was assigned to scientific work on the magnetic-survey vessel Galilee where he remained until November 1906. During the next two years he was engaged at the office of the Department in Washington and on magnetic field work in Mexico and Canada, carrying out in the latter country a difficult exploratory trip in the course of which he secured magnetic results in territory where none had previously been obtained. In order to fit himself more thoroughly for a scientific career he next pursued postgraduate studies at Columbia University from which institution he received an A.M. degree in 1909. In view of his skill and experience gained on earlier expeditions, he was again, in 1912, placed in charge of field parties in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, for the purpose of training new observers in making magnetic determinations under field conditions. In the general plan of a magnetic survey of the Globe which constituted one of the major operations of the Department, the ocean work of the non-mag- netic ship Carnegie was destined to play an important part. For the success- ful execution of this ambitious undertaking, Captain Ault, first as a member of the scientific staff under its first commander William J. Peters, and later as commander of the vessel, has been largely responsible. 7 Wednesday, April 2 Hkh) Thursday, April 3 _ Friday, April 4 — Saturday, April 5-- OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS Thursday, March 20 _ Friday, March 21. Saturday, March 22 Wednesday, March 26 Friday, March vs ae Saturday, March 29 Tuesday, Aprill Wednesday, March 19 The Engineering Society The Medical Society The ACADEMY The Geographic Society The Biological Society The Geological Society _ The Medical Society | The Geographic Society The Philosophical Society ‘The Botanical Society The Historical Society The Engineering Society The Medical Society — The Entomological Society The Geographic Society © - The Biological Society The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Wi1am Bowrs, Coast and Geodetic Survey. - Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckERMAN, Bureau of Standards, Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, “ Treasurer; Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Ontarat Parans : Physical Geography.—Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the st features of the “‘Upper’’ Ever and correlation with env changes. ALFRED P. DAcHNOWSEI- ‘OKES Zoology.—Descriptions of two new amphipod crustaceans (Talitridae) | United States. Cuarence R. SHOBMARER eee ee sees esseeeeeiee he's , o 7 ah Sie 7 , “ont ey - . -»- + << 4 ; ‘ / | PRoceEpinas yi rare era ah The Entomological Society soda sR Gots, (ei Tule The Philosophical Society re ae ScreNnTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS {+ <ceearas arate ana Nas oh ae the fee, APRIL 4, 1930 No. 7 é - oe: 2 es ae . Noe ~ 2 1930 a) oo At _MuseU™ sgt i JOU RNAL ~ = OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS Epear W. Woonarp Epa@ar T. WHERRY C. Wrrue Cooxre GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND gOILs U. 8, GHOLOGICAL SURVEY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. E. Merwin Haroup Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GoLpMAN - G. W. Srosr BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY AaGnes CHASE J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY _. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Roagsr C. WEtxLs ' CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY 4 - EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mr. Royat AND GUILFORD AVES. 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Specia are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy 4 ¢ F*» _ ~ : Ap iF to < Vv <% “ » < P ¥ ; . ‘ ke ay Be re ay a " © Skt ee JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 20 Apri 4, 1930 No. 7 GEOPHYSICS.—Noie on temperature gradients in the Permian basin. Wa ter B. Lane, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Communicated by W. C. MENDENHALL.) It has been shown? that the isogeothermal surfaces in the Permian Basin of West Texas and southeastern New Mexico are depressed and that this subnormal condition appears to have some relationship to the distribution and thickness of the halite and anhydrite deposits. In the fall of 1929 an opportunity was afforded to make a temperature test in a well which was so located as to yield some evidence as to the factor or factors of a large group of variables which might be responsible for the effect. This well (Transcontinental-McWhorter No. 1, Sec. 6, T.3S8., R. 22 E., De Baca County, N. Mex.) was drilled through rocks locally identified as the lower San Andres, Yeso, Abo (Permian), and Magdalena (Pennsylvanian) formations and into what are be- lieved to be representatives of the pre-Cambrian schists and quartzites which outcrop in the Hills of Pedernal some 60 miles to the northwest. The San Andres and Yeso formations of this area are of interest be- cause they are composed of limestone and anhydrite and therefore con- tain only one of those two prominent but characteristic sediments, halite and anhydrite, of the Permian Basin. ‘This well by reason of its marginal position also has a stratigraphic range far greater than even deep wells in the basin proper. The geothermal gradient curve of this well began as representative of the region but on approaching the Abo formation began to take on a noticeably accelerated increase, so that on reaching a depth of 4,400 feet a temperature that would be high for the Permian Basin was recorded. It appears therefore that in- _. 3 Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Received February 18, 1930. 2This JouRNAL 19: 232. 1929. 121 122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 ternal heat is being dissipated more rapidly by the upper anhydrite- bearing sediments of this section than it is being supplied by the lower. If the thermal conductivity tables for rocks are consulted it is found that the majority of the more usual types have conductivities within the range of .002 to .008 calories (em. sec. Grad.). Anhydrite and halite are reported to have conductivities of .0123 and .0137 calories, respectively. Now it is indicated by this test that anhydrite alone, present as alternate beds with limestone in the upper section of the well, influences the character of the gradient curve by depressing it. The previously noted apparent westward extension of subnormal tem- peratures beyond the halite boundary is thus also subject to explana- tion. Also the diathermanous property of halite is eliminated as a primary factor, for if this property of halite were the sole cause of sub- normal temperatures in the basin the effect could not be recorded in this well. Anhydrite in association with even thicker beds of halite of still greater conductivity coefficient in the basin proper may be ex- pected to conduct heat faster than it can be supplied by other sedi- ments at greater depth. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that the depression of the isogeotherms of the Permian Basin are the direct result of the high thermal conductivities of these two prominent sedi- ments. Other sedimentary regions involving considerable halite or anhy- drite not covered by too great an overburden of low conductivity rocks should yield low gradients, if the area in which they occur is not subject to other extraneous heat-producing sources. The Permian saline deposits of Germany have been so affected by tectonic disturb- ances as apparently to have counteracted the expectable high conduc- tivity influences. Radioactivity is proposed by some authorities as one of the princi- pal sources of the earth’s heat. Potassium is radioactive (Beta-ray) and even though the unit energy is low in proportion to uranium, the percentage of potassium present in the average rock is sufficient to produce heat equivalent to that of uranium.* ‘The saline deposits (late Paleozoic) of West Texas and New Mexico for an area of more than 40,000 square miles carry potash in disseminated and concen- tratedform. Local areas equivalent in size to a township have beds 6 to 15 feet thick analyzing 10 to 30 per cent of potash (K.0O). These deposits have remained undisturbed during all of Mesozoic and Ceno- ’ ARTHUR Hormms and R. W. Lawson, Potassium and the heat of the earth. Nature, May 1, 1926, pp. 620-621. APRIL 4, 1930 LANG: TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS 123 zoic time, yet in only one temperature test made in a well penetrating these beds is there the faintest suggestion of the possible influence of radioactivity and even in this case the variation may be explained on another basis. Despite this radiothermal heat the temperature gra- dients are excessively low. More powerful agencies. than radioactivity control geothermal gradients in the basin. Perhaps radioactivity is also of minor importance in other areas of the earth. A sphere of uniform composition heated at the center and cooling at the surface has perfect concentric isothermal zones. Wanting evidence to the contrary, it is assumed the inner portion of the earth is isothermally zoned. The crustal portion of the earth, variable in com- position and relief, must have isothermal surfaces broadly expressing the influences of these variations. An explanation of the varying behavior of the isogeotherms of any region is very likely to be dependent, in part or in whole, upon differen- tial rock conductivities. Critical data of the sort necessary to deter- mine the influence of rock conductivities in general upon temperature gradients do not exist. This is largely due to the fact that such deter- minations as have been made (industrial, building stones, ete.) were not made with a view to the solution of geological problems. Com- paction, porosity, bedding, mineral orientation, degree of crystalliza- tion or cementation, water content, etc., are in only a few instances considered or noted. Nevertheless, these small factors sometimes yield enormous cumulative effects. Questions of conductivity parallel and perpendicular to bedding can not be decided by data now at hand. A dry sediment compacted by loading may have greater density across the bedding and therefore greater conductivity in this direction. How- ever, the same rock saturated with water‘ may have greater conductiv- ity along the bedding. Whether or not oil-bearing anticlines owe their heat to exothermic reactions or stratified thermal conductivity is a question dependent upon more specific data. Mass orientation of minerals of ellipsoidal conductivity properties may be expected to give widely divergent results for different positions of the rock speci- mens. Until supposition is supported by more exact basic criteria reasoning about geothermal problems is apt to rest on an unsound foundation. There is urgent need for data on the thermal conductivity of rocks as they exist under natural conditions. 4 JosePH PrEstTwicH, Controverted questions in geology. Macmillan & Co., 1895, p. 241, | 124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Peat profile studies in Maine: The South Lubec “heath” in relation to sea level.1. A. P. DAcHNOWSKI- Stokes, U. 8S. Bureau of Chemistry and Sorts. I The following study, carried out principally south of Lubec at Carry- ingplace Cove in Maine, was made with two purposes inview. In connection wth field work regarding the quality and possible uses of moss peat in “‘heaths,”’ it contemplated an intensive profile study of an exposed coastal highmoor which is being cut back by waves at a rapid rate. At the same time it was hoped that observations of sufficient precision concerning the position of the moor in relation to sea level would furnish the necessary data for determining, by comparison with later observations, whether or not the coast was subsiding. Carryingplace Cove occupies the eastern extremity of Maine in Grand Manan Channel and lies close to the boundary line of New Brunswick, Canada. The general position and surrounding environ- ment of its peat area are illustrated on chart No. 801 of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and on the maps accompanying the East- port Folio No. 192 of the Geologic Atlas of the United States. The topography of the deeply embayed coast has been recognized as giving evidence of normal drowned valleys and of indicating that the thin southern edge of the last continental ice sheet had not greatly altered the character of the valleys. At the time of the retreat of the ice the Eastport region is believed to have been at least 100 feet lower with reference to sea level than at present. This is indicated by num- erous small deposits of marine gravel beds with delta structure front- ing the ocean. Glacio-marine sands and clays were laid down in the extended sea of that period and eroded more or less as the ice retreated and the land rose to its present height. The geology and botany of the region and adjacent portions of New Brunswick, Canada, have been investigated by American and Canadian scientists and from a summary of these studies, notably the work of Ganong (16, 17) Fernald (14), Bastin (3, 4) Johnson (18), and others, it is apparent that the general features have already been correctly interpreted. Accumulating evidence indicates, however, that certain 1 Received February 15, 1930. The field work was done in September 1929 with the assistance of R. D. Knicut. The map, photograph, and control data of elevations above sea level are contributed by R. J. Bnuron of the U. S. Geological Survey, to whom the writer desires to express his obligation and appreciation of the interest and aid rendered in furthering the work. APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 125 salient details have not been worked out. One of the most interesting questions to be considered concerns, on the one hand, the nature of the different layers of peat and the climatic conditions under which they were formed during the past period; on the other hand, the variations in sea level that may have taken place since that time, either a sinking of the coast to the northwest or a rise in sea level. Postglacial deposits which began to form in late Pleistocene and have continued to the present day include areas of peat. Many of the beaches as well as peat deposits along the coast are fully exposed to the wave action of the Atlantic, and erosion is dominant at present. Bastin (4) reports on the shore of Moose Island due south of Carlow Island an area of peat which is now flooded by the sea at high tide and is thus being converted into a salt marsh. Bartlett (2) described a peat deposit on the shore of Quamanisset Harbor near Woods Hole, encroached upon by salt marsh. Dawson (13), Chalmers (5) and others have pointed out locations of submerged forests in Canada and Johnson (18) and Daly (12) have assembled much evidence to show that such changes are in progress elsewhere. Significant in connection with this discussion are recent peat profile studies made on an eutropic lowmoor of the semi-arid region—the Delta Land in California (11). The area is a bay-like depression near the outlet of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and is located at sea level. In vertical structure the deposit represents essentially the successional stages of vegetation leading from open water to marsh, that is to say, it presents the aspects of a two-layered, limnogenic profile series characterized by a basal layer of finely divided sedimen- tary peat, derived from submerged and semi-aquatic, fresh-water plants, followed bya surface layer of fibrous peat originating from reeds (Phragmites sp.) and tule (Scirpus sp.). The shore line of the ancient lake is at present over 20 feet below sea level, from which it appears that a general downward movement has been in progress near San Francisco Bay. Such subsidence is indicated, moreover, by two feet of silty salt marsh overlying reed and tule peat near Fairfield in Suisun Bay, California. The Delta region is particularly interesting both because it is regarded as the best case of drainage in connection with irrigation, navigation, and flood control, and because of the fact that subsidence seems inevitable on account of the well-established oscilla- tions along the Pacific Coast. In striking contrast is the profile structure of an eutrophic lowmoor of the sub-tropical region, notably that portion of the Florida Everglades bordering the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee (10). A basal 126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 layer of fibrous sawgrass (Cladiwm sp.) peat is succeeded by a surface layer of relatively dense, impermeable sedimentary peat, characterizing a two-layered, telmatogenic profile series. Lake Okeechobee is a body of water in a hydrostatic condition; it was impounded relatively recently to a height of more than 20 feet above sea level by the accumu- lation of the superimposed layer of sedimentary material and buoyancy of fibrous peat layers retarding the movement of inundating flood- waters. The profile records obtained in the Everglades lead toward the conclusion that the area began as an autochthonous deposit with sedge peat accumulating over bedrock on an essentially stable shore line of the Atlantic Coast. It will be worth while therefore, to ascer- tain whether peat deposts on the sea coast in northeastern Maine offer convincing facts which may amplify or clarify those furnished by other investigators, and to test as well the theory, offered by geologists, and physiographers, of a general submergence of the North Atlantic Coast. II The South Lubec “heath” at Carryingplace Cove, shown in fig. 1, occupies nearly all the neck of land connecting West Quoddy Head with the mainland. The deposit covers today only 20 to 25 acres and is protected on the south by a broad sandy barrier beach. On the north it is entirely unprotected from the action of ocean waves and exposed as a nearly vertical cliff, about 10 feet high, from which every storm causes the removal of masses of peat. According to residents over one-fourth of the present acreage has been swept away by the force of the waves during the last 25 years. The peat area is of peculiar interest on account of the ae as- semblage of plants, native to both Europe and America, and the raised, dome-shaped configuration of its surface, rising 6 to 8 feet from margin to center (7, 20).. The present vegetation is predominantly of northern range, with a number of arctic plants. A conspicuous ex- ample is the crowberry, Empetrum nigrum, which is abundant on the peat deposits along the Bay of Fundy but elsewhere and inland occurs only above timber line, as at Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, or Mt. Rainier in the State of Washington. There is a marked similarity in vegetation between the different convex-shaped ‘“‘highmoors”’ which extend in a widening belt from the northeastern coast of Maine into New Brunswick, Canada (16). An abundant development of sphagnum mosses grows in rounded hum- APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 127 a QC OMDEL “Ary ,-= SS 3 RX. = ee = = « Red Sa elgel ° Les OO Asp es “= : (ve A 5S \Q ee SIN IME Wie ys 4 /0 Wormell Ledges ans P os ies oo Sony uy S | ( @ Y a CoN ea auiay Soxth Lahec: c= wr Ve WO (Geen oN AN t. | | | SA | 4 Boot Cove | Fig. 1—Map showing location of South Lubec “‘heath’’ in Maine. The control data in relation to sea level were determined at the point marked by an arrow. The numbers in the shoal tidal flat indicate depths at mean low water. 128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 mocks, of which Sphagnum fuscum, S. acutrfoluum, S. medium, and the bright red S. tenellum with S. ambricatum, topped by species of Polytrichum, make up the bulk of the ground vegetation. It is a common sight to see the moss carpet almost covered by Hmpetrum nigrum. Decidedly less abundant are sedges and the heaths which usually characterize the drier portions of a peat deposit. Ryncho- spora alba, Eriophorum vaginatum, Scirpus caespitosus, and a golden rod (Solidago sp.) have only a limited, scattered foothold. The cloud- berry (Rubus chamaemorus) with its few leaves from hidden stems dots the mosses, and the heaths such as Andromeda polifolia, Rhodo- dendron canadense, Cassandra (Chamaedaphne) calyculata, Ledum latifolium, L. groenlandicum, species of Kalmia and Vaccinium, are scanty and greatly dwarfed. Drosera rotundifolia, Sarracenia pur- purea, and several lichens (Cladonia rangiferina, C. uncialis) are com- mon in hollows and moist places but not abundant. On the eastern margin occur stunted black spruce (Picea nigra) with possibly birch (Betula sp.) and a few small tamarack (Larix americana) which become larger toward the upland in an undergrowth of bushy heaths. The peat area at Carryingplace Cove may thus be considered as a success- ional stage in the boreal climax and as belonging to the region of north- ern conifers. III Regarding the procedure which is followed in peat profile studies and in the accumulation of data for correlating the various factor: at each location, reference to earlier publications (8) is sufficient. The nearly vertical exposure facing the tidal waves on the north, and the profile sections which were made with the American peat-sampling instrument at various points on the heath moor, indicate that this deposit is made up of more than 10 feet of peat. Stratigraphically it represents three different layers which correspond to successional stages of vegetation passing from a marsh of sedges and Hypnum mosses into a conifer forest and finally into the raised bog of sphagnum mosses. To determine the elevations of these layers and to lay the basis for future observations as to the extent to which earth movements may occur in this locality, measurements were made by means of the Bea- man telescopic alidade. Starting at the bench mark of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in the city of Lubec, Maine, the elevation of which is 118.4 feet above sea level, and extending a line south about three miles to South Lubec, the elevations obtained at the point indicated on the accompanying map are as follows: APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 129 Mean sea level elevations of layers in South Lubec, Maine, peat profile: Surface of sphagnum moss peat layer 13.0 feet Surface of conifer forest peat layer 6.0 = Surface of hypnum moss and sedge peat layer A ete Contact with underlying mineral soil DO ws Total thickness of peat deposit at point of observation 1O-0ey The upper layer of sphagnum moss peat varies in thickness from 6 to 9 feet. The material contains a moderate quantity of stringy- fibrous tufts from cotton-grass (Hriophorum sp.) but is rather free from roots and other impurities. The layer is reddish to yellowish brown in color, spongy-fibrous, and poorly decomposed. It shows a number of thin alternating bands of dark brown to grayish black, largely decomposed organic debris. Some of the narrow bands appear to be finely divided organic material which collected in shallow pools of water (Schlenken). Other bands are more convex in form and con- sist mainly of woody debris derived from heaths; they are probably due to short periods of drought that caused a temporary dominance of low ericaceous shrubs and favored an advanced stage of decomposition. The comparatively uniform texture of the well-preserved moss peat makes it plain that the growth of the sphagnum mosses was influ- enced by blankets of fog or cool-moist and maritime climatic conditions during that period. The accumulation of moss peat was slow but prolonged and completely buried an underlying forest of conifers. ‘The inferred peat-forming processes are those primarily due to water saturation which had the effect of maintaining reduction processes (6:372) in both organic and inorganic material, instead of oxidation upon which decomposition depends. An alternation between an upper light-colored younger, and a darker, more decomposed, lower and older layer of moss peat, as traced in the cross sections of many Kuropean highmoors, does not occur in this locality. Toward the bottom appears a buried forest of trees consisting of stumps with numerous roots, shown in fig. 2. The layer is about 13 feet thick and seems to be present over the entire peat area. The specimens examined were derived from pine, tamarack, spruce, and possibly fir. A similar basal layer of woody peat appears to prevail in the heaths at Veazie and Denbo (8), at Jonesport, Trescott, Colum- bia Falls, Pushaw Lake, and Hermon Center, and an abundance of roots and stumps has been reported also for the peat deposits of north- 130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 eastern Canada. The recent account of Auer (1) describes layers of stumps at the bottom of cross sections in peat deposits which are being cut away and exposed by the action of the waves in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. As layers of woody peat are present also in peat areas farther inland, it is logical to assume an extensive development of forests, spreading over wide stretches of country under conditions of environment which no longer exist. The climate, and probably coastal marine currents of this period, must have been warmer. The whole region must have passed into a drier stage throughout, and climatic conditions must have set in that were in consequence more continental and southerly in character than it is now in Maine. The layer of peat resting directly on the mineral soil below and form- ing the bottom of the whole deposit, consists of a compact, yellow- brown, felty-matted network of well preserved stems and leaves from Hypnum mosses (Amblystegiwm sp.and others) in which are embedded the rhizomes of sedges (Carex sp., Cladium sp.), black rootstocks of Equisetum sp., seeds of Menyanthes, the elytra of beetles, and other inclusions. Sedimentary organic debris, indicative of ancient lakes or ponds, is not present. The layer of basal peat is about 16 inches thick and in an advanced stage of decay only at the upper limit sup- porting the stumps of trees 7n situ. There is nowhere an indication for assuming that at one time the area constituted a part of a lake formed by the building of a barrier beach across a recess in the coastal shore line, or that it supported plants growing in brackish or salt water. It is very probable, therefore, that the layer began to form when the sea level had retreated sufficiently to expose the shore to glacial waters from the melting ice-sheet. Species of Hypnum mosses, such as Amblystegium, were more abundant at that early period than at present, and a variety of sedges with cattail and reeds, scattered freely throughout the ancient marsh, occupied the habitat. The evidence obtained by soundings from peat areas elsewhere in Maine and Canada points strongly to the fact that the land laid bare by the receding ice was occupied at first by extensive sedge and reed marshes which spread over the more open, level, and wet places where forests could not gain a foothold. The northward migration of these plant communities must have occurred at the waning stage and during the steady recession of the ice border when climatic conditions began to be warmer and were better suited than now to the growth of these plants. Thus it will be seen that since the glacial period many evidences APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 131 and important records of unusual interest have been left in peat profiles. The layers reveal the history of the region and point to the existence of a distinct regional succession in vegetation. They suggest that the coast must have projected at that time far enough above sea level to enable many species of plants, referred to by Fernald (15) as char- acteristic of southern coastal regions, to have migrated into northern localities. The majority of the plant remains in the three-layered pro- Fig. 2—Lower portion of the peat profile exposed by the action of tidal waves eroding the South Lubec ‘“‘heath.’’ In the illustration are shown (a) the contact of the under- lying mineral soil with (b) the basal layer of peat derived from an ancient marsh of hyp- num mosses and sedges, (c) the roots and stumps of a former conifer forest which spread over the country and (d) the superimposed layer of sphagnum moss peat. Photographed at low tide September 29, 1929 by R. J. Belton. file of the South Lubec heathmoor are generically the same as those in the highmoors of Europe, of which the belt in Maine appears to be the western extension. Striking changes are recorded by the layers of peat, obviously indicating corresponding changes in climatic factors which condition the growth of plants and hence the regional charac- teristics and the distribution of broad groups of peatland.? 2 For the general correlations between plant successions, stratigraphic features of peat profiles, and past climates, as recorded in moors, see ‘‘Reports of the conferences on cycles’? Carnegie Institution of Washington, pp. 54-66. 1929. 132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 The underlying mineral soil is a glacial gray bowlder clay, locally sandy to gravelly and stony where the material has been subjected to the action of marine currents and waves, as in the very shoal bay north of the peat area, showing a depth of one foot at mean low water. Beneath the thick covering of peat the mineral soil is gray to bluish gray in color and resembles the “‘glei’’ horizon reported in descriptions of the moors of northern Europe. At the margin where the cover of peat is less thick and soil-forming processes are active owing to the influence of drainage and lower moisture conditions, the development of pedologic features may be observed. The mineral soil underlying the relatively thin peaty cover is characterized by a leached horizon which at the lower level is more or less sharply demarked by a brown horizon, below which a rust-colored, iron-stained and spotted horizon resembling ‘‘Ortstein’”’ is recognizable. These features are especially well displayed in a peat area about 25 miles northeast of Jonesport, Maine, which is being cut away by the waves of Chandler Bay, ex- posing natural sections. Marbut (19) has pointed out in his scheme for soil classification that profile characteristics of this type are the effects of podsolizing processes. There is no evidence of either a con- spicuous amount of decomposition, leaching, or enrichment in the overlying peat layers, due primarily to the high moisture content of the material, its great absorptive power for atmospheric water and its coldness under the prevailing climatic conditions. Corresponding differences in the chemical composition between the three main layers may be expected. The surface layer of moss peat exhibits the pecu- liarities common to this type of peat-material, namely relatively low content of available nitrogen, and of mineral salts such as lime, a gener- ally high acidity, and comparatively large quantities of poorly decom- posed crude fiber (celluloses and lignin-like constituents) and ether- alcohol soluble substances. On the basis of these observations the belt of peatlands in northeastern coastal Maine, of which the South Lubec heath is the type locality, has been designated for convenience as “highmoors”’ of the oligotrophic group of peatlands, representing a telmato-ombrogenic, three-layered profile series (9). IV Comparisons in terms of economic uses show that none of the high- moors are under cultivation. They are practically a waste in the sense that they have no value for agricultural crops, for grazing of cattle and horses, or for afforestation under existing conditions. No APRIL 4, 1930 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: PEAT PROFILES 133 attempt is being made to utilize the moss peat commercially for the purposes to which the great quantities imported from Europe have long been employed. It is safe to state that at least 85 per cent of the “‘heaths’’ in the neighborhood of Jonesport, Maine, contain a quality of moss peat equal if not superior to the imported material. The supply merits attention as a basis of local industries, partly because the location of some of the highmoors is unusually favorable for hand- ling and shipment by vessels from adjacent harbors. ‘The areas would furnish a large supply of moss peat for use as an absorbent in stables, bedding for poultry, mulch for certain evergreen shrubs and trees, organic filler for highgrade, concentrated, mineral fertilizers, and as packing material for storing bulbs, fruits and vegetables. A number of profitable uses of different kinds of peat have been enumerated in an earlier publication (6) and in Bulletin 802, issued by the U. 8. De- partment of Agriculture. The present uses for which peat moss is especially adapted include composts as an organic manure, an ingred- ient of top dressing on golf courses and in greenhouses, and in the general improvement of soil texture. The different methods employed for excavating and handling peat and for preparing composts have been described in Circular 252 of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. SUMMARY 1. To understand the nature of the dome-shaped ‘“‘heaths”’ on the northeastern coast of Maine consideration is given to the structural features of vertical cross-sections in the existing environment, and to the history of the region after the retreat of the ice sheet. 2 The intrinsic characteristics of the South Lubec peat profile are due mainly to three major successions of vegetation, closely corre- lated, it seems, with differences in climatic conditons; the profile represents three distinct layers of peat, superimposed upon one another and derived from marsh, forest, and: sphagnum moss plant communities. 3. The arctic alpine plants, such as Empetrum nigrum and others found in the present surface vegetation are not an early but a late stage of succession. 4. Evidence appears to point conclusively to a former extension of the South Lubec “heath” moor from its present termination at Carry- ingplace Cove as far probably as Woodward Point. Such a land connection affords the only possible explanation of the age, thickness, stratigraphy and other profile features which the peat area has in common with other coastal and inland highmoors, notably with the highmoors at Jonesport and Columbia Falls, Maine. 134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 5. At one time probably a marine beach of sand and gravel pro- jected for a long distance in a northwest direction across the shoal tidal flat, connecting the north shore of West Quoddy Head with the mainland. Shifting marine currents have doubtless caused the removal of a barrier beach and exposure of the highmoor to the cutting action of the waves. The sea has operated on the coast in this region since comparatively recent times. 6. The position of the South Lubec peat area in relation to sea level supports the conclusion, reached by investigators in other sciences, of a recent and progressively greater submergence of the coast toward the northeast. 7. It is probable that considerable areas of coastal plain existed in geologically recent times, possibly from New Jersey to Newfoundland, which have been worn away by a shift in marine currents and that a northward migration of plants took place when forests gained a foothold upon sedge marshes or lowmoors, and spread extensively under cli- matic conditions that were warmer than it is now in Maine. 8. The South Lubec “heath” is a member of the “‘highmoors”’ of the oligotrophic group of peatlands, and is characterized by a three- layered, telmato-ombrogenic profile series. The development of pedologic features at the margin of the heath indicates the effects of podsolizing processes active in this region. 9. The economic uses of the highmoors in Maine merit greater attention. The moss peat in the South Lubec ‘‘heath” and in the areas of peat around Jonesport, Maine, is equal if not superior to the imported material. Its use as a commercial product for various pur- poses can be made profitable in localities with facility for shipment by vessels. LITERATURE CITED 1. Auvmr, V., Stratigraphical and morphological investigations of peat bogs of south- eastern Canada. Comm. ex. inst. quaest. forest Finnlandiae 12: 1-62. 1927. 2. Bartuet, H. H., The submarine Chamaecyparis bog at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Rhodora 11: 221-235. 1909. 3. Bastin, E. S. and Davis, C. A., Peat deposits in Maine. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 376. 1909. 4. Bastin, E. S. and Witu1ams, H. S., Description of the Eastport Quadrangle, U. S. Geol. Survey, Geologic Atlas of the United States, Eastport Folio No. 192. 1914. 5. Cuatmers, R., Report on the surface geology of New Brunswick, Northwestern Nova Scotia, and a portion of Princé Edward Island. Geol. Surv. Canada, Ann. Rept., N. Ser. 7. 1895. | 6. DacunowskI, A. P., Peat deposits of Ohio. Ohio Geol. Survey Bul. (4) 16, 1912. 7. DacunowskI, A. P., Profiles of peat deposits in New England. Ecol. 7: 120-135. 1926. oad APRIL 4, 1930 MORTON: NEW ESENBECKIA 135 8. DacunowskI-SToxkss, A. P., The botanical composition and morphological features of ‘‘highmoor”’ peat profiles in Maine. Soil Sci. 27: 379-388. 1929. 9. DacHNowskI-STOKEs, A. P., Research in regional peat invéstigations. Journ. Amer. Soe. Agronomy: 1930. 10. DacHNowskI-SToxgs, A. P., Peat profiles of the Everglades in Florida: the strati- graphic features of the ‘‘Upper’’ Everglades and correlations with environmental changes. THis JOURNAL 20: 89. 1930. 11. DacHNowskI-StToxss, A. P., Peat profiles of the Delta Land of California. Proc. and Papers Second Intern. Congress Soil Sci., U.S. S. R. 1930. In press. 12. Daty, R. A., A general sinking of sea level in recent time. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 6: 246-250. 1920. 13. Dawson, J. W., On a modern submerged forest at Fort Lawrence, Nova Scotia. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 11: 119-122. 1855. Amer. Journ. Sci. 2nd Ser. 1,: 440-442. 1856. 14. Fernatp, M. L., A botanical expedition to Newfoundland and southern Labrador. Rhodora 13: 109-162. 1911. 15. Fernaup, M. L., Persistence of plants in unglaciated areas of boreal America. Mem. Am. Acad. Arts & Sci. 15: 239-243. 1925. 16. Ganong, W. F., Upon raised bogs in the province of New Brunswick. Trans. R. Soc. Canada 3: 131-163. 1897. 17. Ganone, W. F., The vegetation of the Bay of Fundy salt and dyked marshes: an ecological.study. Bot. Gaz. 36: 161-186, 280-302, 349-367, 429-455. 1903. 18. JoHNson, D. W., The New England-Acadian Shoreline. John Wiley and Sons, New Work.) 1925. j 19. Marsout, C. F., A scheme for soil classification. Proc. & Papers First Intern. Con- gress. Soil Sci. 6: 1-31. 1928. 20. Nicxots, G. E., Raised bogs in Hastern Maine. Geogr. Rev. 7: 159-167. 1919. BOTANY .—A new species of Esenbeckia from Texas.1 C.V. Morton, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by Wiiuiam R. Maxon.) On April 15, 1929, Mr. Harvey Stiles noticed several trees on the banks of the Resaca Vieja in Cameron County, Texas, which he did not recognize. From one of these he made an herbarium specimen which he gave to Mr. Robert Runyon, of Brownsville, Texas, who sub- sequently sent it to the United States National Museum for identifica- tion. On examination it proved to belong to the genus Hsenbeckia (Rutaceae-Pilocarpinae), a genus hitherto not known to be indigenous to the United States. Moreover, it is obviously distinct from any of the six or seven species of the genus known from Mexico and the West Indies. Mr. Runyon, who has since made several visits to the locality, sup- plies the following note: ‘‘There are four small, round-topped trees of the H’senbeckia on the banks of the Resaca Vieja, three miles north- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received February 15, 1930. 136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 west of Los Fresnos. The leaves put out very late in the spring. In the last part of June they were about one-third grown, and on the second of July the flowers were fairly well open. The trees flower and fruit twice annually. The fruit bursts open and scatters the seeds at maturity.” Esenbeckia runyoni Morton, sp. nov. ' A small round-topped tree nearly 5 meters high; twigs glabrous up to the inflorescence; leaves digitately compound, 3-foliolate; petioles 14 cm. long, pubescent; leaflets elliptic, rounded at base, short-petiolulate (2-5 mm.), obtuse at apex, 6-10 cm. long, green and glabrous on both sides, densely pel- lucid-punctate, entire, the margin thickened; inflorescence paniculate, dense, not exceeding 8 cm. in length, the branches of the panicle alternate, puberu- lent, the bracts subulate; pedicels 2-3 mm. long, each with a small subulate bract at the middle, pubescent; flowers cream colored, about 8 mm. broad; sepals deltoid, roundish at apex, pubescent, ciliolate, 1 mm. long, scarcely imbricate; petals oval, 3-3.5 mm. long, glabrous, glandular on the back; stamens 5, alternate with the petals; filaments shorter than the petals, about 2 mm. long. glabrous; anthers oval, 1 mm. long; ovary 5-lobed, the fleshy disk 2.5 mm. broad; style basal, short and fleshy, 1-1.5 mm. long, glabrous; stigma terminal, capitate; fruit a woody 3, 4, or 5-celled capsule, roughened on the exterior but without conspicuous tubercles; horny endocarp conspicu- ous, at maturity splitting elastically and ejecting the seeds, the capsule after splitting about 2 cm. long and 3-4 em. wide; seeds dark brown, about 10 mm. long and 8 mm. wide, with a short curved beak. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,438,940, collected on the bank of the Resaca Vieja, 3 miles northwest of Los Fresnos, Texas, July 8, 1929, by Robert Runyon (no. 177), a flowering specimen. Fruiting material collected from the same group of trees by Harvey Stiles, April 15, 1929, is mounted on sheet no. 1,436,973. Esenbeckia runyont belongs to the section Hymenopetalae Engl. and is most closely related to E. pentaphylla (Macfad.) Griseb., of Jamaica and south- ern Mexico, from which it is distinguished by its 3-foliolate (never 5-folio- late) leaves and its smaller leaflets, and by other more important diagnostic characters, as shown in the following key. The key also distinguishes E. runyont from its nearest geographical relative, H. berlandieri of northern Mexico. The other species of the genus which occur in Mexico (E. hart- mannii, E. flava, E. nesiotica, HE. macrantha, and E. collina) are not closely related. Kry Sepals scarcely imbricate, deltoid, pubescent; bracts of the inflorescence subulate. Disk 2.5 mm. broad; seeds with a curved beak... E. runyoni. Sepals strongly imbricate, much broader than long, and broadly rounded at apex; bracts of the inflorescence short, triangular-ovate. Disk 2.5 mm. broad or more; inflorescence elongate; sepals pubescent; BEGOS Wabitra Uwe Gd some fit ets a) 2 cn iennis eee eens E. pentaphylia. Disk 1.5 mm. broad or less; inflorescence more compact; sepals glabrous or sometimes ciliolate; seeds with a straight beak........ E. berlandieri. APRIL 4, 1930 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 137 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 998TH MEETING The 998th meeting, constituting the 59th annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 7, 1929, at 8:15 P.M. The Treasurer reported expenditures of $1182.92 for the year, and stated that the active membership of the Society is 227. The Secretaries reported that the following new members were elected during the year: R. R. Bopuz, F. C. Breckenripes, E. J. Brown, G. S. Coox, M. J. Evans, R. E. Gouutp, W. D. HersHpercer, C. 8. Howarp, C. J. Ksanpa, H. E. McComps, H. B. Maris, R. F. Ment, J. H. Taytor, B. L. WILSON. The following deaths were reported: S. J. Maucuty, C. V. Hopason, E. L. Jonzs, A. C. Trun, H. C. FRANKENFIELD, Francis A. Tonporr, J. P. AULT. ‘ The following officers were declared elected for the year 1930: President, W. D. Lampert; Vice presidents, F. E. Wriaut; Corresponding Secretary H. L. Curtis; Corresponding Secretary, L. V. Jupson; Treasurer, N. H. Hecx; Members-at-large of the General Committee, E. W. Woouarp, O. H. Gisu. At the conclusion of the business meeting PAUL SOLLENBEIGER gave an illustrated address to the Society (by invitation) on The Naval Observatory eclipse expedition to Iloilo, P. I. 999TH MEETING The 999th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 4, 1930. The address of the evening was given by the retiring President, Dr. LEASoNn H. Apams, on The significance of pressure in geophysical investigations. 1000TH MEETING The 1000th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January 18, 1930. The first communication in the celebration of the 1000th meeting was an illustrated address by W. J. Humpureys on The Philosophical Society of Washington through a thousand meetings. After a résumé of the history of the Society a number of the distinguished past presidents of the Society were shown upon the screen. Reminiscences of the early days of the Philosophical Society were given by J. H. Gorz and by C. F. Marvin. 1001stT MEETING The 1001st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February 1, 1930. Program: H. L. Drypren and A. M. Kurrus, Effect of turbulence in wind tunnel experiments. A brief historical summary was given of the appearance of certain discrepancies in measurements of the air resistance of spheres and airship models in different wind tunnels. On the basis of qualitative experi- ments the discrepancies have in the past been attributed to turbulence, i.e. 138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, No. 7 the small ripples or eddies superposed on the approximately steady air- stream. The Bureau of Standards in codperation with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has developed a method of measuring turbulence quantitatively and has given definite experimental proof that the discrepancies are to be attributed to an effect of turbulence. Further, it is possible to explain the effects as due to an effect of turbulence on the critical Reynolds Number of the boundary layer at which the flow changes from the laminar to the eddying type. (Author’s Abstract.) W. F. Wattis, A comparison of magnetic disturbance at different stations. This paper states briefly some of the results of a discussion of the magnetic records obtained during the MacMillan Baffin Land Expedition of 1921-22, as compared with the results from several other observatories distributed over the Earth. As a suitable basis for comparison a short, well-defined, world- wide, magnetic storm (March 14, 1922) was selected, and departures from normal values were compiled and compared by three methods. The first method is based on the vector AR which is the difference between the dis- turbed and normal total-intensity vectors, F and F., referred to three rectan- gular codrdinates. The second method involves the excess energy of the mag- netic field due to the disturbance. The third method is* based on a formula for magnetic activity proposed by Chree, namely, C(Ri + R3 + R%), where C is any convenient constant and R,, Ro, and R; are absolute daily ranges in three rectangular components of the total magnetic intensity. Any one of these methods gives results which may be taken as measures’ of magnetic disturbance. The disturbance values, computed by the three methods, when plotted according to magnetic latitude, give three curves closely resembling each other, and resembling also the curve of auroral frequency in its relation to magnetic latitude. The conclusion is that the geographic distribution of magnetic activity during disturbance bears a close relation to the auroral zone, and there is evidence that the zone of maximum auroral frequency is also a zone of maximum magnetic activity. A diagram, giving hourly mean hori- zontal and vertical-intensity disturbance vectors during the 18 hours of the magnetic storm of March 14, 1922, shows that, during the progress of the storm, these vectors vary widely in both direction and amount. If, however, instead of dealing with a single disturbance, we take average values of the disturbance vectors over several months, including many disturbances both large and small, there is a marked regularity in the directions of these vectors for the individual stations, and for all stations the general direction of the horizontal-intensity disturbance vectorsis southward. This indicates that the disturbing currents in the upper atmosphere flow in general from east to west around the Earth. (Author’s Abstract.) J. E. Wiis, Recent experiments with timekeepers. An account was given of experiments with several electrical methods of impulsing clock pendulums, including a method utilizing the amplified current of a photoelectric cell, the illumination of which is controlled by the motion of the pendulum, to charge a condenser after passing through the impulse coil which reacts on a perma- nent magnet to give energy to the pendulum. Pendulums were driven at amplitudes less than a tenth and approaching a hundredth the customary amplitudes of clock pendulums, so that the circular error was theoretically of the order of one part in ten million. Such small amplitudes are not practical for mechanically driven pendulums. Since driving impulses of equal intensity occurred on each half-stroke of the pendulum and at the same point in space (neglecting lag of impulses), the epoch changes due to non-centering of im- pulses were balanced. ‘The epoch changes due to lag of impulses were con- APRIL 4, 1930 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 139 sidered to be reduced to the order of one part in a million, and the variables concerned were measured. Observations with free pendulums indicated that the damping coefficient is less for small amplitudes than for large amplitudes. The observed timekeeping of the clocks of small amplitudes seemed to indi- cate that disturbances such as microseisms, by which such clocks are obviously more affected than are ordinary clocks, may be the limiting cause of inac- curacy in clocks with a single pendulum. Preliminary experiments with a pair of pendulums so connected that they keep a half cycle apart suggest the feasibility of the use of such a system in earthquake-proof clocks, which may have a higher order of accuracy than the clocks now in use. (Author’s Abstract.) Oscar 8. ApAms, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS On February 25th the American Geographical Society awarded the Daly gold medal to Dr. N. H. Darron for extensive explorations in the western United States and Mexico, and the Cullum gold medal to Dr. C. F. Marsur for his work on the distribution of soils in the United States, South America, and Africa. Miss FREDERICA DE LAGUNA, a graduate student in Anthropology at Columbia University, who accompanied a Danish archeological expedition to Greenland last summer, recently spent a week in the Division of Ethnology of the U. 8S. National Museum, studying the Alaskan material excavated by Mr. Co.Luins. ; Mr. H. J. REINHARD, of the Texas Experiment Station, is spending several weeks at the National Museum, working on a group of muscoid flies. Mr. AuBerrt C. Situ, of the New York Botanical Garden, spent the month of January at the Division of Plants of the National Museum, assisting Mr. Kiuure in sorting the material they recently collected in Peru and Brazil. The work of mounting the National Museum’s set of 9200 collection numbers has been started, and the duplicate sets will soon be ready for distribution. The Council of the Fifteenth International Geological Congress, meeting in South Africa in 1929, accepted an invitation from the geologists of the United States to hold the Sixteenth Congress in this country. An organiza- tion committee has been formed, as required by the rules adopted by the Thirteenth Congress, held in Brussels in 1922, and plans are being made for the entertainment of the Congress. Nineteen hundred thirty-two has been agreed upon as the year in which the meeting will be held, and the principal sessions will probably be in Washington, with excursions to points of geologic interest in the United States. The petroleum resources of the world has been agreed upon as a major topic for discussion. Lyman F. Knpirr, for many years government specialist in drugs and medicines, dealing with the enforcement of food, drug, and mail order laws, has been made medical director of the Tennessee Products Corp., Nashville, Tenn., where his work will include assistance in the utilization of by-products, medicinally and otherwise, as well as many health matters connected with the corporation’s activities. Doctor Kebler will take over his new duties April 1. 140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 20, NO. 7 Doctor Kebler will continue to be medical director of the John McEntee Bowman health interests, identified with the Biltmore chain of hotels, and in addition to his general headquarters in Washington, D. C., will have offices in Nashville, Tenn., and New York City. The Charles Lathrop Pack Forest Education Board, founded by the Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Trust of Washington, D. C. announces a aumber of fellowships in forestry for the year 1930-31. The purpose of the fellowships is to encourage men who have shown unusual intellectual and personal qualities to obtain training that will best equip them for future leader- ship either in the general practice of forestry, in the forest industries, in the teaching of forestry, in forest research, or in the development of public forest solicy. The awards will be made to gifted men who demonstrate natural powers of intellectual and personal leadership, and who intend to make forestry their life work. The sum of $10,000 is available the first year. The awards will range from $500. to $2500. or more in exceptional cases and will ordinarily be restricted to men of American or Canadian citizenship. No restrictions are made as to age, educational status or practical experience, but great emphasis will be placed on character, intellect, qualities of leadership, and similar qualifications. The administration of these fellowships has been placed in the hands of the Charles Lathrop Pack Forest Education Board, which is composed of the following: Chairman, Henry 8. Graves, Dean, School of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Secretary, Warp SHEPARD, United States Forest Service, Washington, D. C.; Samuren T. Dana, Dean, School of Fores- try and Conservation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; JoHn Fotey, Pur- chasing Agent, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia; Antoun Newton Pacx, Princeton, N. J., Director, Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Trust; E. QO. Steck, Director, Texas Forest Service, College Station, Texas; ELLwoop Witson, Chief Forester, Laurentide Division, Canada Power and Paper Cor- poration, Grande Mere, Quebec; Huco WINKENWERDER, Dean, College of Forestry, University of Washington, Seattle; RapHarL Zon, Director, Lake States Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minn. Application forms and other information can be obtained from the Secre- tary of the Charles Lathrop Pack Forest Education Board, 1214 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D.C. For the current year the completed appli- cations must be in the hands of the Secretary not later than April 15. Ye Per Sa Lees if ei). Treasurer: HENRY OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND _ Friday, April 4 | Saturday, April 5 Tuesday, April 8 Wednesday, April 9 Thursday, April 10 Friday, April 11 Saturday, April 12 Tuesday, April 15 Wednesday, April 16 Friday, April 18 Saturday, April 19 AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ANNOUNCEMENTS or MEETINGS The Geographic Society The Biological Society The Electrical Engineering Society The Geological Society ~ The Medical Society _ The Chemical Society The Geographic Society The Philosophical Society The Anthropological Society The Historical Society The Engineering Society The Medical Society The Geographic Society The Biological Society The Helminthological Society _ The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent- _ to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY et President: WILLIAM Bowlz, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckeRMAN, Bureau of Standards, Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. G. AvErs, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Oriana grocer .. Geophysics.—Note on EER gradients in the Permian basin, LANG. 33 oR ee ee ee ee Jo «nba ow a eee Physical Geography.—Peat profile studies in Maine: The South cae relation to sea level. A. P. DACHNOWSEI-STOKES........-2-00eeeee Botany.—A new species of Hsenbeckia from Texas. C.V.Morvon.......... of - na ae _ PRoceEpines Oe Tee ae — 4 - -- ‘a = ¥ . The Philosophical Society avy nessa hake co ° SciENTIFIC Notes AND Se eg ; a - j Yond Posy . . Ws : ; xe ci Mee 20 Aprit 19, 1930 No. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | BOARD OF EDITORS Epa@ar W. Wooiarp _ Epear T. WHERRY C. Wytue CooxEe GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY : BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS U, S&S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Sieg ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. BE. Merwin Haroup Morrison PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY : ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY EE. A. GotpMan G. W. 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Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. pt Exchanges.—The JourNat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is pe | within thirty days after date of the following issue. *Volume I, however, from June 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.99. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies ‘affiliated with the Academy ¥ z e Nef vf , Sng e 2 * ey BaD ya Pi be. INBPE TSE of aes tem eT JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 20 Aprit 19, 1930 No. 8 CHEMISTRY.—The volumetric determination of fluorine by the use of ferric chloride. Joun G. Farrcniup,