IRVINE
TIC
. X.
STAMMERING AND COGNATE DEFECTS OF SPEECH
STAMMERING
AND COGNATE DEFECTS
OF SPEECH
BY C. S. BLUEMEL
VOLUME II
CONTEMPORANEOUS SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING: THEIR POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
NEW YORK
G. E. STECHERT AND COMPANY
LONDON — LEIPZIG — PARIS
«9X3
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY C. S. BLUEMEL.
All rights reservtd.
NorfaoolJ
J. B. Cushlng Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER II
RESPIRATION
CHAPTER III VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION ... 29
CHAPTER IV ARTICULATION -57
CHAPTER V VERBAL EXERCISES, MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. . 96
CHAPTER VI MECHANICAL APPLIANCES, ETC 216
CHAPTER VII PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS 225
CHAPTER VIII « STAMMERING-SCHOOLS" AND "SPEECH SPECIALISTS" . 255
CONTEMPORANEOUS SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMER- ING: THEIR POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
TTF •
IN this volume the writer endeavors to present a synoptical review of the various systems employed in Europe and America in treating stammering. In the main, the systems described will be those contem- poraneously employed ; but inasmuch as many of the old and obsolescent systems are periodically re- quickened, and vaunted before the world as new and infallible discoveries, it will be necessary to describe briefly a few methods that one would willingly account defunct.
It would be a little impractical and often somewhat uncomplaisant to take up the systems of various "stammering-schools" as entities, and discuss and comment on the collection of unit expedients and exercises of which each system is composed. The more practical procedure will be to describe the units
2 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
without necessary reference to the systems in which they occur.1 This will eliminate useless and endless repetition, and obviate propinquities of print that might often suggest personal criticism. An individual system is usually an arbitrary and adventitious thing : it is commonly a collection of exercises and resources whose assemblage is due to the chance associations of the person plying it ; or it is a collection of exercises and expedients designed to remedy conditions that the person regards as the cause of the evil he is en- deavoring to combat. But in either case the coales- cence of different measures in a system is usually with- out great significance.
In presenting theories and opinions and describing various "remedial" measures, the writer will where feasible quote from works on stammering in order to avoid any possible suggestion of misinterpretation. Owing to the nature of the commentary, the source of the passages will in many cases not be given. All works, however, from which passages are excerpted are to be found in the Bibliography.2 The writers quoted will not always be contemporaneous, but the passages cited will have reference to theories and expedients at present accredited or countenanced in the therapy of stammering.
1 For illustration, a number of complete systems are given in the latter part of the book. 1 Appended to Vol. II.
INTRODUCTION 3
Stammering is commonly viewed as a physiological defect, and its cause thought to lie in some anomaly of respiration, vocalization, or articulation. For this reason, most systems of treatment consist of exercises and expedients that are presumed to give one control of the refractory organs or to regulate in some way the aberrant function concerned. In other systems — which are in the minority — this analytical procedure is not observed; but speech is regarded as a unitary function, and its defects treated by some more or less arbitrary method. It is evident that the systems of these two classes have little in common, and that the measures to be discussed will conform to no absolute classification. The procedure in the succeeding chapters will therefore be largely one of convenience.
We begin with a discussion of the various exercises, etc. that are designed to remedy defects of respiration.
CHAPTER II
RESPIRATION
NUMEROUS persons engaged in treating speech- defects hold the view that the primary cause of stam- mering is faulty respiration:
"Respiratory disturbances are found in all stammerers."1
"There is scarcely a stammerer who knows how to breathe correctly." 2
"This difficulty is always accompanied by a disturbance or vicious application of the rhythm of respiration during speech." 3
"The muscles of respiration are almost as much at fault in stammering as the organs of sound and articulation." 4
The respiratory disturbances are often attributed to weak nerves or muscular spasms; and the disturb- ances in breathing are frequently regarded as the direct cause of the "failure of the voice ":
"But the immediate cause, and the nature of the defect itself, is a spasm in the organs of speech.
1 Gutzmann, "Sprachheilkunde," 26. ed., p. 407.
2 Prospectus of a professional elocutionist.
3 Chervin, "Du b£gaiement et de son traitement," p. 4. *Findley, "Stammering," The Voice, Vol. VII, p. 54.
4
RESPIRATION 5
"It is a muscular spasm, originating in a nervous weakness. The muscular spasm affects the breathing, the breathing affects the speech, for without breath there is no speech." 1
"Voice is breath converted into tone by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments or cords in the larynx; and it is in the incoordination of the breathing muscles with those of the vibrating element, delaying the production of tone, that the primary cause of stammering lies. . . .
"Faults of breathing are the primary cause of stammering; the laryngeal faults being secondary." 2
"If the antagonistic action of both these groups of muscles is in equilibrium, a cessation of expiration takes place. This is the case with the stutterer where the diaphragm sometimes falls into a state of spasmodic contraction which cannot be over- come by the abdominal muscles." 8
"If the bellows of an organ can, for instance, by blowing too weak a stream of air, be the cause of the instrument not pro- ducing sound, in no less degree can the lungs be the cause of the speech-apparatus remaining toneless. They likewise can blow so weakly that the vocal cords will not vibrate, conse- quently will not make voice." 4
"The stammerer constricts the throat because the vocal organs, situated at the top of the windpipe, do not receive a strong enough current of breath from below — from the lungs ;
1 Shuldham, "Stammering and its Rational Treatment," p. 31.
2 Behnke, "On Stammering, Cleft-Palate Speech, Lisping," pp. 38, 41-
1 Guttmann, " Gymnastics of the Voice for Song and Speech ; also a Method for the Cure of Stuttering and Stammering," p. 159. «"Kreutzer's Method," The Voice, Vol. Ill, p. 175.
6 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
and this upward current is wanting simply because the lungs are not sufficiently compressed or squeezed." 1
"Now, what are the causes? They are, first, defective, partial, irregular breathing ; second,weak nerves, which produce the abnormal respiration. As soon as these causes are re- moved, their effect, which is stuttering, must disappear." *
Persons engaged in treating stammering usually endeavor to combat respiratory disturbances with breathing-exercises, which have for their object the strengthening of the respiratory muscles and the establishment of conscious control of the expiratory stream.
Coen says of his system of treatment : 3
"In my method for the cure of stuttering I remove the partial defective and irregular breathing by respiratory gymnastics. I then proceed with vocal reading and talking exercises. The respiratory gymnastics are as follows: I have the stutterer, with bare chest, assume a position against the wall, as has already been described, and while in this position breathe slowly and deeply. Before taking these breathing exercises, the organs of speech should assume the position of producing "ch" (as in the German ich}. This is accomplished by bring- ing the back of the tongue up to the soft palate, leaving only a small passageway for the air. After the stutterer has been sufficiently exercised and can readily pronounce this cA-position, he draws the air in slowly and deeply, until the lungs are fully
1 John Howard, "The Cure of Stammering," The Voice, Vol. I, p. 114.
1 Coen, "Stuttering," The Voice, Vol. VI, p. 204. 3 "Stuttering," The Voice, Vol. VII, pp. 8 f.
RESPIRATION 7
inflated. If this is rightly done the inspiration will be audible. As the pupil inhales, I press my flat hand against the diaphragm, at first gently, and gradually increasing the force. After the inspiration, the stutterer holds the air in his lungs. In order to do this with all possible exactness, I direct him to knit power- fully the chest and abdominal muscles, and to press the lips firmly together. At first, the inspiration is 5 to 10 seconds long, but after a while it increases to 20, 30 and 60 seconds, ac- cording to the age, strength, bodily development and degree of stuttering of the pupil. I am very careful that the retention of the ah" should be done with the utmost exactness, for even if only a small portion should escape, either through the mouth or nose, the object, which is the strengthening of the respiratory organs, will not be attained, or only imperfectly. After the retention of the air, the stutterer exhales ; at one time, suddenly and with full force, in one blast ; at another time, slowly in a long, protracted stream. This slow expiration, which in the beginning can only last 5 to 8 seconds, increases, according to the strengthening of the lungs, until 25 to 30 seconds can be used in the exercise.
"After the three breathing acts, which I designate as a respi- ratory unit, are ended, I direct that the stutterer shall rest a minute or so. These exercises are continued until the pupil is somewhat fatigued, which should be carefully watched, inas- much as injury would result if the lung gymnastics were con- tinued. In general, the stutterer can practice 15 to 25 minutes without fatigue. These respiratory gymnastics should be gone through daily, preferably in the forenoon, and should be contin- ued during the whole treatment, which usually lasts from 8 to 12 weeks."
Breathing-exercises are usually arranged systemati- cally. The exercises involve various combinations of
8 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
inspiratory and expiratory movements and periods during which the breath is held — with or without closure of the glottis.
The preliminary instructions — which vary with the different systems — are usually somewhat as follows :
Do not practise on an empty stomach or directly after eat- ing a heavy meal. Remove all tight clothing before taking the exercises. Practise in the open air or before an open window. While exercising, stand erect, and hold the head erect, but not too far back. Clasp the hands behind the back, as high as possible. Lower them, if necessary, when inhaling. Inhale through the nose. (Many instructors, however, direct their pupils to inhale through the mouth.)
The following exercises may be regarded as typical of the average system in which breathing-exercises form a prominent feature :
1. Inhale through a period of 2 seconds, fully inflating the lungs.
Exhale through a period of 2 seconds, fully deflating the lungs.
2. Inhale similarly through a period of 4 seconds. Exhale similarly through a period of 4 seconds.
3. Inhale similarly through a period of 6 seconds. Exhale similarly through a period of 6 seconds.
4. Inhale similarly through a period of 8 seconds.
Exhale similarly through a period of 8 seconds. Etc., etc.
The time is of course increased in these exercises till the maximum period is reached in which the pupil can inhale and exhale with a reasonable degree of
RESPIRATION 9
comfort. The stammerer is enjoined to inhale and exhale smoothly, so that in any particular exercise equal quantities of breath are inspired or expired during equal periods of time. Variations of the above exercises are as follows:
5. Inhale through a period of 2 seconds. Exhale through a period of 10 seconds.
6. Inhale through a period of 10 seconds. Exhale through a period of 2 seconds.
7. Inhale through a period of 5 seconds. Exhale through a period of 1 5 seconds.
8. Inhale through a period of 1 5 seconds.
Exhale through a period of 5 seconds. Etc., etc.
9. Inhale through a period of 2 seconds. Hold the breath for 2 seconds. Exhale through a period of 2 seconds.
10. Inhale through a period of 4 seconds. Hold the breath for 4 seconds. Exhale through a period of 4 seconds.
11. Inhale through a period of 6 seconds* Hold the breath for 6 seconds.
Exhale through a period of 6 seconds. Etc., etc.
12. Inhale through a period of 2 seconds. Hold the breath for 4 seconds. Exhale through a period of 8 seconds.
13. Inhale through a period of 12 seconds. Hold the breath for 2 seconds.
Exhale through a period of 6 seconds. Etc., etc.
14. Inhale discontinuously through a period of 4 seconds, alternately inhaling for one second and holding the breath for one second.
Exhale discontinuously through a period of 4 seconds,
10 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
alternately exhaling for one second and holding the breath for one second.
15. Inhale discontinuously through a period of 6 seconds, alternately inhaling for one second and holding the breath for one second.
Exhale discontinuously through a period of 6 seconds, alternately exhaling for one second and holding the breath for one second. Etc., etc.
16. Inhale discontinuously through a period of 6 seconds, alternately inhaling for 2 seconds and holding the breath for 2 seconds.
Exhale discontinuously through a period of 6 seconds, alternately exhaling for 2 seconds and holding the breath for 2 seconds.
17. Inhale discontinuously through a period of 8 seconds, alternately inhaling for 2 seconds and holding the breath for 2 seconds.
Exhale discontinuously through a period of 8 seconds, al- ternately exhaling for 2 seconds and holding the breath for 2 seconds. Etc., etc.
18. Inhale continuously through a period of 4 seconds. Exhale discontinuously through a period of 10 seconds,
alternately exhaling for 2 seconds and holding the breath for 2 seconds.
19. Inhale discontinuously through a period of 12 seconds, alternately inhaling for 4 seconds and holding the breath for 4 seconds.
Exhale through one second, completely deflating the lungs.
20. Inhale continuously through a period of 4 seconds. Hold the breath for 4 seconds.
Exhale discontinuously through a period of 10 seconds, alternately exhaling for 2 seconds and holding the breath for 2 seconds. Etc., etc.
RESPIRATION II
It is evident that countless combinations similar to the above can be devised. In many schools these exercises are taught from charts in which the direc- tions are conveyed by symbols. Inspiration and expiration are represented by vertical and horizontal lines, or by dots and dashes, squares and circles, etc. Periods during which the breath is held are usually indicated by parentheses, figures in the parentheses indicating the length of the pauses.
In the following charts (pp. 12 and 13), which are quite typical, inspiration and expiration are indicated by arrows pointing in the direction in which the breath moves in the trachea. The downward-pointing arrow thus indicates inspiration, and the upward-pointing arrow expiration. The figures above or below the arrows indicate the number of seconds through which inspiration or expiration occurs. The figures in paren- theses between the arrows indicate the number of seconds for which the breath is held. When no fig- ure occurs between two arrows pointing in the same direction, the pause between the two inhalations or exhalations is considered to be momentary.
Manifestly the directions can be conveyed much more effectively through these charts than through oral or written instructions. In many schools charts are used exclusively, and are employed literally in hundreds.
When pupils are instructed in classes, the time is
12 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING CHART 1
V V V A A A
V V V A A A
V V V A A A
- V A V A
V " V " A "A.
V • V * A • A
V " V " A " A
V A V A.
RESPIRATION 13
CHART 2
(6)
2 / \ 2 /\ 2 /\2 /\ 2 /\ 2.
(6)
'2\/2\/2\/2\/2
V • V • V»A - A • A V « V • V("A • A • A VAVAV'-AVAVA
V A V-A V A
V A V<"A V A
14 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
either measured by a metronome, or is given by an instructor, who leads the class with a baton or beats time with the hand. In some institutions charts are dispensed with, and the instructor leads the class with a baton and gives directions orally or by gestures. When the pupils practise alone, they usually take the time from a metronome or count mentally.
In many institutions the various sets of breathing- muscles — the chest muscles, intercostal muscles, dorsal muscles, etc. — are exercised separately. The following exercises are quite commonly prescribed :
Upper Chest Breathing.1 — Place the hands upon the chest, with the tips of the fingers on the clavicles. Inhale slowly, filling the upper part of the thorax so that the expansion can be distinctly felt beneath the hands. Inhibit movements of the shoulders, and as far as possible movements of the muscles controlling the lower part of the thorax. Exhale slowly when the upper chest has been fully expanded. Practise the various simple respiratory exercises, using upper chest breathing.
Costal Breathing^ — Place the hands upon the lower ribs, with the ringers pointing forward and the thumbs back. In- hale slowly, expanding the lower thorax laterally so that the movement can be felt beneath the hands. Suppress upper chest breathing as far as possible. Exhale slowly after inhala- tion is complete. Practise the simple exercises, employing costal breathing.
Exercise the costal muscles unilaterally, effecting the move- ment first on the left side and then on the right.
1 Also designated clavicular breathing, collar-bone breathing, shoulder breathing, etc.
* Also designated lateral breathing, side breathing, rib breathing, etc.
RESPIRATION 15
Dorsal Breathing. — Place the backs of the hands on the dorsal muscles well below the shoulder-blades. Inhale slowly, expanding the thorax beneath the hands and suppressing expansion in other parts of the thorax as far as possible. Ex- hale slowly. Practise dorsal breathing with the simple exer- cises. Exercise the dorsal muscles unilaterally.
Diaphragmatic and Abdominal Breathing.1 — Place the hands on the abdomen, with the thumbs on the lowest ribs. Inhale slowly, expanding the lower part of the thorax by con- tracting the diaphragm. Restrict the movement as far as possible to the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles. When inhalation is complete, exhale slowly by contracting the ab- dominal muscles and relaxing the diaphragm. Practise this form of breathing with the various simple exercises.
Full Breathing. — Inhale slowly, expanding the entire thorax. Exhale slowly. Practise the simple exercises, bringing all the respiratory muscles into play.
The following procedure is often prescribed for giving one consciousness of the diaphragm:
"Lie down on the back, the head somewhat elevated; put the lungs into the 'state of readiness'; for the better recog- nition of the matter lay the hand on the abdomen, and now, •without allowing the. upper portion of the chest to sink, emit the air slowly from the lungs, and it will be perceived by the slowly falling hand that the abdomen shrinks ; that is to say, the dia- phragm relaxes from the contraction by which it pushed the abdomen outward; and thus, pressing on the lungs, drives the air in them up and out.
"Inhale air again immediately and the hand will rise; that is to say, the abdomen will be pushed out, as before. This is the
1Also designated waist breathing, etc.
16 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
result of the action of the diaphragm ; and by continued prac- tice, interrupted by the necessary pauses, the consciousness of directing the diaphragm at will, will slowly be attained; for, although the diaphragm is an involuntary muscle, yet it can be ... partially controlled by our will.
"Now practise the exercise in an erect position; and, while singing a tone, it will soon be perceived that (without action of the abdominal muscles) the sounding expiration brings about but a faint result. Now let the abdominal muscles assist; contract them slowly, that is to say, press the abdomen inward while exhaling (and this can be done only by means of the ab- dominal muscles) ; exert a counter-pressure with the diaphragm which slowly subsides in proportion to the degree of pressure of the abdominal muscles, and it will be found that the ef- fect is much stronger."
The following exercises are also frequently recom- mended for strengthening the diaphragm and estab- lishing consciousness of diaphragmatic action :
1. Dilate the lower part of the thorax by contracting the diaphragm. Hold the breath, and by relaxing the diaphragm and contracting the abdominal muscles, force the breath to the upper part of the thorax. Now contract the diaphragm once more and bring the breath to the lower part of the thorax. Continue these alternate movements as long as the breath can be comfortably retained.
2. Lie upon the back, and place several heavy books on the abdomen. Practise diaphragmatic breathing, taking care that the books are raised as far as possible with each inspira- tion. Practise reading aloud, making the breathing diaphrag- matic and attending carefully to the muscular action.
3. Place several heavy books on the chest and one compara- tively light one on the abdomen. Now read aloud or recite,
RESPIRATION 17
and breathe meanwhile with the least muscular effort — in other words, breathe in the lower part of the thorax in order that the pile of books may not be lifted with each inspiration.
4. Practise "waist-breathing" while wearing a light elastic belt. Etc., etc.
Different institutions of course employ different combinations of breathing-exercises — and in many cases the different exercises or modes of breathing receive local names. Thus we hear of "puff and pause " and "puff and breathe " ; and of "effusive," "expulsive," and "explosive" expiration; "aspirate" and "silent" expiration, etc. In a few schools, use is made of the spirometer, special breathing-exercises of course being employed. When a spirometer forms part of the equipment, great emphasis is usually laid on "lung capacity."
In many institutions, again, breathing-exercises are practised in conection with dumb-bell exercises. This is particularly the case in the United States of America. These exercises may, however, have origi- nated hi England, for Charles Kingsley recommended them nearly half a century ago. In a letter to a friend he says : *
"Take a pair of very light dumb-bells and exercise your chest with them, taking care to inspire deeply when you raise them over your head, and when (consequently) the ribs are raised, and the lungs expanded. Do this slowly and quietly,
'"Charles Kingsley : his Letters and Memories of his Life" (edited by his wife), Vol. II, p. 260.
i8 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
and I think you will find, though it will not cure you, yet it will relieve and literally comfort your breathing enough to give you confidence in my hints."
The directions given by Kingsley are virtually a description of a popular exercise practised daily in a number of American institutions.
Another respiratory exercise that one finds in many English, French, and German stammering-schools is reading in a whisper. As a simple breathing-exercise it is recommended by Bell in his " Principles of Speech " :*
"A very useful exercise for strengthening the respiration consists in reading in a strong, loud WHISPER. This will be found laborious at first, but practice will make it more easy. It should not, however, be long continued, on account of the giddiness which it is apt to produce."
Bell also recommends the folio wing mode of practice :2
"A useful exercise for the regulation of the breath may be obtained in counting. Thus, to acquire facility of silent res- piration, count slowly and distinctly, with a free inhalation by mouth and nostrils before each number; carefully sub- duing the least tendency to audibility or suction in the act of inspiration, and heaving the chest naturally, without any up- ward action of the shoulders, or other bodily movement.
"To gain power in retaining the breath and prolonging the expiration, count five, six, ten, twenty, fifty, or any greater practicable series of numbers, with each breath; and continue the exercise for several minutes, without allowing the chest to fall, or pausing longer than is necessary to inhale before each group of numbers."
1 "Principles of Speech," $th ed., p. 9. * Loc. cit., p. 241.
RESPIRATION 19
The foregoing is a cursory review of the respiratory exercises commonly employed in institutions for the treatment of stammering. Besides these exercises there are often recommended expedients and practices relative to various modes of breathing during actual speech. These measures will be considered later. At this point it will be well to discuss the efficacy of the exercises already reviewed.
It may be stated unqualifiedly that breathing-ex- ercises furnish an excellent instrument for elocution- ists in treating physical stammering; but if the writer's theory of causality is correct, there is little more that can be said in their favor. A competent instructor, by using breathing-exercises and other elocutionary measures, can often eliminate physical stammering in a surprisingly short period; but the primary cause of stammering — the amnesia — re- mains unaffected. If the pupil has unreserved con- fidence in the system employed, he is temporarily absolved from fear, bewilderment, and inhibitive auto-suggestion ; and, for a time at least, stammering is reduced to its pure form. But, since the primary cause of the speech-defect persists, confidence is rap- idly lost, and the secondary causes return. It is evi- dent that respiratory and similar exercises can in the end effect little more than the removal of stam- mering that is of a purely physical nature.
The extreme elaboration of breathing-exercises
20 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
must be ascribed to commercial competition rather than to any advantage or peculiar potency that com- plex exercises may possess. — The practice of holding the breath during these exercises is valueless unless the glottis remains open, for no muscular activity is required to inhibit respiration when the outlet for the breath is obstructed. The practice of holding the breath for any considerable length of time is injurious. — The employment of exercises for the individual sets of breathing-muscles is undoubtedly to be recom- mended. — The use of mechanical restrictions to free muscular action during respiration has little to com- mend or condemn it. Lifting weights placed on the abdomen and stretching elastic belts undoubtedly strengthens the diaphragm, but a strong diaphragm is not necessarily a diaphragm under complete control. It is futile, of course, to endeavor to combat throat- contraction and "tonic spasms" of the articulative organs by increasing the strength of the expiratory current. — As regards the use of the spirometer, it is certain that no case of physical stammering has ever been cured with this instrument that could not have been cured without it. The practice of working for lung capacity is an inanity, for lung capacity bears no necessary relation to respiratory control. — Breath- ing-exercises practised in conjunction with dumb-bell exercises are probably less effective than breathing- exercises practised without them. They have the
RESPIRATION 21
advantages, however, that they break the monotony for the pupil and can be dubbed " scientific." — Read- ing in a loud whisper undoubtedly calls for increased muscular activity, and probably has some value as a respiratory exercise. The counting business is prob- ably less valuable.
We shall now examine the common expedients rela- tive to respiration that are considered to be efficacious when applied during actual speech.
The most commonly recommended measure is, of course, careful observance of the initial inhalation. This measure was recommended by Avicenna, the Arabian physician, a thousand years ago ; and it has been recommended by thousands of persons since. Kingsley advocates repeated inspiration : l
"Before beginning to read, take two or three long full breaths. And also (and this is an excellent rule) before you begin to speak to any one, especially if you are nervous, take two or three breaths and then open your mouth and speak. You will find the nervousness go, and the words come out, as by miracle. Remember Balaam's ass could not speak, till his 'mouth was opened.'
"At each full stop, you should stop, and take a long breath ; at a colon, a less full, at a semicolon, less, at a comma, less still. But keep sacredly to the habit of breathing at every stop,"
The advice to take breath before beginning to
'"Charles Kingsley: his Letters and Memories of his Life," Vol. II, p. 261.
22 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
speak is fitting when the stammerer evinces a tendency to speak on an empty lung, as do most subjects when physical stammering is much in evidence. But the procedure will eliminate only one of the features of physical stammering, and it is by no means the panacea that it is usually represented to be.
The stammerer is often advised to take breath before every difficult word — to stop short, inhale, and pro- ceed. An English teacher of stammerers makes reference to the expedient as follows :
"Now, I have found patients stumbling over this couplet 'many a time and oft,' and I have always stopped them in their reading and asked them to make the Ka sound detached from all other sounds or contexts, and they have generally managed to give it without serious trouble or difficulty; but when they have gone back to Longfellow's lines, it has been a kind of valley of rocks, a Diablerets to them, and they have stumbled about in the most hopeless fashion, until I succeeded in making them take breath immediately before the occurrence of the Ka sounds. Like singers, who just before a musical peroration which winds up with some high and long-sustained note, take a full inspiration, so my stammering patients put them- selves, as it were, into musical form, to insure elocutionary success."
The expedient of inhaling before difficult words is employed by many elocutionists. It is, however, en- tirely unnatural and has nothing to recommend it, — except that it may, like any other measure, alleviate stammering for a time by revoking secondary causes
RESPIRATION 23
(fear, multiple thought, etc.) through the power of suggestion.
A two- thousand year old " remedy " for stammering1 consists in economizing breath during speech. This particular remedy starts a new career at rather regular intervals. The method of exhalation is described by one writer as follows :
"In the act of speaking and reading, the patient must take care to control thoroughly the outward passage of the breath, and to let it escape as slowly as possible. The expiration should be thoroughly economized; none of it should be wasted by letting any escape before the act of speech begins. It should not be allowed to come out in jerks or gasps, but its passage should be easy, steady, and gradual ; for it cannot be too firmly borne in mind that it is on the extension, combined with the regularity of expiration, that the intensity, the duration, and the steadiness of all vocal vibrations depend ; and Senor Gar- cia's test of practising the voice with a lighted candle held be- fore the mouth may be applied here. If the flame be extin- guished, or even wavers much, the patient may take it as a sign that he is expending too much air."
But the other side of the argument is also repre- sented :
"The main thing to be attended to, and which, in fact, is the groundwork of the whole system of cure, is to expire the breath strongly each time when attempting to speak, the lungs being previously filled to the utmost ; or, in other words, to reverse the habit of stuttering, which is that of trying to speak without expiring any air."
1 Apparently first recommended by Celsus.
24 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
And thus another writer :
"Let him [the stammerer] hold a lighted candle in front of him as if he intended to blow it out ; then endeavor to speak slowly, at the same time blowing the words out with sufficient force to extinguish the light, and if he continues to do this about once a day, say at bedtime, and at all times when he makes an effort to speak to 'blow' his words out slowly, he will find it beneficial to his speech. I know of people who have cured themselves in this way, and who show no signs of stam- mering."
In support of strong exhalation the words of Kings- ley are sometimes cited that "there has been at least one frightful stammerer ere now who spoke perfectly plainly as long as he was in the saddle." The fact is also adduced that Satyrus required Demosthenes to declaim while walking uphill. Neither argument is very convincing.
Apparently the forceful expiration is intended to offset throat-contraction and the various "spasms"; and presumably the restrained expiration is intended to counteract the habit of exhausting the breath immediately before or during speech. It seems reasonable for one to believe that either of these expedients might prove valuable in particular cases for removing specific faults of utterance; but it seems equally reasonable to believe that these ex- pedients,1 if applied indiscriminately, would be more likely to engender faults than to remove them.
RESPIRATION 25
Neither measure, of course, can in the least allevi- ate pure stammering.
Another "remedy" for stammering is the practice of contracting the abdominal muscles and relaxing the diaphragm at every syllable. One English writer describes this particular procedure as follows :
"In order to ascertain the degree of inefficiency in the man- agement of breath in a stammerer, I place him on a couch, flat on his back, comfortably raising his head on a pillow, and then give him some diaphragmatic drill. As soon as he has acquired sufficient control over the diaphragm, I direct him to say the alphabet, taking a very short inspiration before each letter by contracting the diaphragm, and then attacking the letter by relaxing the diaphragm. I control these movements by holding my hand on his abdomen, and he now, to the amaze- ment of friends who may have accompanied him, pronounces every letter as quietly and as easily as they could do them- selves."
This expedient is still in vogue in a few stammering- schools in Europe and America. Only recently the writer heard of its being recommended by a Philadel- phia physician. The "remedy," however, is worse than ineffectual; it is pernicious. It cures neither pure stammering nor physical stammering ; it merely establishes a vicious form of utterance.
Another alleged remedy for stammering is diaphrag- matic breathing. This is the great cathoh'con of present-day stammering-schools in which elocutionary methods are employed. In practically every stam-
26 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
mering-school in America the pupil begins by re- forming his habits of breathing if he has formerly employed the upper chest to any extent in respiration. In Europe the enthusiasm for this method is not quite so great, but where diaphragmatic breathing is em- ployed, it is usually represented as an infallible remedy. The whole business is, however, a fiasco. The facts in the matter are that diaphragmatic and costal breath- ing are exceedingly valuable to the average elocutionist or public speaker ; but that diaphragmatic breathing is no cure for physical stammering or amnesia. Lower thorax breathing may be preferable to upper thorax breathing ; but if this is the case, when pne has ac- quired lower thorax breathing he has simply acquired the preferable method — that is all. Stammering is not breathing in the upper part of the thorax, as many elocutionists seem to suppose.
The last two expedients relative to respiration that we have to consider are inhaling exclusively through the nose or exclusively through the mouth. Both methods have ardent advocates. The writer of an English pamphlet says:
"I meet stammerers in all sorts of ways and places. One instance of an accidental meeting may be worth mentioning, as the stammerer is, I hope, on a fair way to complete cure. I had to leave some things at a Left Luggage Office, and the young official who took charge of them was a bad stammerer, so I assured him that I was much worse once, and left him with the advice: 'Always shut your mouth before you begin
RESPIRATION 27
to speak, so that the breath can be taken in through the nose.' I have taken every opportunity I could to give him a few hints since I first met him, and his success, and the opinion of others that the system I propose is the correct one, have induced me to try in a few short chapters to help those whose lives are troubled by inability to produce words either with distinctness or certainty."
In opposition to this procedure a German author writes:
"Normal quiet breathing, and breathing during speech, are two different things : the former takes place through the nose; the latter through the mouth."
An English writer advises :
"Above all, never catch in the breath through the mouth, when speaking, reading, or singing; but always through the nostrils. The same rule applies to walking and all athletic exercises."
And so it goes.
The writer has in mind an American school where the pupils are admonished always to breathe through the nose; an English school where the pupils are taught to inhale through the wide open mouth;1 and a German school where the pupils are directed to open the mouth to about the breadth of a straw.
The whole question of inhaling through the mouth
1 The pupil inhales through the mouth till conscious of a feeling of coldness in the glottis; he then begins to speak from the "open position."
28 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
or nose has, however, little bearing on the subject of stammering. Breathing through the nose when one is silent is a hygienic measure; breathing through the mouth during speech is a matter of convenience. Neither mode of breathing will cause or cure stammer- ing. The subject scarcely merits discussion in the present connection.
CHAPTER III
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION
SPEECH is frequently said to consist of the three elements — respiration, vocalization, and articulation. But vocalization is merely the production of "un- colored" sound; hence we have vowel-coloration to account for. It is evident that there are four elements in speech rather than three. In this chapter, however, we shall, as a matter of convenience, treat vocalization and vowel-production conjointly, making at different points whatever distinctions may be necessary.
It has already been observed (Vol. I, pp. 181 ff.) that one of the commonest views in regard to stam- mering is that the disturbance is caused by a failure of the voice.
"To the question, what is stuttering? I have only the answer : Stuttering is a refusal of the voice." *
"The term 'stammering' is properly applied to that form of impediment of speech which manifests itself by a stemming back of the sound or a hesitation in the appearance of the voice." 2
l"Kreutzer's Method," The Voice, Vol. Ill, p. 175.
»Ashmann, "Stammering and Stuttering," The Voice, Vol. Ill, p. 138. The author proceeds to define stuttering as "an impulsive, irregular breaking forth of the voice."
29
30 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
"Concerning the essential factor in stammering I would express myself as follows : Stammering consists in a temporary ineptitude in the management of the voice — which ineptitude may be conditioned by various influences. There is inability to impart to the vocal cords the proper degree of tension for the production of voice and then to expel the breath through the glottis in a stream sufficient to set the cords in vibration." *
"Both impediments (stammering and stuttering) are fre- quently found in the same person, and both are due to the same cause — inability to vocalize." 2
It has already been remarked (Vol. II, p. 4) that failure of the voice is often ascribed to a failure of the expiratory current. Failure of voice is also ascribed to spasm of the vocal cords (Arnott, Miiller, Schul- thess, and others), and occasionally to general throat- contraction. Concerning the latter cause one writer remarks : 3
"If we begin to speak at any point above the diaphragm, the speech suffers according to the location, the amount of misplaced energy and the temperament of the speaker. If all the energy is centred at any such point, there can be no speech, because it is only force in the breathing-muscles that can drive the breath against the vocal cords ; and as the breath, whether vocalized or not, must pass through the glottis, it is plain that if the muscles at the glottis tie up the passage, the speech is hindered in the degree of the force of the contraction.
1 Wyneken, "Ueber das Stottern und dessen Heilung," p. 15.
1 Behnke, "On Stammering, Cleft-Palate Speech, Lisping," p. 10.
•Thorpe, "Speech-Hesitation," pp. 30, 75.
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 31
"This is the distinguishing symptom in speech-hesitation. It is one cause of spasm of the glottis. If the contraction stops at the glottis, only the vowels are hindered ; but if it extends, as it usually does, to the lips and the tongue, the consonants also are affected. . . .
"Speech-hesitation has but one cause, which is misplaced contraction."
Two general methods are followed in combating defective production of the voice. One method is to train the pupil in various exercises with a view to establishing voluntary control of the vocal organs; the other is to practise the pupil in some special mode of utterance with the object of counteracting the sup- posed cause of stammering during actual speech. We shall consider first the exercises that are cur- rently employed.
A popular exercise for infixing consciousness of the movements of the entire larynx is as follows :
Pronounce in a monotone the vowels e, a, ah, aw, 5, do. Pronounce these vowels in the reverse order. Pronounce e, do, e, 55, e, do; ah, aw, ah, aw, ah, aw; e, do, e, 55, e, do, etc. Note the gradual descent of the larynx in the vowel-series from I to do. Note the ascent of the larynx when the vowels are pronounced in the reverse order. Note the extreme move- ment in e-do, and the relatively slight movement in ah-aw.
An exercise frequently prescribed for establishing consciousness of the vocal cords is the practice of the "direct attack" (glottis-stroke, coup de la glotte, etc.)
32 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
and "indirect attack" of the voice (glide of the glottis, etc.). Guttmann describes these two methods of vocalization in the following words : 1
"In the 'direct attack' the vocal cords come into contact throughout their entire length, from the front backward, so that the lower part of the larynx is completely separated from the upper, and the approach of the vocal cords is rapid and decided ; at the same time the vocal cords become shortened, and must, therefore, with the immediately following into- nation, alter their degree of tension, their shape, length, and thickness, according to the sound which is to be produced, and must separate somewhat. A tone thus produced will be marked and separated from other tones.
"In the 'indirect attack,' on the contrary, the glottis is not completely closed by the approach of the vocal cords. Here their length, tension, shape, etc., are at once such as are re- quired for the production of the desired tone, and, consequently, the vibrations begin immediately after the approach of the vocal cords without any change in their length or tension, as is necessary in the 'direct attack.'"
The practice of the glottis-stroke is described by another writer as follows : 2
"Assume standing position with active chest; take full breath, and whisper forcibly the word 'who' three times. Re- peat the same. Now whisper 'who' twice, and speak it aloud the third tune ; then whisper ' who ' once, and speak it aloud the second and third tune; then speak 'who' aloud three times. Now speak 'who' twice, and the third time say 'oo'
1 " Gymnastics of the Voice," 3d ed., pp. 60 f .
1 Fobes, "Handbook of Elocution Simplified," pp. 24 f.
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 33
as those letters sound in the word woo; then say 'who' once, and ' oo ' the second and third time ; then say ' oo ' three times. You should make both the whisper and vocal sound very short and sudden, without any feeling of contraction or effort in the throat or mouth. It should seem to you as if the sound came from the lips ; and, while you are energetic in the exercise, it must be done with perfect ease. You have thus proceeded, from an easy, forcible whisper, to an easy, forcible sound, and have thus obtained what is called the 'Glottis Stroke.' After diligent practice on the above exercise, use any of the short vowels, speaking each vowel three times very shortly, as you did the vowel-sound oo."
The direct attack is also practised by inhaling, holding the breath for an instant, then abruptly producing voice. This procedure is followed with the different vowels. Another method is to prolong a vowel and interrupt it a number of times by occluding the glottis. A series of staccato vowels of course re- sults. The indirect attack is practised by prefixing an "inaudible" h to the various vowels; by com- mencing vowels in a whisper and finishing them with voice ; etc. Different methods of practising the direct and indirect attack obtain in different institutions, but the methods above described will exemplify the general procedure.
Another exercise for establishing consciousness of the vocal cords consists in drawing or emitting a long breath and interrupting it repeatedly by closing the glottis. A variant of this exercise consists in inhaling
34 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
and exhaling in short breaths, and occluding the glottis at the end of each inhalation and exhalation. In these exercises the "click of the glottis" can be heard as the vocal cords separate after complete con- tact. It is to this particular feature, and to the feeling of glottal action, that the pupil is admonished to attend.
An exercise that is sometimes prescribed for strength- ening the laryngeal muscles and making them "more pliable and subservient to the will" is practising the different vowels in octaves. The stammerer begins by singing the vowels in the lowest possible pitch. He produces them a number of times in this manner, and then practises them in a pitch an octave higher. Later the pitch is raised again, and finally the stam- merer sings the vowels in the highest pitch that he can comfortably produce. As the work progresses, the exercises become more complex, and the pupil is re- quired to jump rapidly from one pitch to another, to change the vowels as he alters the pitch, and so on. The instructor usually indicates the pitch required by striking the appropriate notes on a piano.
"The pupil should, in addition, make the following exercise: utter the whole sentence in the manner of the chromatic scale ; that is, begin with a high tone and descend a half tone with each syllable ; and having reached the end of the sentence, repeat it in like manner but with each syllable ascending a half tone."
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 35
Exercises in high, low, and middle pitch are recom- mended by an English teacher of stammerers. The exercises prescribed are as follows:1
"L. 'So he vanished.' This line to be whispered.
"H. 'Hell-hound, by thee my child's devoured.' Full voice.
"H. 'For I'm to be Queen of the May, mother, I'm to be
Queen of the May.' Light voice. "H. 'Ruin seize thee, ruthless king.' Full voice. "L. 'And the grave is not its goal.' Full voice. " M. "That does my wits belabor.' Ordinary voice. "H. 'He's gone.' Whisper.
"M. 'No longer, Deary, Duck, and Love.' Ordinary voice. "H. 'Charge, Chester, charge; on, Stanley, on.' Full voice. "M. 'Down fell a fine horse-chestnut in its prickly shell.'
Ordinary voice. "L. "The other shape, if shape it might be called, that
shape had none distinguishable in member, joint, or
limb.' Full voice.
"M. 'I thank you.' Ordinary voice. " M. 'The pen is mightier than the sword.' Full voice. "L. 'We buried him darkly at dead of night.' Full voice. "M. 'Now wasn't that a pity ?' Ordinary voice. "M. 'Entreat me not to leave thee.' Ordinary voice. "H. 'I sprang to the stirrup.' Full voice. "L. 'All into the valley of death rode the six hundred.'
Full voice.
"M. 'In my soul, I loathe all affection.' Ordinary voice. "H. "The wind was high.' Whisper. "M. 'To Giles he went and put the case with circumspect
invention. Thou fool, cried Giles, I'll make it clear
to thy dull comprehension.' Ordinary voice.
1 H, M, and L indicate high, middle, and low pitch.
36 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
" L. 'Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note.' Full voice. "H. 'You must wake and call me early, call me early,
mother dear.' Light voice.
"M. 'No weasels e'er were thinner.' Ordinary voice. "H. 'And shall he die, and unavenged? Arise, ye Goths, and glut your ire.' Full voice."
Inflection-exercises are also frequently resorted to for strengthening the muscles of the larynx, etc. The ris- ing, falling, and circumflex inflections are practised on various isolated vowels and words, and are practised in different passages in which the appropriate inflec- tion is indicated by diacritical marks. The directions for such exercises are typically as follows :
Practise the rising inflection on the word No (No?), using the word as though putting a question with the utmost surprise. Finish the word in the highest possible pitch.
Practise the falling inflection on the word No (No I), using the word as though answering a question with the utmost em- phasis. Start with the highest possible pitch, and end with the lowest possible pitch.
Similarly practise the words I, you, they, now, well, etc., first with rising and then with falling inflection.
Similarly practise the various vowels with rising and fall- ing inflection.
Practise the vowels with rising-circumflex inflection, begin- ning each vowel in the highest possible pitch, descending to the lowest, then rising again to the highest.
Practise the vowels with falling-circumflex inflection, begin- ' ning each vowel in the lowest pitch, rising to the highest, and descending again to the lowest.
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 37
Practise monosyllabic words with rising-circumflex and fall- ing-circumflex inflection.
Practise short interrogative sentences, exaggerating the rising inflection — " Are you really sure? "
Practise short affirmative sentences, exaggerating the falling inflection — "I am sure."
Practise the rising-circumflex inflection in short sentences indicative of doubt and irony — "Hath a dog money?"
And so forth.
Inflection-exercises are frequently practised from charts, rising and falling inflections being indicated by various arbitrary symbols. Occasionally inflection- exercises are combined with respiratory exercises, etc. In the following representative chart (p. 38), rising inflection is indicated by a line ascending from left to right (/), and falling inflection by a line descending from left to right ( \ ) . Inclined lines in juxtapo- sition indicate rising-circumflex or falling-circumflex inflection. Horizontal lines indicate monotonic voice. The vowels to be practised are given with the inflec- tion-marks. Inspiration occurs as convenient.
Similar exercises are prescribed for all the long and short vowels and the diphthongs.
The following sentences for the practice of inflection are prescribed by an English teacher of stammerers :
"John sold a horse.1
"John sold a cow and a horse.
'The inflection-marks indicate rising and falling inflection by their inclination, as described above.
38 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
INFLECTION-CHART
u
A A
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 39
S 4 4 ^
"John sold a bull, a cow, a calf, and a horse. "John sold a pig, a bull, a cow, a calf, and a horse. "John sold a sheep, a lamb, a pig, a bull, a cow, a calf, and a horse.
v ^
"John sold a cow, not a horse.
fc % X 4
"John sold a bull, a cow, and a calf, not a horse.
"The horse belongs to John.
"The cow and the horse belong to John.
"The sheep, the lamb, the pig, the bull, the cow, the calf,
and the horse belong to John. "You promise Denmark assistance? you command the
channel fleet ?
^^ s***
"Oh ! it was you promised and never fulfilled ! it was you who wanted to command the channel fleet, was it ? "
Another exercise sometimes resorted to for strength- ening the larynx is shouting, or declaiming in a loud voice. Occasionally the vocal exercises are practised systematically in a voice as loud as the pupil can comfortably produce. These measures are, however, not very commonly employed.
The exercises above described have for their osten- sible purpose the strengthening of the laryngeal muscles and the establishment of conscious control of muscular action. Innumerable vocal exercises are practised in different stammering-schools for which, as a rule, no very definite purpose is assigned; they may be used indifferently for exercising the larynx or for furnishing systematic practice on the vowels. The exercises about to be described are
40 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
decidedly of this indefinite type ; but they are found in most institutions for the treatment of stammering, and must therefore be recorded.
We quote first the following general directions for vo- cal exercises, which are taken from two different sources:
"These [vocal gymnastics] are joined to the respiratory gymnastics. As soon as the stutterer becomes somewhaf fatigued by the lung gymnastics, and after he has rested a few minutes, he proceeds to the vocal exercises. These are also to be taken in the same bodily position as the respiratory gymnastics. After a long, deep inspiration the stutterer forms the vowels with a full chest-voice, prolonging the sound as much as he can without special effort. This so-called vocal- ization should be executed with the greatest exactness, observ- ing the following rules :
"Begin the vowel immediately after the inspiration, and prolong it as long as the air lasts. During the vocalization the strength of the tone should remain the same ; it should not be begun strong and then grow weaker. Care must also be taken that the voice does not tremble, and that there is no cessation of sound, while the pitch of tone should be the natural one of the individual. The tone or vowel should not be screamed out, as this would produce hoarseness and fatigue, and would cause the stutterer to form the habit of an unnatural way of talking. In the beginning of these exercises the prolongation of the vowel is usually from 10 to 15 seconds, but, with increased respiratory power, the stutterer is able to prolong it 20 to 30 seconds with- out fatigue. All of the vowels are to be practised in a similar manner.
" The vocal gymnastics should be interrupted by short rests, and should be continued daily throughout the entire course. In order to avoid fatigue, it is recommended to take a middle
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 41
pitch tone, and retain it during the whole time of practice. After Such exercises, in the beginning of the treatment, the stut- terer is dismissed with the direction to keep quiet, and not to take severe bodily exercise or to forcibly use his vocal organs."
From the second source we have the following :
"Breathe in as before (through the nose and filling the waist), separate the teeth well and whisper out the following vowels, each three times: (A-E-I-O-OO-AH). Use about five to ten seconds in taking the air into the lungs and about the same time in whispering out the letter. Now breathe in as before (slowly through the nose), and as the air goes out sound these same vowels out aloud, each one three or more times. Make the outgoing sounds at least ten seconds in length if you can. Later you can sit at the piano or organ and sound them out in various keys (or pitches of the voice) although the lower tones are the best for you. Keep the mouth well open in doing this. This is the reason you should stand before a mirror until you are sure that you are doing it well.
"Next, breathe hi with a little shorter breath and speak these same six sounds (A-E-I-O-OO-AH) all together in one outgoing breath, with widely separated teeth and all the sounds connected together in a talking manner, very much as if you were counting one-two-three-four-five-six without stopping and at a moderate rate of speed. Do this several times and many times a day, whenever you have an opportunity."
Vocal exercises are usually systematized so that every vowel is produced with every mode of utterance that the system embraces. The drill-books of some institutions contain more than a hundred pages of vocal and similar exercises. It is evident that all the different vocal drills of the different institutions
42 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
cannot be given here in detail. The writer appends merely a few selected exercises from miscellaneous sources to illustrate the general features involved. The other exercises are little more than variants. Herewith the miscellany :
Inhale : enounce the vowel a in a whisper, prolonging it as long as possible.
Inhale : enounce similarly the vowel e.
Inhale : enounce similarly the vowel I.
Inhale : enounce similarly the vowel o.
Inhale : enounce similarly the vowel u.
Inhale : enounce the vowels a, e, I, o, u, in one breath.
Practise the vowels a, e, i, 5, u, in different orders and combinations.1
Practise the vowels with voice, producing them with natural pitch and intensity, and prolonging them as long as possible.
Practise the vowels with natural pitch and maximum in- tensity.
Practise the vowels with natural pitch and minimum in- tensity.
Practise the vowels in natural pitch, and increase the inten- sity of the voice (with each vowel or series) from minimum to maximum.
Practise the vowels in natural pitch, beginning in a whisper, then vocalizing with minimum intensity and increasing to maximum intensity.
Practise the vowels in natural pitch, and decrease the intensity from maximum to minimum.
Practise the vowels in natural pitch, beginning with maxi-
1 The vowels a, e, I, o, u are replaced in some institutions by the series e, a, ah, aw, o, do; or the series a, e, I, 6, do, ah', or by Pit- man's long and short vowels (Vol. I., p. 193).
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 43
mum intensity, decreasing to minimum, and finally ending in a whisper.
Practise passing in natural pitch from minimum to maxi- mum intensity, and again to minimum, on the same vowel with but one inspiration.
Practise passing in natural pitch from maximum to mini- mum intensity, and again to maximum, on the same vowel with but one inspiration.
Practise the vowels in natural pitch, varying the intensity repeatedly from normal to maximum.
Practise the vowels in different pitches with different degrees of intensity.
Practise the vowels, varying the pitch from vowel to vowel : in other words, sing the vowels.
Practise the vowels with various modes of inflection.
Practise the different vocal exercises with direct and indirect attack.
Practise stopping the voice by suddenly closing the glottis.
Practise stopping the voice by suddenly opening the glottis ; i.e. change suddenly from voice to whisper.
Practise intermitting the voice by repeatedly closing the glottis.
Practise intermitting the voice by repeatedly opening the glottis ; i.e. drop repeatedly from voice to whisper.
Practise vocal exercises while marching, — uttering one vowel to a step.
Practise vocal exercises in connection with dumb-bell ex- ercises.
Practise vocal exercises and dumb-bell exercises in connec- tion with marching. Etc., etc.
In some institutions a number of these exercises have been endowed with special names. Thus we hear of "expulsion and explosion," "expulsive and explosive
44 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
stress," of "tremor," "swell and stop," and of such practices as " swelling " and " dilating " sound, etc.
Vocal exercises are often taught from charts. They may then become exceedingly complex. We repro- duce below, for illustration, four charts taken from four different sources, with the symbols in each case transformed to those of a common system. The inspiration sign is that already employed (V). A dotted line indicates whispered utterance, a solid line continuous voice. Pauses are momentary unless the length of the pause is indicated in seconds by figures in parentheses.
VV.
vvv.
a
1 Vowels are frequently placed at the extreme left of a line to show that vocalization begins immediately upon exhalation. The refinement is here disregarded.
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 45
CHART 2 V A V V A A
V (3) A V V (3) A (3) A y a y a a
y a a a a a
V_5__V_e_ e y e e e e y a e
a e a e
V a fa) e
y(3) a e a e a
y a e i o u
v a e i o u (-,} a. o i
V a u(t) a_
a e i o u i o e
46 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
CHART 3
V_ _h_
V _h_ (l)_ ha
y h ha h ha h ha h ha
y ha
y ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha
V ^a (3) a
y ha a ha a ha a ha a
V *
y a a a a a a cl1
y a a a a a 4
1 In the last line but one, the intensity of the voice increases with the size of the type. The vowels in the last line are given staccato.
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 47 CHART 41
V V V A A A (4) V V (4) V (4) A ~ (4) A (6)V V V (6) — — — — A
2222**
V (6) V (6) V (6) A (6) A (6) A V V (6) V (4) V
A (4) A (6) ^ (4) V (6) V V (6) A (4) A (4) A ^
V — (4) — (4) - (4) A V — — —
444 222
ooooov/eoouooA
2-22 2222
V (4) V (6) V (6) ^ (6) 5? (6) 2° A
444
V (6) V (4) V (6) A (6) 2^ (6) A aw (6) ah A
2 24
These drill-charts may be rendered more complex by various additional "refinements" and "improve- ments." Some are complicated by musical notes,
1 In this chart, the figures below the horizontal lines indicate the number of seconds for which the vowels are to be prolonged.
48 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
inflection-signs, intensity-signs, etc. ; and others by interpolated remarks directing the pupil to repeat certain parts of the exercise, and to breathe at partic- ular points in a particular manner. At one point the exercise may require chest breathing, at another costal breathing, and so on. As in the respiratory exercises, the time is measured by a metronome, or is given by an instructor leading the class with a baton.
At this point it may be well for us to consider the virtues of these exercises.
It may be said of vocal exercises in general that most of them are useful as ordinary elocutionary measures; and that the majority of them would be beneficial to the stammerer in some respects. But the exercises are usually of benefit for their psycho- logical effect rather than for their elocutionary value. The exercises exert a favorable influence through suggestion when the stammerer has confidence in their therapeutic power ; and for a time, at least, they may remove such secondary causes as fear, bewilderment, and inhibitive auto-suggestion. It seems probable that the vocal exercises, when practised several hours a day, may intensify the stammerer's auditory ima- gery, and thus exert a beneficial influence on speech. But if an intensification of the imagery occurs, it is temporary ; and the improvement in speech is usually lost when the exercises are discontinued. Probably some of the vocal exercises influence the kinaesthetic
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 49
imagery. Vocal exercises in general (or more properly, perhaps, a knowledge of the vocal processes) may tend in some degree to counteract physical stammering.
As for the individual exercises themselves, it is evident that any form of practice producing gross movements of the larynx might lead to the establish- ment of a particular form of kinaesthetic imagery. It is questionable, though, whether a marked in- tensity of just this particular form of imagery would be of any great benefit to the stammerer. The acoustic impressions associated with these vocal exercises might, of course, lead to a temporary in- tensification of the acoustic images. — Practice of the direct and indirect attack might strengthen the motor images of delicate laryngeal movements, and in this manner prove beneficial. The practice of the indirect attack might prove useful in cases where physical stammering takes the form of a vigorous closure of the glottis. On the other hand, the prac- tice of the glottis-stroke would probably intensify physical stammering in such instances. — The vari- ous exercises for producing the "click of the glottis" should influence the motor images, and could of course be applied with advantage in particular cases.
- The exercises involving change of pitch probably influence the acoustic imagery beneficially; thus they might effect a temporary improvement in speech.
- The inflection-exercises may of course affect both
50 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
the kinaesthetic and auditory imagery in some de- gree.— The practice of shouting or declaiming in a loud voice would be quite likely to influence the acoustic images. — Most of the general vocal exercises probably have little virtue other than their ability to intensify the auditory imagery for a period, and to exert a temporary " moral " influence. The whis- pered exercises may be dismissed as "fillers" -like- wise the dumb-bell exercises, marching exercises, etc. The various highly elaborated exercises are merely monstrosities.
So much for the exercises intended to cure stam- mering by rendering the vocal organs pliable and subordinate to the will.
We shall consider now the various related measures that are supposed to obviate stammering when applied during actual speech.
An expedient that has been popular for more than hah* a century is that of talking in a low-pitched voice. This expedient is quite prevalent in Europe, but is encountered only occasionally in America. The argument usually advanced in support of the meas- ure is that a low-pitched voice requires relaxation and separation of the vocal cords, and that while the vocal cords are relaxed and separated, "throat- constriction" and "spasms" are less likely to super- vene. The additional plea is sometimes adduced
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 51
that a relaxed condition of the cords makes neces- sary a stronger expiratory stream, and that the stronger expiratory stream prevents spastic occlusion of the glottis.
All of which arguments would have been more or less sound if it had first been shown that spasmodic closure of the glottis was the cause of stammering. Lowering the pitch, like any other subterfuge, may be effective for a time if the stammerer has confidence in the procedure. And, like any other subterfuge, it may, as a novelty, hold the stammerer's attention during speech, and thus tend to eliminate bewilder- ment consequent upon the search for synonyms. Like any other unnatural subterfuge, then, it may effect an ephemeral mitigation of stammering.
A somewhat similar measure is that of beginning the sentence hi an unusually quiet voice. This seems to be strictly a German innovation. The purpose of the procedure is apparently to preclude the unnat- ural effort that usually accompanies physical stam- mering. This seems, however, to be a rather indi- rect means of obtaining an estimable end. There is, moreover, always the danger that the first few words of the sentence will be lost to the hearer.
A shift that is sometimes recommended as an antidote for stammering is speaking in a whisper. The stammerer is advised to speak habitually in a whisper, to speak difficult words hi a whisper, to
52 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
speak those sentences in a whisper in which difficult words occur, and so on. The theory is that, since the vocal cords are not closely approximated during whispered utterance, there must be less danger of the glottis undergoing spastic closure. The argu- ment, of course, is just as sound as the premises. It is true that stammering is often temporarily alleviated by recourse to whispering, just as it may be temporarily alleviated by any other unnatural measure that inspires confidence. The expedient operates by inhibiting secondary causes. But whis- pering is not usually efficacious, and it is seldom effi- cacious for any considerable period ; hence, even if the measure were practicable, it would have to be condemned on purely empirical grounds.
Another specific for stammering is speaking in a monotone. One argument in support of the procedure is that by avoiding rising inflection the stammerer avoids a close approximation of the vocal cords, and thus reduces the risk of sudden closure of the glottis. Another argument is that inflection itself is difficult for the stammerer owing to his "deficient control" of the vocal cords.1 In many institutions the pupils are required to drawl their words monotonously for
1 One authority on elocution says: "These inflections are ex- tremely difficult to many. In the case of stammerers, they are sometimes the only stumbling-blocks in their way, as is proved by the absence of stammering in singing."
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 53
several weeks at the beginning of the course of train- ing. Occasionally the practice and application of the drawl is the entire system of a stammering-school.
- There is practically nothing that can be said in favor of the expedient.
In contrast to the above measure we have one that consists in using the entire range of the voice ("giv- ing the voice full play," etc.). Inflection is here the remedy for the defect instead of the cause of it. In reality, of course, it is neither.
A measure often advocated to counteract closure of the glottis and failure of the voice is maintaining vocalization throughout the sentence. The idea is that the stammerer's difficulty lies in starting voice, and that with the voice once started he has only to "keep it going" hi order to avoid stammering. Ac- cordingly the stammerer is admonished to "Keep on the voice," to "Keep the voice pouring," to "Maintain continuity of sound," etc.
As a matter of fact, vocalization is interrupted at every surd consonant, and "continuity of voice" is a myth. Nevertheless, the endeavor to maintain continuity seems to be extremely salutary, and the measure in question is one of the most efficacious to be found among elocutionary resources.1 The ex- planation for this fact is undoubtedly that continuity of speech involves continuity of thought; and that 1 The measure is nearly a century old.
54 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
continuity of verbal thought necessarily excludes multiple thought — one of the most potent of the secondary causes of stammering. We have, in addi- tion, the usual explanation that a measure ex- pected to be efficacious will, for a time, eliminate fear and inhibitive suggestion. — In some institutions the pupils are taught to maintain continuity of voice in a manner that does not involve continuity of verbal thought, and in such instances the virtue of the ex- pedient is lost. The pupil is instructed to introduce a protracted 8 into the sentence if he should antici- pate trouble with a particular word — and in this way to preserve continuity of voice while preparing to attack the difficulty. But, when this procedure is permitted, a search for synonyms frequently ensues, and stammering results or the I becomes the principal feature of the sentence.
Arnott's expedient for beginning sound was to prefix a short e (as in berry] to the first word of the sentence (£ — the sentence being spoken in this manner). The function of the introductory vowel was to open the glottis and initiate voice, which was then maintained in "continuity." This device, with its numerous variations, has become quite prominent hi the "therapy" of stammering. A more recent version of the formula requires the prefirion of the short e to every word in a sentence, or to every word beginning with a consonant. Occasionally its pre-
VOCALIZATION AND VOWEL-PRODUCTION 55
fixion is recommended only for those words that afford the stammerer difficulty. Another adaptation requires the stammerer to interpolate indefinite vowels between double and triple consonants (se-teed, se-te- reet, etc.) . With this recommendation the possibilities are nearly exhausted. Needless to say, the device in question is pernicious if applied in any manner.
A variant of the above measure, designed likewise to open the glottis and initiate voice, consists in pre- fixing the sound of the letter n to the initial word or to difficult words in a sentence (N-one swallow does not make n-spring, n-nor yet one fine n-day; etc.). This ruse is already three-quarters of a century old. A more recent invention supplants n by m, the n having apparently been found ineffectual. The w-prefix is (or was for a while) a feature of a "psycho- logical " system that was recently introduced from Ger- many into England. These n- and w-prefixes are undoubtedly even more malignant than the "indefi- nite 8."
Another expedient for opening the glottis consists in prefixing an aspirate (usually represented as "inaudible") to the first word or to difficult words in a sentence. It is evident that this measure is practically the "indirect attack." The observance of the indirect attack undoubtedly precludes certain vicious forms of physical stammering ; but it can, of course, have no effect upon the amnesia.
56 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
The direct attack (under such sobriquets as "voice- accumulation," "shock of the glottis," etc.) is at times advocated as a sort of general remedy for stammering. It is usually a general aggravant — at least of the physical manifestations of the defect.
Two diabolical strategems are occasionally recom- mended to the stammerer for opening the trouble- some glottis. One consists in inhaling before every word in the sentence, and the other consists in throw- ing back the head with every word that occasions diffi- culty. Comment on these measures is unnecessary.
CHAPTER IV
ARTICULATION
NUMEROUS investigators of abnormal speech have come to the conclusion that stammering is wholly or partially induced by misuse or lack of control of the articulative organs :
"The neglect of muscular activity which is displayed by the majority of speakers and singers, the laziness with which they open their mouths and use the lips and tongue is one cause of stammering, and the obstacle which prevents the words of singers, preachers, and public speakers being heard dis- tinctly. . . .
"Some stammer with an empty lung, some with a full one. Some cannot regulate the action of the lips through weakness of the facial muscles, while others are unable to govern the motions of the tongue." 1
"In all forms and varieties of the disorder the essential condition present is spasm of a greater or lesser degree ; which necessarily implies deranged nerve-function. . . .
"The spasm may occur at the various stop- points of the vocal tube; — if at the lips, labial dyslalia is produced; — when at the point of the tongue, the dental sounds are affected ; — if at the back of the tongue, guttural dyslalia results ; — and
1 Helmore, " Speakers, Singers, and Stammerers," pp. 40, 58. 57
58 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
(rarely) at the larynx, when the glottis being affected, phona- tion itself becomes impeded.
"By the continuance of any of these forms of spasm, a spas- modic habit is acquired, which becoming more or less auto- matic in course of time, passes more and more from under the control of the will, and eventually produces confirmed dyslalia ; perhaps by the vicious automatism of some nerve-centre not yet located, which may preside over the coordination of the movements of speech alone." l
"The most frequent cause of stammering is the imperfect education or training of the organs of articulation, and a deficiency in that sympathetic association which ought to sub- sist between the articulating and vocal organs." z
" Far more serious than any of the elementary defects hitherto noticed are those affections of speech which create an impedi- ment to utterance. These are known by the names of stutter- ing, stammering, spasmodic hesitation, etc. Their common characteristic is involuntary action of the organs, which are not obedient to the will. In stuttering, the articulating organs — the lips and tongue — rebound again and again before the sequent vowel can find egress." 8
"If the contraction stops at the glottis, only the vowels are hindered ; but if it extends, as it usually does, to the lips and the tongue, the consonants also are affected." *
"The seat of the former affection, stammering, is chiefly at the larynx, or the back part of the mouth ; the latter, stutter-
1 Potter, "Speech and its Defects," pp. 76-77. 1 Bishop, " On Articulate Sounds ; and on the Causes and Cure of Impediments of Speech," p. 67.
1 Alexander Melville Bell, "The Faults of Speech," sth ed., p. 9- 'Thorpe, "Speech-Hesitation," p. 30.
ARTICULATION 59
ing, which is a defective mode of expressing sounds, is situated more anteriorly." 1
When the cause of stammering is considered to be misuse or lack of control of the articulative organs, the corrective training usually consists of exercises for strengthening the speech-muscles and rendering them subservient to the will, and of practice in artic- ulating the various refractory consonants. We shall examine first the exercises intended to produce mus- cular control and development.
Labial exercises are considered to be important. Says one writer on the subject:
"I spoke of gaining flexibility of the lips; this is more im- portant than at first sight is apparent. I say, then, let the stammerer or stutterer endeavor to gain full control over the lip muscles; let him train them to flexibility combined with strength, for they are potent engines hi the whole machinery of speech. When I speak of training of the lips, I use no ex- aggeration of speech, for lips are, after all, muscles, and almost as capable of development as the biceps of a rowing man, and they are infinitely more sensitive than the most splendid biceps which led a crew to victory on the silver Thames."
We give below, a number of labial exercises, which are taken from various sources:
Pronounce the vowels e, a, ah, aw, d, dd. Pronounce the series alternately rapidly and slowly.
'Abbotts, "Stammering, Stuttering and Other Speech Affec- tions," p. 22.
60 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
Pronounce e-do-e-oo-e-oo, etc., exaggerating the lateral retraction and the protrusion of the lips.
Moisten the lips. Protrude the lower lip slightly, and draw it over the upper lip. Now withdraw the lower lip to its normal position; protrude the upper lip and draw it over the lower one. Let these movements alternate both rapidly and slowly. Keep the lips continually in contact.
Practise reading different passages without movement of the lower jaw. Keep the teeth continually in contact and exaggerate the labial speech-movements.
"Attempt to move them [the lips] singly; for instance, draw the under lip downward without allowing the upper lip to move, and vice versa. Produce a tone, hold it a while, and make the same movements of the lips. He who has mastered the muscles of the lips singly, can let them rest when they are not to act."
"i. Open the mouth wide, giving it its fullest extent lon- gitudinally.
" 2. Do the same, extending it laterally.
" 3. From one position to the other.
" 4. Half open the mouth, as in No. i.
" 5. Half open the mouth, as in No. 2.
" 6. Pout the lips, making a somewhat large orifice.
" 7. Do the same with a small orifice.
" 8. Close the lips, and let them remain closed without pres- sure.
" 9. Open and close them thus.
" 10. Close them with pressure.
"n. Open and close them thus.
" 12. Do the same as No. 10, with the cheeks puffed out.
" 13. Open and close them thus.
" 14. Blow through the lips.
" 15. Blow through the lips with the cheeks puffed out.
ARTICULATION 61
" 16. Blow through the pouted lips.
"17. From exercise i to 6 and 7.
" 18. From exercises 6 and 7 to i.
" 19. From exercise 2 to 6 and 7.
" 20. From exercises 6 and 7 to 2.
"21. With the teeth apart draw up the lower lip between them.
" 22. Do the same with the upper lip.
" 23. The same, drawing in both lips."
Exercises similar to the following are sometimes recommended for the lower jaw :
"i. Drop the jaw.
"2. Protrude it.
" 3. Draw it back.
" 4. Move it to the right.
" 5. Move it to the left.
" 6. Go from one to the other of the above exercises."
"Sing and hold a tone, moving the lower jaw (without any pressure upon the larynx) horizontally to right and left, and then describe a slightly circling movement. The object of this is to free the muscles used in chewing."
Lingual exercises are also popular in a number of stammering-schools. We quote the following typical exercises from Guttmann's "Gymnastics of the Voice,"1 a manual that has been widely followed by "speech specialists."
1 " Gymnastics of the Voice for Song and Speech ; also a Method for the Cure of Stuttering and Stammering," 3d ed., pp. 83 ff.
62 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
" EXERCISE I
"Open the mouth wide, but not too wide (this is meant for all exercises) ; let the tongue rest quietly without any pres- sure flat on the bottom of the oral cavity, the point touching but not pressing the front teeth ; breathe lightly in and out through the mouth (four, six times), not allowing the tongue to move in the very least.
"EXERCISE II
"Protrude the tongue as far as possible without any pressure and independent of the muscles of the larynx; keep it out four seconds, then draw it back as far as possible. Keep it back four seconds without closing the mouth. Begin slowly (six times), growing faster by degrees (ten, fifteen times in succession). Protrude the tongue during expiration, draw it back during a deep inspiration through the mouth, the nostrils held closed by thumb and fore finger.
"EXERCISE m
"Open the mouth wide, move the tip of the pointed tongue to the corners of the mouth alternately to the right and left (six times), having the direct intention to strike the corners (for purposeless work is only a mechanical action and will not lead to success) ; then growing faster by degrees (ten, fifteen times in succession). Do not hold the breath during this exercise, but breathe quietly and regularly through the mouth.
"EXERCISE IV
"Open the mouth wide, touch with the tip of the sharply- pointed tongue the middle of the upper and of the lower lip alternately; begin slowly, with the direct intention of letting only the outermost tip, not the entire front part of the tongue,
ARTICULATION 63
touch the middle of the lips (six times), then growing faster (ten, fifteen times).
"EXERCISE V
"Open the mouth wide, place the tip of the pointed tongue into one corner of the mouth, proceed with sharply-pointed tongue in dotting fashion along the upper lip to the other cor- ner ; then on the under lip to the starting point ; repeat the same movement backward to the starting point.
"EXERCISE VI
"Open the mouth wide, touch with the tip of the very sharply-pointed tongue the roots of the upper middle incisors, as if to make a dot there, and then, touching the palate in such dotting fashion with the tip of the tongue, proceed back as far as possible; then go forward again, always breathing through the mouth (inspiration while the tongue goes back, expiration while it goes forward, six times), both ways.
"EXERCISE VII
"Touch, in the same manner, the bottom of the oral cavity, backward and forward.
"EXERCISE VIII
"Open the mouth wide, touch with the tip of the sharply- pointed tongue the middle of the upper lip, then of the lower lip, and, without pausing, the right and left corners of the mouth (ten, twelve times), slowly at first, growing faster by degrees, alternating thus: upper middle, lower middle, right corner, left corner, upper middle, lower mid- dle, left corner, right corner, always with the sharply-pointed tongue.
64 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
"EXERCISE IX
"Open the mouth wide, touch with the tip of the sharply- pointed tongue the middle of the right side of the upper lip, then that of the left side of the upper lip; first slowly (six times), then faster (six tunes), without any movement of the lower jaw.
"EXERCISE X
"Repeat the same exercise with the lower lip, without movement of the lower jaw.
"EXERCISE XI
" Combine these two exercises in the following manner : Begin at the upper right side, proceed to the lower left, thence to the upper left and then to the lower right, so that this figure M would be produced; at first slowly (six times), then faster (six times).
"EXERCISE XII
"Open the mouth wide ; proceed with the tip of the sharply- pointed tongue from the right to the left, brushing the upper lip and passing along the lower lip back to the right with- out interruption (six times), slowly; then (six times), growing faster by degrees; repeat from the left to the right in the same manner.
"EXERCISE XIII
"Repeat the same exercise along the inner side of the lips. During this exercise touch the lips sharply with the tip of the tongue. Do not open the mouth too wide here.
"EXERCISE XTV
"Repeat the same exercise along the outer side of the lips. "Let it be borne in mind that the purpose of these exercises
ARTICULATION 65
is to sharpen the tongue, and that they must be faithfully performed.
"EXERCISE XV
"Protrude the root of the lowered tongue without allowing its tip to pass beyond the front teeth (ten, twelve times).
"EXERCISE XVI
"Sing a tone (ah), holding it as long as possible, without allowing it to lose its clear character, and at the same time try to make a circling movement with the tip of the tongue ; and later, when this exercise has been fully mastered, try to make a horizontal movement with the tip of the tongue from one side of the mouth to the other, first slowly and then grad- ually increasing in rapidity."
The following exercises are culled from sundry sources :
Protrude the tongue, and with the point describe a number of circles. Reverse the direction of the movement.
Repeat this exercise with the tip of the tongue in the plane of the lips.
Repeat the exercise with the point of the tongue retracted as far as possible.
Place the point of the tongue at the base of the upper incisors ; carry the point back to the soft palate, and if possible to the uvula, keeping the tongue continually in contact with the roof of the mouth. Carry the tongue forward to the teeth ; back to the uvula ; and so on.
Protrude the tongue as far as possible; raise it till it is in contact with the upper lip ; lower it till it is in contact with the under lip. Alternate these movements.
Thrust the tongue into the vestibule between the upper
66 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
teeth and upper lip ; into the vestibule between the lower teeth and lower lip. Alternate these movements.
Groove the tongue by raising the lateral edges. Flatten the tongue ; groove it ; flatten it ; and so on.
Groove the tongue. While the tongue is in this position, raise the point so that it forms a wall continuous with sides of the tongue ; lower the point of the tongue to its former posi- tion ; raise it ; lower it ; and so on.
Protrude the tongue; compress it laterally; flatten it; compress it ; etc.
Depress the back of the tongue as far as possible ; raise the back of the tongue till it is in contact with the posterior part of the hard palate ; depress it ; raise it ; etc.
Groove the tongue ; twist the whole tongue to the right, so that the groove is lateral ; twist to the left ; etc.
Repeat la-la-la-la ; na-na-na-na ; etc.
Trill the lingual r.
Many of these tongue-exercises are quite difficult ; consequently the pupil is sometimes advised to assist himself at first, where practicable, with a spatula. He is often recommended to practise the exercises for a time before a mirror.
Exercises for the velum, or soft palate, are now and then encountered. The following exercises, from three different sources, are typical :
Prefix a continuous m to words beginning with the con- sonant b; e.g. m-Bristol, m-Boston. Note the sudden rise of the velum with the change from m to b. Practise the m-b combination on such words as timber, amber, ember, etc.
Prefix n to words beginning with d ; e.g. n-Dover, n-Derby.
ARTICULATION 67
Note the rise of the velum with the change from n to d. Prac- tise the n-d combination on such words as hinder, winder, sunder, etc.
Prefix b (without actually disploding this consonant) to words beginning with m ; e.g. b-Mannheim, b-Maine. Note the lowering of the velum with the change from b to m. Practise the b-m combination on such words as submerge, submarine, etc.
Prefix d (without actually disploding the consonant) to words beginning with n; e.g. d-Norfolk, d-Newport. Note the lowering of the velum with the change from d to n. Practise the d-n combination on such words as sadness, boldness, etc.
Endeavor to raise and lower the velum consciously.
Vocalize the vowel ah. Nasalize it by lowering the velum ; raise and lower the velum alternately. — Similarly with other vowels.
Open the mouth. Inhale and exhale quietly through the mouth with the velum raised. With the mouth still open, lower the velum and inhale and exhale through the nose.
Most of these different exercises for the articulative organs are doubtless of value as ordinary elocutionary measures. The jaw-exercises, however, are probably dispensable, and the soft palate exercises valuable only when there is a tendency to nasality. These two groups of exercises are certainly not germane to the treatment of stammering. — Labial exercises do not mitigate stammering by facilitating articulation. It is possible for them to enhance the severity of physical stammering by increasing the strength of the labial muscles. It seems not improbable, however, that the employment of these exercises might intensify
68 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
the kinaesthetic images of labial movements, and thus lead indirectly to greater definiteness of the motor images of the lip-movements associated with the pro- duction of vowels. If this should occur, the exercises might prove beneficial if employed purposefully and with discretion. The practice of reading with closed jaws would be likely to inculcate a pernicious habit ; hence, should certainly be tabooed. — The tongue-exercises might prove valuable in improving one's consciousness of lingual movements and in inten- sifying the kinaesthetic imagery. They should prove valuable to the stammerer that is endeavoring to supplement his auditory images of vowels by kinaes- thetic images of the movements by which the vowels are produced. As the lingual exercises are employed at present — to facilitate the production of "refractory consonants" -they are certainly useless.
We come now to the various exercises in articula- tion — represented occasionally as furnishing drill for the articulative organs, but usually as affording "practice" in the formation of consonants.
We give below, a number of articulatory exercises, all of which are in use in different stammering-schools :
Prefix each of the consonants of the alphabet (excepting c and x) to each of the vowels, a, e, I, o, u.1 Thus :
1 For other vowel-series employed, see footnote on p. 42.
ARTICULATION 69
1 ba-be-bl-bo-ba da-de-di-do-du fa-fe-fi-fo-fu ga-ge-gi-go-gu ha-he-hi-ho-hu ja-je-ji-jo-ju ka-ke-ki-ko-ku la-le-li-lo-lu ma-me-mi-mo-mu na-ne-ni-no-nu pa-pe-pi-po-pu qua-que-qni-quo-quu ra-re-ri-ro-ru sa-se-si-so-su ta-te-ti-to-tu va-ve-vi-vo-vu wa-we-wi-wo-wu ya-ye-yi-yo-yu za-ze-zi-zo-zu
Postfix each of the consonants of the alphabet (excepting c, h, w, x, and y) to each of the vowels a, e, i, o, u. Thus :
ab-eb-ib-ob-ub
ad-ed-id-od-ud
af-ef-if-of-uf
ag-eg-ig-og-ug
aj-ej-ij-oj-uj
ak-ek-ik-ok-uk
al-el-il-ol-ul
am-em-im-om-um
an-en-in-on-un
ap-ep-ip-op-up
1 Inspiration is supposed to occur at the beginning of each line.
yo SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
aq-eq-iq-oq-uq *
ar-er-ir-or-ur
as-es-is-os-us
at-et-it-ot-ut
av-ev-iv-ov-uv
az-ez-iz-oz-uz
Prefix each of the consonants of the alphabet (excepting c and x) to each of the syllables of the preceding exercise. Thus for the first consonant, b :
bab-beb-blb-bob-bub
bad-bed-bid-bod-bud
baf-bef-bif-bof-buf
bag-beg-big-bog-bug
baj-bej-bij-boj-buj
bak-bek-bik-bok-buk
bal-bel-bil-bol-bul
bam-bem-bim-bom-bum
ban-ben-bin-bon-bun
bap-bep-bip-bop-bup
baq-beq-biq-boq-buq
bar-ber-bir-bor-bur
bas-bes-bis-bos-bus
bat-bet-bit-bot-but
bav-bev-biv-bov-buv
baz-bez-biz-boz-buz
(Repeat the exercise, replacing 6 by each of the other con- sonants in turn.)
Repeat the exercise, prefixing instead of the simple con- sonants the following consonantal combinations:
"Bl. . . .as in blade Fr. . . .as in fright Br bride Fy few
1 In these exercises q of course takes the sound of kw.
ARTICULATION
Bw buoy
By beauty
PI place
Pr price
Py pure
Dr draw
Dzh jew
Dw dwell
Dy due
Tr try
Tsh chain
Tw twelve
Ty tune
Gl glad
Gr great
Gw guelph
Gy gewgaw
Kl climb
Kr crime
Kw quite
Ky cure
My muse
Ny new
Fi flight
Vy view
Thr three
Thw thwart
Thy thews
SI sleep
Sm smile
Sn snarl
Sf sphere
Sp spy
St sty
Sk sky
Sw sway
Sy sue
Shr shrink
Spl spleen
Spr spring
Spy spume
Str straw
Sty stew
Ski sclerotic
Skr screw
Skw squint
Sky skewer'
Practise the following series of physiological consonants (giving the consonants their sounds, not their names) :
b-bb-bbb-bbbb-bbbbb »
d-dd-ddd-dddd-ddddd
f-ff-fff-ffff-fffff
g-gg-ggg-gggg-ggggg h-hh-hhh-hhhh-hhhhh
1 A dash indicates a brief pause.
72 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
J-JJ-JJJ-JJJJ-JJJJJ
k-kk-kkk-kkkk-kkkkk
1-11-111-1111-11111
m-mm-mmm-mmmm-mmmmm
n-nn-nnn-nnnn-nnnnn
p-pp-ppp-pppp-ppppp
q-qq-qqq-qqqq-qqqqq
r-rr-rrr-rrrr-rrrrr
s-ss-sss-ssss-sssss
t-tt-ttt-tttt-ttttt
v-w-wv-ww-vww
w-ww-www-wwww-wwwww
y-yy-yyy-yyyy-yyyyy
z-zz-zzz-zzzz-zzzzz
Practise the following combinations of consonants, giving the consonants their sounds — not their names :
"p-t t-p p-t-p t-p-t p-t-t-p t-p-p-t
p-k k-p p-k-p k-p-k p-k-k-p k-p-p-k
t-k k-t t-k-t k-t-k t-k-k-t k-t-t-k
p-t-k p-k-t t-p-k t-k-p k-p-t k-t-p
p-f f-p p-f-p f-p-f p-f-f-p f-p-p-f
f-wh wh-f f-wh-f wh-f-wh f-wh-wh-f wh-f-f-wh
p-f-wh p-wh-f f-p-wh f-wh-p wh-p-f wh-f-p
f-th th-f f-th-f th-f-th f-th-th-f th-f-f-th
f-th-wh f-wh-th th-f-wh th-wh-f wh-f-th wh-th-f
th-s s-th th-s-th s-th-s th-s-s-th s-th-th-s
th-sh sh-th th-sh-th sh-th-sh th-sh-sh-th sh-th-th-sh
s-sh sh-s s-sh-s sh-s-sh s-sh-sh-s sh-s-s-sh
th-s-sh th-sh-s s-th-sh s-sh-th sh-s-th sh-th-s
b-d d-l\ b-d-b d-b-d b-d-d-b d-b-b-d
b-g g-b b-g-b g-b-g b-g-g-b g-b-b-g
d-g g-d d-g-d g-d-g d-g-g-d g-d-d-g
ARTICULATION 73
b-d-g b-g-d d-b-g d-g-b g-b-d g-d-b
b-v v-b b-v-b v-b-v b-v-v-b v-b-b-v
b-w w-b b-w-b w-b-w b-w-w-b w-b-b-w
b-v-w b-w-v v-b-w v-w-b w-b-v w-v-b
v-w w-v v-w-v w-v-w v-w-w-v w-v-v-w
v-m m-v v-m-v m-v-m v-m-m-v m-v-v-m
w-m m-w w-m-w m-w-m w-m-m-w m-w-w-m
v-w-m v-m-w w-v-m w-m-v m-v-w m-w-v
v-th th-v v-th-v th-v-th v-th-th-v th-v-v-th
th-z z-th th-z-th z-th-z th-z-z-th z-th-th-z
v-th-z v-z-th th-z-v th-v-z z-v-th z-th-v
th-1 1-th th-l-th 1-th-l th-1-l-th 1-th-th-l
v-th-1 v-l-th th-v-1 th-l-v 1-v-th 1-th-v
th-zh zh-th th-zh-th zh-th-zh th-zh-zh-th zh-th-th-zh
z-zh zh-z z-zh-z zh-z-zh z-zh-zh-z zh-z-z-zh
z-th-zh z-zh-th th-z-zh th-zh-z zh-z-th zh-th-z
z-r r-z z-r-z r-z-r z-r-r-z r-z-z-r
r-1 1-r r-l-r 1-r-l r-l-l-r 1-r-r-l
r-n n-r r-n-r n-r-n r-n-n-r n-r-r-n
n-1 1-n n-l-n 1-n-l n-l-l-n 1-n-n-l
r-l-n r-n-l 1-r-n 1-n-r n-r-1 n-l-r
n-m m-n n-m-n m-n-m n-m-m-n m-n-n-m
n-ng ng-n n-ng-n ng-n-ng n-ng-ng-n ng-n-n-ng
m-ng ng-m m-ng-m ng-m-ng m-ng-ng-m ng-m-m-ng
n-m-ng n-ng-m m-n-ng m-ng-n ng-n-m ng-m-n
y-zh zh-y y-zh-y zh-y-zh y-zh-zh-y zh-y-y-zh
y-w w-y y-w-y w-y-w y-w-w-y w-y-y-w"
Repeat the above combinations with a vowel subjoined to each of the articulative elements ; thus :
pata tapa patapa tapata patatapa tapapata paka kapa pakapa kapaka pakakapa kapapaka taka kata takata kataka takakata katataka
74
SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
pataka pakata tapaka takapa kapata katapa pafa fapa pafapa fapafa pafafapa fapapafa, etc.
Repeat the combinations with a vowel prefixed to each of the articulative elements, thus :
apat atap apatap atapat apatatap atapapat apak akap apakap akapak apakakap akapapak atak akat atakat akatak atakakat akatatak apatak apakat atapak atakap akapat akatap apaf afap apafap afapaf apafafap afapapaf, etc.
Practice the following consonants and combinations with the vowel a (ah). Take breath at the beginning of each line.1
|
"ha—2 |
a— b |
a — ba |
ba— |
ha— d |
|
a-d |
a — da |
da— |
ha— f |
a— f |
|
a — fa |
fa— |
ha — p |
a— p |
a — pa |
|
pa— |
pa— |
pa— |
ha— t |
a— t |
|
a — ta |
ta— |
ha— g |
a— g |
a— ga |
|
ga— |
ha— k |
a— k |
a — ka |
ka— |
|
ha — sh |
a — sh |
a — sha |
sha — |
ha — s |
|
a — s |
a — sa |
sa — |
ha— st |
a — st |
|
a — sta |
sta — |
ja— |
ha— 1 |
a— 1 |
|
a — la |
la— |
a — bla |
bla— |
a — gla |
|
gla- |
a — »kla |
kla— |
a— fla |
fla— |
|
a — shla |
shla — |
ha — m |
a — m |
a — ma |
|
ma — |
ma — |
ma — |
a — sha |
shma — |
|
ha — n |
a — n |
a — na |
na — |
a — shna |
|
shna — |
ha — r |
a — r |
a — bra |
bra — |
|
a — tra |
tra— |
a — shra |
shra — |
ha — w |
|
a — w |
a — wa |
wa — |
a — qua |
qua — |
|
ha — z |
a — z |
a — za |
za — |
a — zwa' |
1 The author of the exercise recommends practice before a mirror. 1 The horizontal line here indicates prolongation of the vowel.
ARTICULATION 75
Practise the above consonants with all the different vowels and diphthongs.
Practise the following consonantal combinations; likewise all other possible combinations, which need not necessarily occur in words. "A gymnastic of the organs is the object here in view."
"b, d, hb, hbd, f, p, bf, ph, hip, t, ft, g, gd, k, kt, pi, tk, bdg, ptk, sh, fsh, shp, s, ts, shps, st, hst, ks, bst, j, 1, bl, dl, hi, gl, gls, Ish, shl, pi, kl, klg, glsh, m, hm, mb, mt, fm, km, 1m, shhn, shms, flm, n, bn, dn, hn, fn, pn, tn, kn, gn, shn, sb, sd, hs, sm, r, br, tr, shnr, shmr, w, qu, shwr, z, x."
Practise the following combinations of consonants and vowels. Inhale at the beginning of each line, and hold the breath for a moment before vocalizing.
" ah-bah-ah-pah.
ah-vah-ah-fah.
ah-jah-ah-chah.
ah-mah-ah-nah.
ah-sah-ah-thah-ah-zah.
ah-rah-ah-lah-ah.
ah-dah-ah-tah-ah-dah.
ah-gah-ah-kah.
ah-brah-ah-bree-ah-bray-ah-broh-ah-bru.
ah-prah-ah-pree-ah-pray-ah-proh-ah-pru.
ay-drah-ay-dree-ay-dray-ay-droh-ay-dru.
ay-trah-ay-tree-ay-tray-ay-troh-ay-tru.
ee-grah-ee-gree-ee-gray-ee-groh-ee-gru.
ee-crah-ee-cree-ee-cray-ee-croh-ee-cru.
oh-vrah-oh-vree-oh-vray-oh-vroh-oh-vru.
oh-frah-oh-free-oh-fray-oh-froh-oh-fru.
76 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
ah-blah-ah-blee-ah-blay-ah-bloh-ah-blu.
ah-plah-ah-plee-ah-play-ah-ploh-ah-plu.
ah-flah-ah-flee-ah-flay-ah-floh-ah-flu.
ah-vlah-ah-vlee-ah-vlay-ah-vloh-ah-vlu.
ah-clah-ah-clee-ah-clay-ah-cloh-ah-clu."
"Repeat 'ta' over and over, hundreds of times."
"The same way, repeat 'tdln, tdln, tdln ! "'
"Making syllables of these with the vowels, in order, repeat those syllables over and over, as in the following tables :
Table i Table 2
ta-te-ti-to-tu ta-da-la-na
da-de-di-do-du te-de-le-ne
la-le-li-lo-lu ti-di-li-ni
na-ne-ni-no-nu to-do-lo-no
tu-du-lu-nu "
"Next, place 'ta' before the letters of the alphabet, and repeat them, over and over, as 'ta-a, ta-b, ta-c, ta-d, ta-e, ta-f,' etc.
"Place 'ta' before each word, going over whole pages in a reader suited to the student's advancement."
Repeat the last two exercises, saying " ya " instead of " ta," and "pressing the tongue hard to place."
We give on the following pages a few charts typical of those generally used with articulatory exercises. The charts are from four different sources. The symbols have been converted to conform to those previously employed.
Exercises of this kind are practically numberless.
|
V |
aba |
ARTICULATION CHART 1 6be Ibi 6b5 |
77 > aba |
||
|
V |
ada |
ede |
idi |
odo |
udu |
|
V |
afa |
efe |
ifi |
ofo |
ufu |
|
V |
aga |
ege |
igi |
ogo |
ugu |
|
V |
aha |
ehe |
ihi |
oho |
uhu |
|
V |
aja |
eje |
iji |
ojo |
uju |
|
V |
aka |
eke |
iki |
oko |
uku |
|
V |
ala |
ele |
Ui |
olo |
ulu |
|
V |
ama |
erne |
imi |
omo |
umu |
|
V |
ana |
ene |
ini |
ono |
unu |
|
V |
apa |
epe |
ipi |
opo |
upu |
|
V |
aqua |
eque |
iqui |
oquo |
uquu |
|
V |
ara |
ere |
iri |
oro |
uru |
|
V |
asa |
ese |
isi |
oso |
usu |
|
V |
ata |
etc |
iti |
oto |
utu |
|
V |
ava |
eve |
ivi |
ovo |
uvu |
|
V |
awa |
ewe |
iwi |
owo |
uwu |
|
V |
aya |
eye |
iyi |
oyo |
uyu |
|
V |
aza |
eze |
izi |
ozo |
uzu |
78 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
|
y be be be be |
bC |
|
y bi bi bi bi |
bl |
|
y bo bo bo bO |
bO |
|
y bu bu bu bll |
bU |
|
CHART 3 Vd) a a a |
a |
|
Vd) pa pa pa |
pa |
|
V a o u |
e-i |
|
V pa po pu |
pe-pi |
1 The intensity of the voice increases with the size of the type.
ARTICULATION CHART 41
79
/mah mahN
pah
Vme ma mah maw \ / T 2 2 2 V
mo moo ma nil
pah>
A
be ba bah baw bo boo bl
V
V
V nioy "boy poy V m»y bay pay V my by ; py / \
1 See pp. n, 37, and 47 for explanation of symbols.
P« I "
po poo pi
8o SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
One French institution alone boasts more than three hundred of these articulatory and vocal drills. The examples given will suffice, however, to illustrate the general nature of the articula- tion-practice usually prescribed. There are, of course, such inventions as articulatory exercises combined with dumb-bell drill and marching; but any further exercises that might be described would, on the whole, be little more than variants of those already given.
And what is it all good for ?
More than half a century ago Klencke expressed himself on the matter as follows : *
"Inasmuch as nearly every stutterer has certain consonants which give him more trouble than others — for example, d, t> n> b> P) mt — 1> ia the beginning of my practice, prepared special exercises of the difficult consonantal combinations, such as da, de, di, do, du, etc. ; taught him how to use tongue and lips, and kept him at this drill until he was able not only to form the consonants physically correct, but also in their proper relation and in the most varied combinations. Such a course I deemed indispensable, because I saw how many a stutterer did not fulfil the conditions necessary to the production of a consonant in connection with a vowel. He would, for example, run out the tongue when attempting to articulate d or n, or squeeze the lips tightly together in p or b. However, I have dispensed with this practice (which is given in detail in my
1 " Heilung des Stotterns." Translation taken from The Voice, Vol. I, p. 121.
ARTICULATION 81
former book) altogether, for I have learned that it is not alone a waste of time, but also useless." 1
The theory that stammering is due to difficulty in producing consonants is practically defunct; but the articulatory exercises still continue. These exer- cises have, however, absolutely no merit to justify their existence. There is only one instance in which they could be prescribed with any semblance of justification; and that is, in cases where there has occurred a distortion of the verbal imagery. But even in such cases the mechanical practice of articu- lation is dispensable.
There are on the market a few stratagems for circumventing particular consonants and consonantal combinations.
The initial w, it is advised, should be pronounced as oo. The word waif becomes oo-aif; will becomes oo-ill; twine becomes too-ine; swoon becomes soo-oon; etc.
The initial y masquerades as ee. You becomes ee-oo ; yard becomes ee-ard; and yawn becomes ee-awn.
Initial r, when regenerated, becomes er. Rats are er-ats, and rot is er-ot.
Q, of course, must be thought of as kw. Forth- with the difficulty vanishes.
1 After discarding articulation-exercises Klencke directed his at- tention to the production of voice.
82 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
Regarding bl, cl, si, spl, sm, sn, sp, spr, and similar combinations, we are told that "when these are diffi- cult to stammerers, it is only because they look so." Separate the consonants, and trouble is annihilated.
Concerning these expedients the following may be said : W, y, and q require the same positions as 00, ee, and kw ; therefore it is a little inconsistent of the speech-mechanicians to propose the "substitution." If the endeavor to substitute ever proves beneficial, it does so by focussing the attention of the speaker on the verbal imagery. — In replacing r by er one is merely resorting to Arnott's trick (p. 54), but making its application specific rather than general. — The suggestion that the stammerer disjoin double and triple consonants is manifestly an inanity. — All of these methods induce unnatural speech or unnatural verbal thought, and therefore would be open to reprobation even though they should prove tem- porarily effective.
The antidote usually recommended for difficulty in articulation is a knowledge of ' the physiology of the speech-organs and the mechanical action by which the various consonants are produced. The following citations, from three different authors, present the point of view :
"Again we repeat, but in other words, the nature of the Stammerer's undertaking. He has to take his speech to pieces,
ARTICULATION 83
as a watchmaker does a watch, and examine all the cogs, and pins, and pivots, of its mechanism; then, having discovered and corrected the defects of the separate parts of the machine, he must proceed carefully to replace them, one by one, in natural order, adjusting each to easy action before he passes to the next! Such precisely is the curative process; it is not a te- dious one, for the elements of speech are few and definite in number, but though it were irksome, perseverance would sooner or later bring it to an end ! And the Stammerer will then not only have his speech machine in order, and free from obstructions and irregularities, but under superior control, from his intimate acquaintance with its structure and modes of action."
And thus the second author:
"A person who has acquired the habit of stammering has to begin again, like a little child, from the point from which he strayed. Unlike a child, however, instead of learning by imi- tation or intuition, he has to be told exactly how and where to place the tongue and lips."
The third author writes in dialogue :
"'Let me see your mouth; sit down and open it, please. (He [the patient] does so.) Well, it is an excellent mouth. Put out your tongue. (He does so.) An excellent tongue ; neither too large nor too small. You've lost a tooth or two ; but you've plenty left, and all the front ones regular and in place. Move your jaws well; they work easily enough, no need of oiling the hinges, eh ? (He laughs.) Move your lips, opening and closing them with a noise. (He does so, making the sound of the letter p.} Well, that's all right, and yet I dare say you fancy you can't say "puff" because it begins with
84 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
a p. Why, it is preposterous. There's no more reason, phys- ically, why you should hesitate on a word beginning with p or any other letter than I should ; it is all fancy.'
"He smiles a melancholy smile, and shakes his head sadly.
'"How long have you had this fancy ? Now don't be in a hurry to speak, but recollect first, and then answer.'
"A pause of a few seconds ; after a gasp or two, he at length blurts out with an explosion of sound :
"'Nine years.'
"'Nine years, eh? Now do you know the reason why you don't say the word nine clearly at once, without boggle or hesi- tation ? Not why you can't say it, mind, but why you don't? (He shakes his head.) Well, I'll tell you, and prove to you that you can say nine, or any 'other word beginning with n, as well and as easily as I or any other man living, if you set about it rightly. Now, then: shut your teeth close together, opening your lips at the same tune. (He does so.) Now put your tongue against the roof of your mouth, just above your upper teeth, and keeping teeth closed, and lips open, and tongue in that position. Utter any other sound but that of n if you can.'
"He does so, and tries to utter a sound, and produces, of necessity, a repetition of the sub-tonic n, n, n.
'"Very well ! Now you see that it is not that you cannot utter n, but that if you take the right means for the utterance of the sound of the letter you cannot say anything else.' " He opens his mouth and tries to say 'No.'
"'Ha!' I say, 'you cannot say "no" with a mouth wide open ; you can't begin to say it, because the sound of n in no requires closed teeth, or nearly so. Go back to your former closed teeth and open lips and say no, at once, and without hesitation.'
"A pause, and he does so, and laughs with satisfaction.
ARTICULATION 85
" ' Ha ! there ! You see you can say no as easily as I do, and you fancied it was a dreadful stumbling-block. My dear fellow, you have no defect at all ; you only fancy you have. You try to attain the utterance of a certain sound by an utterly false and contrary process to the one required to produce it. You might as well attempt to smoke with your mouth wide open; you have first to close your lips to draw the cigar.'
"Thus, I take him in turn through every elementary sound in the language — tonic, sub-tonic, atonic, as Dr. Rush has classed them — showing him the organic process necessary for the utterance of each, and forcing him to observe it hi practice, and thus proving to him, by his own success that, under the required conditions, he could utter no other sound than the sound required."
Instruction in the mechanical processes by which the various elemental sounds are produced is usually preceded by some description of the anatomy of the speech-organs. The physical structure of the organs is often taught from anatomical models. The ex- position on the physiology of speech is generally about as follows :
Inspiration is effected through the expansion of the chest. Since "Nature abhors a vacuum," air enters the lungs, which then fill the cavity that would otherwise have resulted. Expira- tion is effected through contraction of the chest, the contraction resulting in expulsion of the breath. As the breath passes through the larynx, or voice-box (a conspicuous part of which is seen as the "Adam's apple"), it sets into vibration the vocal cords, a pair of elastic membranous folds within the larynx, and thereby initiates voice. The raising or lowering of the pitch
86 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
of the voice is brought about by an increase or decrease in the tension of the vocal cords, this increase or decrease in tension being effected through muscular action. The voice is given the characteristic quality of different vowels through changes in shape of the buccal cavity, these changes being effected by alterations in the position of the lips and alterations ha the shape and position of the tongue. The consonants are formed by different obstructions presented to the vocalized or non-vocal- ized expiratory current.1
This elucidation of the general physiological pro- cesses of speech is followed by detailed instruction concerning the manner in which the individual con- sonants are produced. The stammerer then pro- duces them himself, and afterward practises them for months or years, as the case may be, with the dif- ferent articulatory exercises. Needless to say, he is counselled to form the consonants at all times accord- ing to directions.
The directions are typically as follows :
To produce the consonant p, press the lips firmly together, raise the velum in order to separate the nasal cavity from the pharynx, and compress the air in the buccal cavity by the action of the respiratory muscles ; now separate the lips (by the action of the labial muscles and the downward movement of the lower jaw), and the consonant is formed by the emission of the breath under pressure.
To form b, proceed as above, but vocalize the breath a moment before disploding the consonant.
1 A detailed exposition on the physiology of speech can, of course, be found in almost any good book on phonetics or elocution.
ARTICULATION 87
To form the consonant m, press the lips together, lower the soft palate slightly in order to connect the pharynx with the nares (but do not lower the velum sufficiently to bring it hi contact with the tongue) ; then vocalize the breath (which will find egress through the nares), and finally displode the con- sonant by separating the lips.
To produce wh (as in what), protrude the lips slightly, and round them to diminish the size of the labial orifice ; raise the velum, and emit the breath rather forcefully through the mouth so that a fricative sound is produced at the lips : complete the articulation by sharply separating and retracting the lips.
To produce w, proceed as for wh, but vocalize the effluent current.
To produce the consonant /, bring the lower lip against the upper incisors, and slightly raise the upper lip ; raise the velum, and exhale the breath with sufficient force to occasion a frica- tive sound at the lips : complete the articulation by lowering the jaw and sharply separating the lip from the upper teeth.
To form v, proceed as for /, but vocalize the outgoing current.
To form /, apply the entire edge of the tongue to the roof of the mouth ; raise the velum, and compress the air in the pharynx and cavity of the mouth above the tongue ; articulate the consonant by abruptly separating the tongue from the palate.
To produce d, proceed similarly, but vocalize the breath a moment before articulating the consonant.
To produce n, place the entire edge of the tongue against the palate as for I or d ; lower the velum slightly (but not to the back of the tongue), and vocalize the breath, which will pass through the nares : articulate the consonant by sharply withdrawing the tongue from the palate.
To form s, appose the tongue to the roof of the mouth with the lateral portions well in contact, but with the middle of the
88 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
tongue slightly grooved ; raise the velum, and emit the breath with sufficient force to produce a sibilation at the forward part of the tongue : finish the articulation by lowering the jaw and withdrawing the tongue from the palate.
To form z, proceed as for s, but vocalize the breath.
To produce sh, proceed as for s, but retract the point of the tongue slightly, enlarge the concavity of the tongue, and slightly arch its posterior portion.
To produce zh, vocalize sh.
To form ch (as in church) combine / with sh.
To form j, compound d and zh.
To produce th (as in thigh) place the tip of the tongue in contact with the edge of the upper incisors; raise the velum, and exhale with sufficient force to induce a fricative sound as the breath passes over the lateral edges of the fore part of the tongue: complete the articulation by depressing the lower jaw and separating the tongue from the teeth.
To produce TH (as in thy) proceed as above, but vocalize the breath.
To form the consonant /, place the tip of the tongue in con- tact with the palatal arch ; raise the velum ; emit and vocalize the breath, which will pass over the lateral edges of the posterior part of the tongue : complete the consonant by separating the tongue from the palate.
To produce r, upturn slightly the tip of the tongue, and place the lateral edges of the tongue lightly in contact with the palate ; raise the velum ; emit and vocalize the breath, which will vibrate the tip of the tongue : finish the articulation by lowering the jaw and withdrawing the tongue from the palate.
To form y, raise the body of the tongue till its lateral edges are in contact with the palate and bicuspid teeth; raise the velum ; emit and vocalize the breath, which will pass through
ARTICULATION 89
the constricted space above the tongue : to complete the artic- ulation lower the jaw and bring the tongue sharply away from the palate.
To produce k, apply the posterior part of the tongue to the roof of the mouth ; raise the velum, and compress the air in the pharynx : articulate the consonant by sharply withdrawing the tongue from the palate.
To produce g, proceed as for k, but vocalize the breath just before disploding the consonant.
To produce the consonant h, emit the breath with sufficient force to produce an aspirate sound in the glottis.1
In some institutions much ado is made of this study of the consonants. Further, the consonants are usually carefully and scientifically classified as closed and continuous; hard and soft; subtonic and atonic; labial, lingual, and guttural; weal, semi- weal and mute; etc. — according to the particular fancy or prejudice of, or particular book in the pos- session of, the particular "professor" in charge of the institution.
And what is the value of this analysis of the con- sonants ?
Nothing!
The analysis is usually faulty, for even phoneti- cists are by no means agreed among themselves as to the manner in which some of the speech-elements are produced. The principiations given above, though
1 All of these directions are, of course, for initial consonants. — Initial c has the value of 5 or k. Q is equivalent to kw.
90 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
in accord with the theories of a number of able phone- ticians, are open to all kinds of criticism. The surd th, for instance, is sometimes formed with the tip of the tongue not in contact with incisor teeth, and the breath then passes over the tip of the tongue as well as over the anterior lateral edges. The aspirate sound of h, when this consonant is followed by long e or u (as in heat and huge), is usually formed in the forward part of the mouth as well as in the glottis. G when followed by / (as in glass) is sometimes formed with the lateral edges of the tongue. T when fol- lowed by / (as hi little) is always formed with the lateral edges of the tongue. T when followed by n (in such words as mutton) is formed with the soft palate; etc., etc. But even if the analysis of the consonants were correct, a knowledge of the forma- tive processes would be useless, for the stammerer's difficulty lies with the vowels.
A knowledge of the minor anatomy of the speech- organs is likewise valueless. It is not an asset for the stammerer to know that the levator labii superioris al&que nasi assists in raising the upper lip. A general knowledge of the physiology of speech may deter the stammerer from endeavoring to speak with occluded glottis and deflated lungs; but a detailed knowledge is likely to divert his attention from his verbal imagery to the organs on which this imagery should act.
ARTICULATION 91
In some institutions the pupils are given instruc- tion (usually cursory, and unfortunately frequently inaccurate) concerning the physiological production of the vowels. This feature of instruction is rarely met with; but it is one of importance, and must therefore be included in the present review.
We give below, the lingual and labial conforma- tions corresponding to the different vowels as these conformations are usually taught by Instructors of the deaf : l
Ah as in far: The tongue lies flat and inactive in the bottom of the mouth ; or the whole tongue may be slightly but evenly depressed. The corners of the mouth are slightly retracted. The velum is raised, separating the pharynx from the nares (this is the case with all English vowels).*
0 as in not: The tongue occupies the same position as for ah. The lips are slightly rounded.
Aw as in awl, maid, etc. : Position of the tongue as above. The lips are still more rounded, and the labial orifice much reduced.
U as in but: The body of the tongue is slightly higher than in the position occupied for ah; the back of the tongue may be slightly raised. The mouth is well open ; there is no rounding of the lips.
E as in her: The fore part of the tongue rises slightly from
1 The elevation of the larynx is determined largely by the position of the tongue, and hence need not be considered in the present connection.
1 For French and Portuguese "nasal" vowels the velum is lowered, and the vocal stream divides, finding egress through the nares as well as through the mouth.
92 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
the position occupied for &. The lips are often somewhat rounded.
OO as in mood: The back of the tongue is raised almost to the soft palate. The lips are rounded and protruded, the labial orifice being extremely small.
OO as in hook: The back of the tongue is lowered slightly from the position for do. The labial orifice is slightly larger.
A as in an: The fore part of the tongue is in its lowest posi- tion ; the back is high. The mouth is well open, and there is no rounding of the lips.
£ as in met: The fore part of the tongue is raised slightly from the position occupied for & (the lower jaw rising with the tongue). There is no rounding of the lips; on the contrary, the corners of the mouth are often slightly retracted.
/ as in bit: The front of the tongue is raised from its position for t, and is very near the hard palate ; the lateral edges of the tongue may be in contact with the upper bicuspids. The lower jaw, of course, rises with the tongue. The corners of the mouth are slightly retracted.
E as in feel: The fore part of the tongue is almost in contact with the hard palate (the lateral edges of the tongue may actually touch the palate). The corners of the mouth are retracted.
0 as in so: • The back of the tongue is high, the fore part low. The lips are somewhat rounded when vocalization begins. As the vowel is enunciated, the labial orifice is reduced to the position occupied for do. — The vowel o is a diphthong, with the first element a monophthong ^intermediate between H and aw and with the second element do. Like all diph- thongs, the vowel is a glide from one monophthong to another, rather than a sequence of two pure monophthongal elements.
7 as in might: This vowel is a diphthong composed of the elements ah and e.
ARTICULATION 93
A as in may: A diphthong composed of the elements & and e. Oi as in oil: A diphthong composed of the elements aw and e. Ow as in now: A diphthong composed of the elements ah and do.
U as in due: A diphthong composed of the elements e and do.
These vowel-positions are not in accord with those given by all authorities. This must neces- sarily be the case, since authorities differ somewhat among themselves. Their differences of opinion, however, are not significant. Where one phonetician gives the "low back" position for a certain vowel, another may give "mid back." Usually either posi- tion will give the vowel with considerable purity. There can be no absolute scale of lingual positions, for these differ somewhat in individuals with the height and shape of the palate. And further, there is no absolute standard of vowel-qualities: these differ in different localities, and with different persons in the same locality.
"The solution of the difficulty seems to be that suggested by Ellis, namely, that, 'what we call our vowels are not indi- viduals, scarcely species, but rather genera, existing roughly in the speaker's intention, but at present mainly artifically con- stituted by the habits of writing and reading.'" *
The value of instruction in vowel-formation de- pends, of course, upon the nature of the instruction and the manner in which it is given.
1 Alexander Graham Bell, "Mechanism of Speech," pp. 128-129.
94 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
The instruction is sometimes of such a nature as to be practically worthless regardless of the manner. There is, for example, a stammering- school that uses Helmore's analysis of the vowels, in which the shape of the labial orifice alone is considered.1 Instruction of such a nature is virtu- ally wasted.
Then with regard to the manner : It is certain that the most accurate instruction is worthless when it results merely in the student's acquiring so much abstract information. It does not benefit the stam- merer to know that e is formed with the fore part of the tongue high in the mouth, if he is not able to visualize or mentally feel the appropriate position or action in his verbal imagery. The abstract knowl- edge may be interesting, but it does not counter- balance the amnesia.
In a few institutions the pupils are required to practise the different consonants and vowels before a mirror. This procedure is usually recommended for giving the pupil a better "knowledge" of the action of the speech-organs. Actual visualizing of the movements is rarely recommended to stammerers even by teachers of the deaf and dumb. We be- lieve, however, that if the stammerer could accu- rately visualize the movements necessary to produce
1 See Helmore, "Speakers, Singers, and Stammerers."
ARTICULATION 95
the words he wishes to utter, stammering from audi- tory amnesia would not occur. — These visual im- ages are no doubt very difficult to acquire. The problem on hand is not a simple one ; but it merits thorough investigation.
CHAPTER V
VERBAL EXERCISES, MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC.
VERBAL exercises occur in such bewildering mul- tiplicity that it seems almost idle to attempt to correlate them. Almost every institution employing respiratory, vocal, and articulatory "gymnastics" has its own particular set of graduated word- and speech-exercises that require an application of the principles enjoined, and afford practice in so-called "natural" speech. In addition to these exercises there are many that introduce special and sup- posedly beneficial modes of utterance. These latter exercises may or may not be associated with the respiratory, vocal, and articulatory training already mentioned. — It will probably be well to examine first those exercises that do not necessarily introduce new modes of utterance, i.e. the exercises that form a natural sequel to the various forms of vocal and articulatory practice already considered ; and to ex- amine afterward the various special modes of enun- ciation and the special exercises on which these modes of enunciation are practised.
The first group of exercises represents the work of no one particular institution ; it is a composite group
96
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 97
DIAGRAMS FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL SPELLING
m
m
m
m a
m a n
man
man
p p
t t a p
t a p
t a p
t &_ p
t &
98 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
consisting of exercises from a large number of stam- mering-schools.
WORD-EXERCISES
One of the simplest word-exercises consists in "physiological spelling" or "word synthesis." This exercise is sometimes cautiously employed in making the transition from ar.ticulatory exercises to mono- syllabic reading. The exercise consists in dismember- ing words — usually monosyllables — into their com- ponent physiological consonants and vowels, and pronouncing these elements with a distinct pause between them. The pauses are gradually lessened, and finally omitted — when the word of course stands complete. The exercises may be diagrammed as on the preceding page.1
The next exercise to be considered is one that affords practice on simple words introducing dif- ferent combinations of consonants and vowels.
The exercise is prescribed for various purposes — for affording practice on difficult consonants, prac- tice in maintaining continuity of voice, practice in respiration, or just practice. The following charts will illustrate the procedure : 2
1 Symbols as in the vocal and articulatory exercises. Dotted lines appear beneath surd consonants, since these cannot be vocalized. The length of the pauses between the speech-elements is proportional to the spaces between the lines.
1 Symbols as formerly employed.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 99 CHART 1
|
V |
bade |
V bade |
|
|
V |
beam |
V beam |
|
|
V |
byway |
V byway |
|
|
V |
both |
V both |
|
|
V |
bugle |
V bugle |
|
|
V |
sage |
CHART 2 sale saneness sane |
|
|
V |
sage |
sale |
saneness sane i |
|
V |
seek |
seal |
seemly seat |
|
V |
seek |
seal |
seemly seat |
|
V |
side |
sign |
sightly size |
|
V |
side |
sign |
sightly size |
|
V |
soak |
sole |
solar sewn |
|
V |
soak |
sole |
solar sewn |
|
V |
sue |
suit |
suitable suet |
|
V |
sue |
suit |
suitable suet |
1 The solid line representing voice should by rights be dotted at the surd consonants. This refinement is commonly disregarded.
TOO SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
For more advanced work, an English teacher of stammerers prescribes practice on words with vari- ously placed primary accents. His general instruc- tions for practice are as follows :
"i. Let every letter as well as every syllable be distinctly heard. . . .
"2. Tease out the word — tease it out.
"3. Let the voice run evenly along the words.
"The object is not only that of clear articulation, but also that of teaching the voice to play with the word. Whitefield, so it is said, could so play with the word Mesopotamia that he could bring tears to the eyes."
EXERCISE i
" Jfosticatory — occessariness — criminatory — customarily
— di/atoriness — disciplinary — laboratory — /ocArymatory — necessarily — peremptorily — />o/ysyllable — sedentariness — spiritualize — wwdulatory.
"i. Accentuate the above on the first syllable. " 2. Tease out the word — tease it out."
EXERCISE 2
"Abstemiousness — au/Aoritative — anathematize — con- /ederacy — contemporary — conciliatory — corroborative
— discriminative — exc/amatory — e/oculatory — ef/eminacy — ewwnciative — ex/raordinary — e/wcidatory — hereditary
— incendiary — irre/ragable — immeasurably.
" i. Accentuate the above on the second syllable. " 2. Tease out the word — tease it out."
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 101
EXERCISE 3
"Algebraical — ammontacal — antipa/Aertcal — aristo- crorical — catechetical — consanguinity — characteris/ical — ceremonious — contiguity — democrc/ical — extemporaneous — epigrammarical — enthusiastical — encyclopedia — elec/ricity — eccen/ricity — extra-parochial — geographical — genealogy
— genealogical — heterogeneous — hemis/>/f£rical — hydro^Aobia
— incongruity — miscel/oneous — malleaWity — metaphysical
— mythological — pertinacity — penitentiary — plenipotentiary — pusillanimity — philosophical — physio/ogical — physiognomy
— phraseo/ogy — simultaneous — systematical — super- fluity — ultramontanish — unaccountable — unconstitutional
— undervaluation — uniformity — universalism — univewo/ity
— unsearchable.
"i. Accentuate the above words on the last syllable but two.
" 2. Tease out the word — tease it out. "
EXERCISE 4
"Assassination — antipesti/ential — academician — con- catenation — circumnavigation — circumferential — con- tradistinction — deterioration — exaggeration — experimental
— epigramma/ic — epicurean — hierog/y/>Aic — interlineation
— inauguration — inefficacious — pronunciation — ratiocina- tion — recitation — supererogation.
" i. Accentuate the above on the last syllable but one.
" 2. Tease out the word — tease it out.
"N. B. — Stammerers will have no difficulty with any of the above words, if they are careful to keep the eye on the syl- lable in italics."
Word-exercises are of course succeeded by read- ing- and speech-exercises. We shall first consider
102 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
reading-exercises ; though reading and speaking usu- ally alternate in actual practice, both groups of exercises being arranged in progressive series.
READING-EXERCISES
Reading usually begins with simple sentences, which are generally of a hortatory nature. In class- practice the pupils frequently read the sentence first in unison, and then by turns. In some institutions the pupils read in concert for several days or weeks before they begin to read individually. We give below, a number of " sentences for reading" from the repertoires of an English and an American stammer- ing-school :
"Every one is the architect of his own fortune."
"Heaven never helps the men who will not act."
"Too low they build who build beneath the stars."
"I am sure, care's an enemy to life."
"The cautious seldom err."
"Never leave that till to-morrow which you can do to-day."
"Every one is the son of his own works."
"In this world a man must either be anvil or hammer."
"He who has lost confidence can lose nothing more."
"Courage in danger is half the battle."
"Doubt indulged soon becomes doubt realized."
"Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm."
"Wisely, and slow; they stumble, that run fast."
"He only is a well-made man who has a good determination."
Etc., etc.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 103
These simple sentences are usually followed by " selected paragraphs." In these paragraphs, respira- tion points are frequently indicated by symbols. We give below, a reading-exercise that is employed in a German institution:
" V TIMELY WISDOM
" V An emperor of China was once informed of the death of a horse V that he had intrusted to the special care of one of his servants. V The emperor had the unfortunate man called to him, V but was so enraged that he attempted to slay him with his own hand. V ' Ruler of the world,' cried a mandarin, as he warded off the blow, V ' Ruler of the world, would you have this man die uninformed of the enormity of his crime ? ' V 'Inform him,' said the emperor, still violently enraged. V ' Wretched man,' said the mandarin to the servant, V ' your offence is that a horse has died after being placed hi your special care by our emperor. V That is a great crime. V You have so angered our emperor that he nearly slew you with his own hand. V That is even a worse crime. V And it will be your fault that later our emperor will lose the love of his subjects V and bis good name with other nations V when they learn that he has ordered a man to be killed for the sake of a horse. V Do you realize what a criminal you are ? '
" ' V Release him' ; said the emperor, 'I forgive him.'"
Dialogue-reading is also employed :
First Pupil: " What say'st thou, noble heart?"
Second Pupil: "What will I do, think'st thou?"
First Pupil: "Why, go to bed and sleep."
Second Pupil: "I will incontinently drown myself." Etc.,etc.
104 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
After ordinary reading-practice, a few teachers prescribe work on sentences involving difficult verbal collocations. The following sentences of this kind are
typical :
"DOUBLE ARTICULATIONS
"A figure regal /ike, with solemn march, Goes slow and stately by ; whils/ they, distill'd Almos/ to jelly -with the act o//ear, Stand dumb, and speak not to him.
"0 ! studied deceit ! (not study)
"A sad dangler, (not angler).
"A languid dame, (not aim).
"His crime moved me, (not cry).
"To obtain neither, (not either).
"He could pain nobody, (not pay).
"Goodness centres hi the heart, (not enters).
"Luxurious soil, (not oil).
"He will prate to anybody, (not pray).
"M&ke clean our hearts within us, (not lean).
"In bulk as Auge as whom the fables name of monstrous size, (not eyes).
" Can the Ethiopian change his skin, (not kin), or the leopard his spots ? (not pots).
"Whose beard descending swept his aged ftreast, (not beer).
"A constant smirk on the face, and whiffling activity of the body, are strong indications of /utility, (not utility)."
"DIFFICULT COMBINATIONS
"Yet the lark's sArill fi/e may come.
"And the floors shall be full of wheat, and the fats shall over- flow with wine and oil.
"Behold, I will do a thing in Israel, at which both the ears of every one that heareth it shall tingle.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 105
"What though each spark, of earth-born rapture fly !
"In septennial parliaments, your representatives have sLe
years for offence, and but one for atonement. "Can the husbandman look forward with assured confidence
to the expected increase of his fields ? " Now on the leafless yew it plays. "Long has it hung from the cold yew's spray. "Oft by tha/ yew on the blasted field "Examples prevail when precepts /ail. "Frequen/ good company. "Pu/ the cut pumpkin in a pipkin. "Then pealed the notes omnipoten/ to charm,
And the loud tocsin tolled their last alarm. "My little ones kissed me a thousand times o'er. "In praising sparing be, and fclame most sparingly. "Malice seldom wants a mask to aim at. "We must not Wame/ortune for our faults. "We must look to time past to improre trhat is to come."
"MISCELLANEOUS
"Chaste stars, (not tars). "Cold ground, (not coal). "IrisA yews, (not shoes).
"Yet half I see the panting spirit sigh, (not spirit's eye). "Oh ! the torment of an ever-meddling memory, (not a never- meddling.) "Art thou afeard to be the same in thine own act and
valour, as thou art in desire ? (not thy known.) "A warm tear gushed, — the wintry air Congealed it as it flowed away ; All night it lay an ice-drop there, (not a nice drop) At morn it glittered in the ray.
Give the cat stale bread.' "The cat's tail, mamma ?' 'Si- lence, child 1 "'
io6 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
SPEECH-EXERCISES
One of the simplest speech-exercises consists in counting. We give below, an exercise that forms a conspicuous feature in the "curriculum" of an Eng- lish stammering-school :
"THE 'LONG COUNT'
"Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty.
" Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty- two thousand, two hundred and twenty-one.
" Two hundred and twenty-two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-two.
" Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-three.
"Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-four.
"Two hundred and twenty-two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-five.
" Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-six.
" Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-seven.
"Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-eight.
"Two hundred and twenty- two million, two hundred and twenty- two thousand, two hundred and twenty-nine." l
1 From this point the exercise continues: "Three hundred and thirty-three million, three hundred and thirty-three thousand, three hundred and thirty." After " thirty-nine" is reached, the exercise proceeds: "Four hundred and forty-four million," etc.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 107
Another exercise consists in learning passages and reciting them memoriter. Says one writer :
"As soon as possible, read aloud, and recite pieces committed to memory, first in private, next before sensible intimate friends, and at length you will be able to do so in school, college, or in public company."
A German teacher of stammerers requires his pupils to learn and recite prose passages, and later to paraphrase them. Reading-matter is also para- phrased in this way.
Another German instructor requires his pupils to complete sentences of which he gives the introduc- tory words. The cues are typically as follows :
" My favorite authors are
" My favorite book "
" The chief characters in the book —
" My general impressions of the book
" The longest journey I ever undertook "
" My pleasantest recollections of the journey are "
" My favorite pastime is
" Its advantages are —
" My interest in it began
" I read in the newspaper this morning that "
" This afternoon I shall - Etc., etc.
Asking and answering questions is another popular form of practice. The pupils interrogate and reply to one another, or reply to formal questions put by the instructor. Formal questions are often pro-
io8 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
pounded relative to the subject-matter in the reading- exercises. The following typical questions relate to the exercise given on page 103 :
" What offence had the emperor's servant committed ? "
" Who interceded on the servant's behalf ? "
" What is a mandarin ? "
" Approximately, what words did the mandarin employ in addressing the emperor ? "
" What was the emperor's response? "
" With what words, approximately, did the mandarin address the servant ? "
" To whom, however, was he really speaking ? "
" What effect did the words haveon the emperor ? " Etc., etc.
Brief replies are usually prohibited :
"The answer must not be a short one consisting of one word only, but must contain the whole question ; for example, if I ask, ' How are you to-day ? ' the answer must not be, ' Well ' ; but, 'lam well to-day, thank you.'. . . As a matter of course in these answers the slightest stoppage of speech must not be permitted, but in case there is, the sentence must be repeated until it is produced fluently."
Denning words is another popular exercise :
" 'What is a house?' — 'A building that serves man as a dwelling.'
" 'What is a rose? ' — 'The rose is a flower noted for its beauty and scent; it is called the queen of the flowers.'"
A Belgian teacher employs questions that require the accentuation of different words in the reply. For example :
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 109
" ' What color is milk ? ' — ' Milk is white: " ' What is white ? ' — ' Milk is white.' "'Name five objects that are generally white.' — 'Milk, rice, the lily, the swan, and plaster are white.' "
In more advanced work the pupils relate anecdotes, make short speeches, describe travels, and so on.
An Austrian teacher recommends that advanced pupils be frequently interrupted by questions and requests to repeat — and that they be thus tested by any artificial difficulties the teacher is able to devise.
In most institutions the students are required to associate and converse with strangers to a consider- able extent during the latter part of the training. This intercourse sometimes goes by the name of " stranger-practice."
So much for the various unembellished exercises. It will be understood, of course, that the curriculum of no one institution embraces all of the verbal exer- cises described. Some systems embrace a majority of them, and others but a few; the number and nature of the exercises employed being determined by the theories of the person employing the sys- tem. Concerning the value of the exercises little need be said. There is no inherent virtue in the exercises themselves : benefit can be derived only from the principles enjoined. These principles have already been discussed. Let us assume, however,
no SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
that the measures applied are among the more rational ones — preliminary inspiration, indirect attack, "continuity" of voice, etc. — and then pass the exercises rapidly in review. — Physiological spell- ing can be dismissed as so much nonsense. — Word- exercises combined with breathing, whispering, and vocal exercises might be pardonable if anything could be said in favor of them. — Practising words with differently placed accents seems to be an objectless procedure. The exercise aims at nothing in particu- lar, and doubtless accomplishes it. — The reading of ordinary matter probably furnishes as sensible an exercise as one finds in the average stammering-school. The procedure is practical, whereas most of the exer- cises just considered are fetishistic. — Dialogue-reading is probably beneficial; certainly it would furnish a test of the pupil's fluency. — The reading of difficult combinations of words would furnish excellent train- ing for elocutionists, but it is difficult to see how the practice can be of any benefit to stammerers as stam- merers.— Counting affords the student opportunity for applying rational principles. It is, however, an irksome business, and since it has practically no advantage over other simple speech-exercises, there is little to commend it. — Reciting memoriter, para- phrasing, completing sentences, propounding and answering questions, relating anecdotes, etc., are of course all useful and practical exercises. — The prac-
"MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. Ill
tice of creating artificial difficulties for the student by interrupting him, requesting him to repeat, and so on, is certainly a sensible procedure. Usually the student does not encounter such difficulties till the course of training is complete, and with these diffi- culties he is wont to encounter the customary relapse. — Intercourse with strangers should certainly occur during, rather than after, the course of speech-train- ing. "Stranger-practice" is undoubtedly a valuable feature in any curriculum.
The usual generalizations can be applied to most of the verbal exercises. They probably intensify the pupil's acoustic imagery to some extent while he is practising them for several hours a day. Further, the pupil's confidence in the exercises temporarily absolves him from fear, bewilderment, and inhibitive auto-suggestion.
We come now to the consideration of special modes of utterance intended to mitigate or obviate stammer- ing, and to the exercises on which these modes of utterance are practised.
We shall consider first the expedient of omitting or reducing initial consonants. More than a hun- dred years ago Erasmus Darwin observed : that stammering generally took the form of a "broken association" between the initial consonant and the
1 "Zoonomia : or the Laws of Organic Life," London, 1800.
112 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
succeeding vowel. He therefore suggested that the stammerer omit the initial consonant in difficult words and come to the vowel immediately. The word London would thus be 'Ondon, and Birmingham, Birmingham. Darwin further recommended that the stammerer practise difficult words in this manner, and finally intercalate the consonants, giving them the lightest possible articulation.1
This principle of Darwin's has been incorporated in nearly every system for treating stammering that has been introduced in the last hundred years. (In many cases the system has been incorporated in the principle.) In most modern stammering-schools the pupils practise light articulation in formal exercises. The nature of the exercises employed is obvious enough. We give below, a few typical charts, which are self-explanatory :
CHART 1
|
V ay |
'ay |
'ay |
'ay |
|
V day |
day |
day |
day |
|
V day |
day |
day |
day |
1 Darwin also recommended preceding the word by an aspirate ; us he probably introduced the indirect attack into the therapy of .mmering.
thus stammering
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 113
CHART 2
Twice one are two
|
V |
Twice |
two |
are |
four |
|
V |
Twice |
three |
are |
six |
|
V |
Twice |
four |
are |
eight |
|
V |
Twice |
rive |
are |
ten |
|
V |
Twice |
six |
are |
twelve |
|
V |
Twice |
seven |
are |
fourteen |
|
V |
Twice |
eight |
are |
sixteen |
|
V |
Twice |
nine |
are |
eighteen |
|
V |
Twice |
ten |
are |
twenty |
y Twice eleven are twenty-two
y Twice twelve are twenty-tour
H4 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
In many institutions light articulation is enjoined not merely for initial consonants, but for all consonants that occur in a word.1 The pupils practise light articulation in general reading, or in formal exercises in which directions are taken from charts. The following practice-chart is typical :
READING-CHART
beattude bnary bowsprt beautful daily dealing diary donation dutiful failing feelingly frightful foment future gaiiy greedy grimy grotesque gewgaw
hatefUl heinOUs highCr hOpelCss hUgeiy
jaded jejune jibing jOviai jewei
keepsake kindliness kOWtOW kUklUs lamely leaky lifelike lOathfUl lUgUbrlOUs mainland mCCknCss mightily mOm6nt mUsicRl namesake nCgOtiatOr ninetieth nOmadlc nuisance
painful peacefully piety potentiality pusillanimous
quakCr quCCrCr quiet quOtatlOn quOOk radiance rCasOnablCnCss rldCr rOdCnt rUmlnate salience seasonable sightly sOciai suitable tastefUl tCdioUs tiresOmenCss tOkCn tUnefUl
variegated veniai vicarious vociferous viewless
wakefUlnCss wCCkiy widening wOCfUl wOOCr
1 In an English institution, weak articulation is prescribed for all except final consonants, these being given a sort of compensatory stress.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 115
e&tt yte yOkCl yUle zany zCnith zyiOnlte zOdiac zCUs
In an English institution the students practise "vowel-reading" for several weeks before intercalating consonants. In a German institution the students read the vowels and (physiological) consonants separately for a considerable period; then finally combine the two, giving the consonants an extremely light articulation. These reading-exercises may be diagrammed as follows :
DIAGRAM i1
A Ti'a' 'ui' o' 'ie'i' i' 'e ea' a' 'i'a' o' 'e 'u'e' a' 'e'i' o' 'e 'ea', 'i' 'a'io' o' a' 'i' 'o 'au' a' i'u'. 'e 'ow 'i'ea'e' o' Vi' a' Vo'a'io' a' 'e 'o' VeW i' 'e'o'y, a' i' i' 'o' V o'e'i' i' 'e 'i' ; 'ou 'ay 'a' 'a'a 'o o'e' 'e 'i'e', 'ee' 'o o'e' 'e 'ee', 'o'e' o' 'u'u' 'o' 'e V, 'a'o'eu' 'o' 'e 'ai', 'u' 'o 'e'ei' o'e'e' 'e 'ea' 'u' a 'ue 'ie', 'o 'o' 'ou 'ay i'a' 'ie', 'oy,' 'ea', 'o', 'u'i'io', 'ou'e', a' 'a'oe'e' 'ie' u'o' 'e 'ea' 'o o'e' i', i' a 'i' o' 'i'i' 'i' o' 'o'e'io'.
DIAGRAM 2
- pr-nc-p-1 fr~t -f fr~ndsh-p -s th — s- -nd d-s- ch-rg- -f th- f-ln-ss -nd sw-11-ngs -f th- h~rt, wh-ch p-ss-ns -f -11 k-nds d- c~s- -nd -nd-c-. W- kn~
1 Absolute continuity of sound is usually maintained during vowel- reading.
Ii6 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
d-s~s-s -f st-pp-ngs -nd s-ff-c-t— ns -r- th- m-st d-ng-r- — s -n th- b-d-, -nd -t -s n-t m-ch -th-rw- s- -n th- m-nd; y~ m~ t-k- s-zr- t- -p-n th- 1-v-r, st~l t- -p-n th- spl~n, fl-w-rs -f s-lph-r f-r th- 1-ngs, c-st-r~m f-r th- br— n, b-t n- r-c~pt -p-n-th th- h— rt b-t - tr~ fr~nd, t- wh-m y~ m~ -mp-rt gr~fs, j~s, f~rs, h-p-s, s-sp-c— ns, c— ns-ls, -nd wh-ts— v-r 1— th -p-n th- h— rt t- -ppr-ss -t, -n - k-nd -f c-v-1 shr-ft -r c-nf-s- s~n.
DIAGRAM 3
"A principal fruit Of friendship is the CEse End discharge Of thC fUlnCss End swCllings Of the heart, which pEssiOns Of ail kinds dO cEUse and indUce. WC knOW disCasCs Of stOp- pings and sllffOcadOns are thC mOst dangCrOUs in th6 and it is nOt milch Otherwise In thC mind J yOU may take tO OpCn thC livCr, stCCI tO OpCn the splCCn, flOwCrs Of slll- phllr fOr the lllngs, castOr6llm fOr thC brain, bUt nO rCcCipt
Openeth the heart but a true friend, to whom you may impart
griefs, jOys, fears, hOpes, sllspiciOns, cOUnsCls, and whatsO- CvCr lieth UpOn thC hCErt tO OpprCss it, in a kind Of civil shrift Or cOnfCssiOn."
Many persons engaged in treating stammering recommend not only that the consonants be reduced, but also that the vowels be prolonged. The following paragraph on the subject is by an English writer :
"It is a well-known fact that most stammerers can sing without any difficulty. This is because in singing there is a
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 117
continuous flow of vocal tone; the vowels predominate, while the consonants are but very lightly touched in passing. The opposite of this takes place in speech. The vowels are passed over quickly, and the consonants, which are only checks, clicks, and explosive noises, predominate. The moral of this is ob- vious. Let the stammerer exaggerate his vowels at the expense of his consonants, and a good many stumbling-blocks will thereby be removed from his path."
And this by an American writer :
"In essaying longer phrases the stammerer should keep in mind and practise this rubbing or friction of tone and breath through the throat, this half -groaning sound, and try to carry it through the whole sentence without interruption, thinking persistently of the unbroken stream of outpouring breath.
"Of course, many of the consonants will momentarily check this steady flow. Such, for instance, are k, p, t, or b, d, g ; but these he must slight and disregard as far as possible, thinking, not of the consonant, but of the vowel which follows it. Let him literally drawl the vowels, running them together as much as possible. He may, with advantage, even omit the consonants and simply drawl the vowels in one unbroken stream of groan- ing tone. Then let him add the consonants as lightly touched as possible, so lightly that they will be almost or quite unin- telligible, gradually making them more distinct as he finds that the idea of steady drawling will not be interfered with."
Vowel-elongation is practised from charts in several German institutions. The transcription given on the following page presents a typical exercise.
In a prominent German stammering-school, the pupils make their initial attempt at reading from
n8 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING PRACTICE-CHART
|
V |
ow |
I |
V |
OW 11 |
|
|
tUW nshl |
P |
||||
|
V |
e |
ii |
V |
a\i |
|
|
gn |
|||||
|
V |
a |
e |
V |
m£L nnC |
|
|
V |
6 |
e |
V |
||
|
V |
u |
66 |
V |
||
|
V |
0 |
6 |
V |
||
|
V |
6 |
I |
V |
||
|
ng |
|||||
|
V |
oi |
6 |
V |
||
charts of this description. The elementary charts present sentences and phrases in which the words commence with vowels; the more advanced charts introduce initial consonants. On the opposite page appear transcriptions of two typical exercises.
The next two exercises furnish illustrations of the advanced work of another German institution : 1
"TRY AGAIN
"Dri — ve the — na — il a — ri — ght, bo — ys, Hi — t i — t o — n the — hea — d ; 1 Quoted from The Voice, Vol. V, pp. 4-5.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 119
|
V * |
CHART 1 a a |
|
V 1 |
|
|
V o |
ti a 1 a |
|
V o— |
. |
|
V aw |
a a a u ti i |
|
. |
|
|
V a |
|
|
V * |
6 e I a S e |
|
y a — |
. |
|
n O ffC r 1 s a ccC ptC <j |
|
|
V 5 |
CHART 2 a 6 |
|
V I*O~~ |
s a nd cO ns |
|
v a |
a 6 I |
|
. |
|
|
v a |
ma n O f ml ght |
|
V g |
la a e I e a |
y pC rsl stC nee a nd pC rsC vC ra nee
y a e a e a
W ma nnC — — n m3, — — ke thC ma — — n
y aw u e_ S e Q
thC bO Id
120 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
Stri — ke wi — th a — 11 you — r mi — ght, bo — ys, Whi — le the — i — ro — n i — s re — d.
"Whe — n you — 've wo — rk to — do — , bo — ys,
Do — i — t wi — th a — wi — 11 ; The — y who — rea — ch the — to — p, bo — ys, Fi — rst mu — st cli — mb the — hi — 11.
"Sta — ndi — ng a — t the — foo — t, bo — ys,
Ga — zi — ng a — t the — sky — , Ho — w ca — n you — ge — t u — p, bo — ys, I — f you — ne — ve — r try — ?
"Thou — gh you — stu — mble — o — ft, bo — ys,
Ne — ve — r be — do — wnca — st; Try — , a — nd try — a — gai — n, bo — ys, You — '11 su — ccee — d a — t la — st.
"The following should be read in a similar manner:
"BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
"Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston in 1706, when a boy laid down certain rules of conduct which he always followed. He made up his mind to be temperate, orderly, frugal, and indus- trious. When ten years old he cut wicks for candles, minded the shop, and ran errands for his father, who was a tallow- chandler. He did not, however, neglect his books, for he tells us, 'I do not remember when I could not read.' Though no boy ever worked harder, he was fond of manly sports, and was an expert swimmer. Not liking the tallow-chandlery business, his father apprenticed him to a printer. This was precisely the kind of work which suited Franklin. When hardly eighteen years old, he was sent to England to buy printing material, and to improve himself in his trade. As a printer in Lon-
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 121
don, a very young man, entirely his own master, with no friends to control him, surrounded by temptations, those rules which he had fixed upon early in life were of singular benefit to him. Returning to America in 1726, in time he opened a modest printing-house in Philadelphia. Industry, honesty, and good work made him successful. He became member of the Assembly, postmaster, and during the Revolution, while in France, induced that country to espouse our cause. If to-day the world has to thank Americans for making electricity their servant, Benjamin Franklin first discovered its most marked qualities. With a kite he brought down the spark from heaven to earth, and held it under control. Franklin died, honored by all his countrymen, in 1790.
"When a lad, hungry and tired, he landed in Philadelphia with a dollar in his pocket, he bought some bread, and marched through the streets munching his crust. He happened to see a young lady, a Miss Read, at the door of her father's house. He made up his mind then and there that he would marry her ; and so in time he did." *
1 Slow speaking is advocated by most teachers of stammerers. This "slow speaking" usually involves lengthening the vowels and protracting the ordinary pauses.
Kingsley's oft-quoted advice is " Read and speak SLOW."
Another English writer declares that —
"The stammerer, if he wish to be cured, must, on all occasions, speak slowly and deliberately, dwelling on the vowels, so as to give time for forming the laryngeal sounds."
A third English writer pens the following :
" I earnestly advise all persons with impediments of speech, whether confirmed stammerers and stutterers, or only just beginning to hesi- tate, to be very slow and deliberate in reading and speaking, especially at first. Among the large numbers of patients whom I have had under my care for the removal of all kinds of impediments and diffi- culties in articulation, I have met with but very few who did not
122 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
A modern tendency in German stammering-schools is to require advanced pupils to prolong only the initial vowel of a sentence. The succeeding vowels are sometimes slightly lengthened, but they are not drawled and wailed to such an extent as formerly. The following in reference to the expedient :
"The stammerer has his greatest difficulty in speech when he begins: the trouble occurs at the beginning of sentences. It is at this point that his fear and his dread of stammering rob him of his confidence; he stammers far less in finishing the sentence. It is therefore necessary to furnish the stammerer with some expedient that will tide him over his supposed diffi- culties at this particular point. The expedient is this: he must accustom himself to lengthening the initial vowel as much as possible. He must no longer say 'Right is always right,' but 'Ri — ght is always right.' This method is thoroughly reliable, and the hearer will not find it in any way conspicuous or displeasing."
Exercises practically identical with the following are employed in three of the leading German stam- mering-schools :
habitually speak with painful rapidity, and at times almost breathless haste, until they are suddenly stopped in mid career of their impetuous speech by the impediment suddenly coming on. By a spasmodic effort, eventually they recover their power of articulation, and rattle on with their hurried words until they are once more arrested in the same way, in the very midst of a word, perhaps ; and so they go on to the pain and distress of themselves and those whom they are address- ing."
In an English stammering-school slow speaking is carried to the point where the pupils utter only one word on a breath at the begin- ning of treatment.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 123
CHART 1
|
V u |
V |
|||
|
V co— |
— ncentration |
V |
Hi |
|
|
Vp |
V |
fi |
||
|
e |
||||
|
V E3- |
V |
hi— |
— storically |
|
|
Vi |
V |
|||
|
1 |
Ju |
|||
|
Vln |
V |
1ft |
||
|
V |
nu |
— ^gatory |
||
|
Vn |
V |
pre — |
— decessor |
|
|
0 |
||||
|
V que— |
— rulously |
V |
||
|
Vsa |
V |
trn |
||
|
HI |
||||
|
VII |
V |
|||
|
U |
||||
|
V woe — |
— begone |
V |
ya— |
— chtmanship |
|
Vzea •• |
||||
|
*""" |
lUUbllCbb |
124 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
— king is the man who can.
-11 may do what has by man been done.
-o climb steep hills requires slow pace at first.
— race by vigor, not by vaunts, is won.
— who follows two hares is sure to catch neither.
— dignity of truth is lost with much protesting. — n are but children of a larger growth.
— nguages are the pedigree of nations.
— man is a hero to his valet.
— r loan oft loses both itself and friend, -vil events from evil causes spring.
heeds not experience, trust him not.
-11 nature is but art.
: may keep counsel, if two be away.
— must needs go whom the devil doth drive.
goeth a borrowing, goeth a sorrowing.
Whe re the stream runneth smoothest, the water is
deepest.
Whe re law ends, tyranny begins.
He 11 is paved with good intentions.
I n lapidary inscriptions a man is not upon oath.
I 1 matters not how a man dies, but how he lives.
A slight variant of the practice of protracting the vowels must be mentioned. In some institutions the pupils are required to intensify the vowels rather than to lengthen them. In a few schools both practices are combined. The consonants are reduced or given normal force, according to the ideas of the teacher. The following are typical exercises :
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 125
CHART I1
o a o r y
1 In this exercise the volume of sound is supposed to increase with the distance between the lines.
126 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING CHART 21
"SQns; b0catlse I h^ve purchased nQ 6st3,te nQr wa§ bQrn tQ fay, J h^ve !Qng cQnsidfcred ()f sQme gQOd iGg&lG8 10 b^qu^^th yQU > £Lnd
of yQU (h6re th©y are) a
n6w cOet1 N0W' yQU £Lfe tQ Und6rstclnd'
th^t thgse cQ3»ts ha,ve twO Vlrtll6s cQntQflned Jn
thgm; Qne t, th^t with gQOd W6clring> th6y
live: thg QthOr is> ^fl*1 ^By wiu 8rOw in th6
prQpOrtiOn with yQUr bOdi6s> i6ngth6n-
nd widening Qf thgmsglves, sQ as 10 b6
In criticism of these various expedients and exercises it may be said that the practice of lightly articulating the initial consonant is one of the most salutary ever introduced into the therapy of stammering. Physical stammering and light articulation are practi-
1 In this exercise the volume of sound is supposed to be proportional to the size of the type.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 127
cally incompatible; and one almost of necessity excludes the other. Pure stammering, however, cannot be directly affected by light articulation. The expedient of omitting the initial consonant cannot be regarded as practicable, for the omission renders speech unintelligible. Even the practice of reducing the consonant is not without its dangers, for the stammerer is frequently subjected to the embarrass- ment of being asked to repeat. The various exercises in light articulation probably have some slight value ; but, like most exercises, they are undoubtedly overrated. The value of light articulation lies in its application, and not hi the fact that it may be practised for several hours a day under the tutelage of a highly paid instructor. — A general diminution of the strength of the consonants seems scarcely necessary in cases where the stammerer experiences no difficulty in the middle of words. — Vowel-reading and similar exercises probably lead to an ephemeral intensification of the auditory imagery, and thus for a brief period may appear to be efficacious. — The preliminary reading of the physiological consonants is probably of no benefit to the amnesic stammerer. — The trick of elongating the vowels cannot be taken very seriously. It has some slight efficacy, since it focusses the speaker's attention on the auditory element. In resorting to the expedient, however, the subject merely exchanges his position as an intelli-
128 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
gent stammerer for that of an apparent lunatic. On the whole, the novelty of the change is not sufficient recompense for the bother involved. The various exercises involving prolongation of the vowels prob- ably effect a transient intensification of the acoustic imagery. — The practice of prolonging the initial vowel of a sentence may prove of some slight value by focussing attention on the auditory element ; but with most persons the unnatural character of the pro- cedure would condemn it. — The practice of intensi- fying the vowels (with or without reduction of the consonants) leads to little more than loud talking. The loud talking per se cannot be regarded as remedial ; yet probably some benefit is derived from the atten- tion necessarily given to the auditory imagery. The exercises doubtless affect the imagery in the customary manner.
The expedients just described are "discovered" and marketed (with various auxiliaries) at frequent and regular intervals. A German writer recently made them the subject of a rather grandiloquent little pamphlet. This brochure of less than a hundred pages retails at thirty marks. We give about ten pfennigs' worth in the following paragraphs.
This from the preface and introduction :
"I am positive that my book can do only good. Yes, I am sufficiently immodest to say: 'I have rendered humanity a great service by fathoming the nature of stammering. Till
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 129
now, absolutely no one has been safe from stammering; for no one knew why he spoke normally ' . . .
"After surmounting inconceivable difficulties I have pene- trated the matter in such a way that nothing can refute the conclusions I have arrived at. ...
"I am not a learned man, I am not highly accomplished and scientific ; hence I am not going to write a learned book : but I shall relate and explain in what way and manner I succeeded in discovering the causes of my own frightful infirmity. Further, I shall record my observations on the manifestations of this disease, and finally I shall tell how I contrived with great energy and with the exertion of the whole strength of my body and soul to discover the way and means to cure my own infirm- ity, and hence also the infirmity of others. . . .
"My work (or my struggle, I might say) aims at an ideal. I am not conducting propaganda for a lucrative undertaking. The sole object that I have in view is to banish stammering from the world (Stottern aus der Welt zu schafen), and to place my experience at the service of those unfortunate ones whose anguish and suffering I know and appreciate full well, since I myself have tasted all the pain and bitterness that falls to a stammerer's lot.
"Banish stammering from the world! "Is this possible?
"It sounds like mockery when I say, 'I am in the fortunate position, as the result of experiences in my own person, as well as with my three children, — two girls and a boy, — of being able to answer the above question in the affirmative.'
"It was these terrible experiences that drove me to seek and inquire how the pain of this awful disease might be removed ; and, thank God, I have found the means and the way of exterminating the malady with its roots.
"As my life's work I have undertaken to abolish stammering
130 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
from the world; and I have positive hope of accomplishing my task."
The following concerns the cause and cure of the defect :
"I explain to my pupils clearly and forcefully, by the fol- lowing example, how it is that the sound of the voice is the chief thing, while letters are only secondary. I ask them the ques- tion : 'What do we need first of all in order to make a pound- cake?' The correct answer always comes, 'The dough.'
"'And what else do we need in order to bake the dough?' 'A cake-mould,' is the usual answer.
"That is right: this gives the cake its mould or form — whether round or polygonal, high or low, and so on.
'"Now what does a cake consist of?' To this question most of them answer, 'Of dough and its form.' And then I answer them sharply and abruptly, so that they are quite startled, and become confused at their position (for then they mark the circumstance, and the example impresses them more deeply) —
'"No, in order to bake a cake I need simply and solely the dough !
'"For if I should put the dough into the oven without a cake-mould, I should still have a cake — though certainly not a cake that would be pleasing to the eye. But if I put the cake- mould alone in the oven, what have I ? Nothing ! ' The pupils now become more interested and curious ; they watch each word as it falls from my lips, and they note the words carefully.
"The important thing is not that a stammerer is treated, but how he is treated.
"I continue my explanation to the pupils as follows:
" ' The most important thing when one is baking a cake is the dough; that, one must have. We use the cake-mould
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 131
simply to give the cake its particular form.' After I have let the stammerers wonder a moment, I explain the analogy and continue: 'As with the cake, so with human speech; for speech also consists of two things — dough, which is sound or voice, and the mould, corresponding to the letters.
" ' Speech is made audible only through sound ; but it may be heard if the sound or voice is produced only softly, or is even whispered. Now again — only the voice is the speech; letters are made audible only through sound : without sound they cannot be produced, they are merely the mould for the dough.
" ' But where is the sound, the voice, the audible word, to be produced ? In the throat ! Not with the lips ! ' etc. If a pupil should wish to inquire, 'How, or with what organs, is the voice, or the sound, produced,' I should answer him, 'You do not need to know that in order to be cured of your impediment.' "
Concerning his discoveries, the author writes :
" Till now I had thought in a wrong and harmful manner ; I had thought of letters — consonants and vowels — that is, of mouth-positions, which cannot be spoken without voice. Now I must think in a proper and healthful manner ; I must entirely disregard letters, and must attend to the voice, as I do in singing, so that the voice may not go out. . . .
"Speech is sound. Stammering is unconsciously endeavor- ing to speak without voice or sound. The stammerer speaks wrongly because in his fear he thinks wrongly — and therefore misuses his speech-organs.
" He must not think of letters ; he must think only of voice."
"We have had many laws of speech, but they have availed nothing, for there is only one law to follow, namely : ' Produce sound voluntarily; but letters, consonants as well as vowels, involuntarily.' "
132 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
"The stammerer speaks without voice. Voice or sound is the first requisite for speech. The stammerer — who fears and stumbles over consonants — must always be accustomed to forming the vowels in a strong, resonant voice. He must perform vocal exercises, but never exercises on consonants."
Our author's discoveries are, then, that stammering is due to a failure of the voice ; and that the voice goes out because the stammerer neglects to think about it. The remedies that he invents are — thinking about the voice and vocalizing strongly. (He also invents continuity of sound, and saying e or m at the beginning of sentences.)
These same vocal secrets may be purchased in a hundred other markets. We quote this particular "dull catalogue of common things" since it is rather typical of these modern books of revelations.
The next measure that we have to consider is force- ful articulation, — recommended usually as a cure for stuttering (repetitive stammering), but occasionally as a remedy for stammering in any of its phases.
One writer advises the stammerer to —
" Adopt a strong, energetic manner of reading, and not go along lazily and listlessly, as is too often the case."
Another writer avers that —
"A case of simple Stuttering would need little more for its removal than the cultivation of a firm articulation and dearly sonorous voice."
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 133
A third teacher recommends his pupils to practise forceful articulation with the following alliterative sentences :
"EXERCISE I
"Balmy breezes bore my bark beneath balconies and bridges, by balustrades and barges, where boys bowed becomingly to beauties ; but Bill the boatman bumped the boat against the breastwork of the breakwater.
" i. Take in a long, deep breath.
" 2. Say as much as possible without breathing again.
"3. Practice it till the whole can be said two or three times in one breath.
"4- Hit the b's hard.
"N.B. These directions will apply to the exercises which follow.
" EXERCISE II
" Call clearly Colonel Campbell commanding a close com- pany of Canadians to conceal the cannons, combustibles — commodities curiously cut — in a cave, covered with cactus and cucumbers, and cry ' Come, come, come.'
" EXERCISE III
" Do, Daddy, do, dance drolly and delightfully down the drawing-room with dear, dry, old, David Dandy.
"EXERCISE IV
" Fie, Fanny, fie! forfeited figs, freely forfeited, for feeble folks, should in fine fingers find first for forty-five feeble folks a full fill.
134 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
"EXERCISE V
" Gaily gathered the gleaners the glossy golden grain and garnered it gladly in Granny's great granary in Godfrey's green grassy glen.
"EXERCISE VI
" Hie, hie, Henry, for it is not the hunting that hurts the heavy horse's heels, but the hammer, hammer, hammer, on the hard high hills.
"EXERCISE VII
" John, just join Jane and jam the japanned chest of jewels which the jumping jilting Jack has judged Jockey James to have stolen behind the joists.
"EXERCISE VIII
" Little lazy limping Lily Lane let a little lame lamb lie loose on the lovely lawn.
"EXERCISE IX
" Marlborough managed in a most magnificent manner to mar by military manoeuvres the mischievous machinations of a marvellous multitude of malicious mounted Mamelukes, mer- curially and malevolently menacing his merry, merry men.
" EXERCISE X
" Norman Noel named Nanny Nannely the nicest niece known to ninety-nine nephews.
" EXERCISE XI
" Poor, pitiable Peter Piper ploddingly picked a peck of piercing pepper-corn; now, if poor, pitiable Peter Piper plod- dingly picked a peck of piercing pepper-corn, where is the peck of piercing pepper-corn which Peter Piper picked ?
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 135
"EXERCISE XII
" Quash quarrels quickly; quell quietly unqueenly queries, and giving no quarter to questions quickly quenching our queenly queen's quiet.
"EXERCISE XIII
" Ruefully, roughly, rending ragged raiment, round the rug- ged rocks the ragged rascals rapidly ran their truly rural races.
"EXERCISE XIV
" The squat, square, squinting sweep spluttered and squalled in the surging deep. The squire swam swiftly, and splash! The squinting sweep saved without a crash.
"EXERCISE XV
" When a twister, twisting, would twist him a twist, for twisting his twist three twists he will twist, but if one of the twists untwist from the twist, the twister, untwisting, untwists the twist.
"EXERCISE XVI
" The thought that sticks to me thoroughly through thick and thin is that that that that that young lady has just parsed is a pronoun.
"EXERCISE XVII
" Violins and violoncellos vigorously vamped with very versatile voices vociferating various strains very vehemently vexes Valentine's violent valet.
"EXERCISE XVIII
"The zealot Zephaniah Zadkiel rode a zebra zigzag up Zeboim." l
1 Alliterations are often employed for the practice of "difficult consonants." The expedient of practising "difficult consonants" and difficult words has already been discussed (Volume I, pp. 345 f.).
136 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
It need scarcely be said that little benefit would accrue to the stammerer from deliberately according to the consonants a forceful articulation. The average subject articulates far too forcibly as it is, and hi most cases the practice would tend merely to enhance physical stammering. In some instances the procedure might lead to the conversion of "stutter- ing" (repetitive stammering) into compressive stam- mering ; but here we should have retrogression rather than advancement. The gist of the matter is that forcible articulation can in no way mitigate pure stammering ; while it can greatly aggravate physical stammering. There is therefore no argument for it, but a cogent argument against it.
A somewhat general maxim frequently commended to the stammerer is, "Take care of the consonants, and the vowels will take care of themselves." We quote the two following passages introducing the precept :
" Very few people take the trouble to find out how the con- sonants are made by the vocal apparatus. The whole cry is vowels, vowels, vowels. If you will take care of the conso- nants, the vowels will take care of themselves. You must speak with vowels, but so many disregard the consonants and think they are of no moment."
And thus the second passage :
" Read and speak SLOW; and take care of the consonants, and the vowels will take care of themselves " (Kingsley).
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 137
On the opposite side of the question we have the following :
" Were a golden rule for the stammerer to be formulated, it would doubtless be : ' Take care of the vowels, and the con- sonants will take care of themselves.' "
This last passage unquestionably contains the more rational suggestion; but neither the maxim "Take care of the consonants" nor "Take care of the vowels" is very significant, inasmuch as both are amorphous generalities.
Kingsley, however, amplifies his advice, — "Take care of the consonants," — and since he is followed by many modern "speech specialists," it will be well to cite him in the matter :
" And how to take care of the consonants ? By taking care of the tongue and lips.
" Now, if you will watch any one who speaks beautifully you will see that the tongue lies quite quiet, on a level with the lower front teeth, and never flies up in the mouth. You will see also that they use their lips a great deal; and form the consonants with them. But you will see, also, that they keep the upper lip down and still, so that the upper front teeth are hardly seen at all ; while they move the under lip a great deal, making it play upon the upper." l
An American writer finds the remedy for stammer- ing in a free action of both upper and lower lip :
1 " Charles Kingsley : his Letters and Memories of his Life," Vol. II, p. 261.
138 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
" When the lips are pulled back for every word or syllable in a long word, and pushed out, in a short time the tongue comes back and goes forward, and the diaphragm and the breath work in harmony. The mind and those muscles and movements will become coordinated, confidence gained, nervousness and spas- modic action of the muscles governed and corrected."
And here we have the other side of the question:
" The lips should move only vertically in articulation ; any lateral or horizontal motion is a blemish as well as an inter- ference with the expressive power of the lips. Every modifica- tion of a vowel sound may be perfectly made within the mouth, aided by the mere diminution or enlargement of the labial aperture. But this does not require any looseness or projec- tion, — far less circular pursing of the lips."
Another writer recommends keeping the lips well separated :
" He [the stammerer] must separate his lips or teeth at the very instant they touch ; and their resting place must be at some distance apart."
To which another writer responds :
" Let the patient effectually conquer the bad habit which prevails so largely among those who stutter or stammer (I really think my own experience warrants me in saying in ninety- nine out of every hundred stammerers) of keeping the lips apart and the mouth open. Nothing can be worse in every way than this bad habit, either as regards the power of clear articulation and fluent speech, the proper condition of the lungs, or the vacant expression which it gives the countenance. I always tell all stammering pupils frankly, if I see they have this vile habit, that I can do very little, if anything, toward removing
'MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 139
their various impediments until they have thoroughly conquered it, and acquired the habit of always keeping the lips firmly but easily pressed together; except, of course, when reading or speaking."
The expedients of starting to speak from the "open position" and using a free action of the jaw are fre- quently recommended as antidotes for stammering.
Thus an American "speech specialist" :
" Never forget that the other half of the stammerer's trouble comes from closing his mouth when it should be open.
" The mouth should always be open at beginnings. . . .
"Act on the principle that all lip-sounds are produced as the lips go apart, not while they are in contact.
" The chief mistake is to begin with the lips together, whereas all beginnings should be made with the mouth open."
One of the principal remedies of an English institu- tion consists hi starting from the open position and wagging the jaw freely. The argument is that the word nag is a corruption of wag, and that a nagging woman wags her jaw excessively. The stammerer should therefore wag his jaw to acquire similar fluency in speech.
And this in condemnation of the measure :
" Then, in the matter of advising stammerers to open their mouths wide so as to allow speech to flow freely out of them, — this, in my judgment, is another decided error. As a rule, this opening of the mouth wide is the very thing stammerers are only too much in the habit of doing, and in my opinion is the very thing we should prevent them from doing. It is
140 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
when the mouth is wide open that the muscles of voice-pro- duction are mostly thrown into spasm. Your great orator and your great actor does not require to open his mouth wide to be distinctly heard, nor to prevent any possible spasms from visiting his utterance; why, then, should a stammerer act in direct defiance of the teachings of a Gladstone, a Salvini, or a Bright? The more carefully a stammerer follows the example of the best speakers, the more easy will be his path to a success- ful cure."
Most of these injunctions and teachings are irrele- vant. The average stammerer would be hindered rather than helped by paying meticulous attention to the action of lips and jaw. Undoubtedly un- impeded labial action is preferable to labial inactivity, and a free movement of the jaw is preferable to man- dibular paralysis ; but here we are miles away from the cause of stammering. — There seems to be no par- ticular reason why the stammerer should invariably open the mouth before speaking ; this procedure will certainly not eliminate speech-disturbances. — It is impracticable for the speaker to open the mouth widely at every vowel : with such vowels as do and e the wide position is entirely unnatural. Undoubtedly the mouth should be closed when not in action. — And when this is said, there is little more to say. The emphasis given to the subject is unwarranted.
An American "speech specialist" stands sponsor for a "method of attack" for difficult words that
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 141
consists of three expedients that we have already considered. — Explosive consonants are to be given light articulation. In stammering on such conso- nants as t, d, ch,
"It can be seen . . . that the tongue is wedged tightly into position behind the upper teeth and is forcibly held in that position. The opposite hi position naturally would suggest relaxation with little muscular effort of the organs. In other words, lake the position as lightly as possible"
As for the continuous consonants :
" It will be found upon trial with many of the continuous sounds that it is difficult to continue then- initial sound with the mouth open, and thus this method of simply opening the mouth after having formed the sound will serve, in many cases, as a means of overcoming the difficulty."
And respecting the vowels :
" Since vowel stammering is manifested by the contraction [closure ?] of the glottis, cannot the reader see that it is always well to attack the vowel by lowering the voice [pitch?], thus separating the vocal cords and making the glottis as little liable to contraction as possible ? "
Explosive consonants are practised in passages similar to the following, in which italicized consonants are lightly articulated :
" There exists in this cAec-fcered world of ours, As £art of the heri-/age lot-ted to man. The thistle of woe and the flowers
142 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
Of hope, that bud and iloom with fra-grance rare, And cheer life's path where'er they can," etc., etc.
In the next exercise the stammerer practises opening the mouth. To direct him, the continuous consonants are printed in italics :
" ' Fo-/unteers wanted! Who's first, I say, to an-swer the Na- tion's call —
To de-/end the /-/ag on /o-reign seas with sword and can-won ball —
To c-rush with wight a foe-man c-ruel and a-venge our noble Maine —
To f-ree a people long enslaved, and rend their bonds in t-wain ? '
Thus spake an oi-fi-cer of the Guard, his id-sage firm and g-rave,
His quiet mien and steady eye bespoke him t-me and b-rave."
In the following exercise the pupil lowers the pitch at the italicized vowels :
" ' The boneless tongue, so small and weak, Can crush and kill,' declared the Greek.
" ' The tongue destroys a greater horde,' The Turk asserts, ' than does the sword.'
" The Persian proverb wisely saith ; ' A lengthy tongue — an early death.' "
These three exercises may be combined — in which case diacritics are employed to show the pupil just which measure to resort to. An oblique line descend- ing from left to right (\) prescribes light articulation.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 143
A line inclined in the other direction (X) enjoins wide opening of the mouth. A small circle above a letter directs lowering of the pitch. A combination of these marks betokens the simultaneous application of two or three expedients. Herewith a typical exercise :
O' ' ' V V Off O ' O
" Is there no secret place on the face of the earth,
' i f \ O f t s \ o ^
Where charity dwelleth, where virtue hath birth ?
\ f Q f f O ^ f i o
Where bosoms in mercy and kindness shall heave, And the poor and the wretched shall ' ask and receive ' ?
O ' / V OO ' O ' ' •>•
Is there no place on earth where a knock from the poor
O' V ox ox\ox t x
Will bring a kind angel to open the door ?
O / ' O' O' ' O ' O ' X
Ah! search the wide world wherever you can,
/ O/OX x f f f f f /
There is no open door for the moneyless man!
\ / OO'O r / e x / r
" Go, look in your hall, where the chandelier's light
V oo'0'VN'x 'of
Drives off with its splendor the darkness of night,
f / O O''O/XO/
Where the rich hanging velvet in shadowy fold,
'Of V f r x O'O V t OX
Sweeps gracefully down with its trimmings of gold,
O ' f f O / ' x OO / f
And the mirrors of silver take up and renew,
O ' X / x / O/ x O /
In long lighted vistas the wildering view — Go there in your patches, and find if you can, A welcoming smile for the moneyless man ! "
144 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
A few European schools have similar eclectic "methods" for the "attack" of difficult words, and one or two employ diacritics in connection with verbal exercises. There is little, however, that can be said in favor of a procedure that requires the pupil to dodge about from one expedient to another. It is possible that the endeavor to select and execute the prescribed manoeuvre for each particular consonant may for a time engage the pupil's attention to a sufficient extent to exclude multiple thought. On the other hand, it is equally possible and probable that the attempt to apply the system will itself induce bewilderment. With these two possibilities in mind, one can hardly accord the measure an enthusiastic indorsement. — The signal feature with these eclectic "methods" is that the various expedients from which the pupil makes his selection can in most cases be applied simultaneously. There is no reason, for instance, why the stammerer should not at all times articulate lightly, use a free movement of the jaw, and employ a reasonably low pitch. Furthermore, the arguments that apply for a particular expedient with a particular group of consonants usually apply for the same expedient with any other group of consonants. Unfortunately these systems are in- troduced with no clear explanation of their raison d'etre; hence one is rather puzzled to know what it is all about.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 145
As a means of avoiding difficult initial consonants the stammerer is sometimes recommended to run his words together, or to subjoin initial consonants to the words preceding.
The following paragraph on the subject is by the principal of an Irish stammering-school :
" You know, perhaps, that a man's stammering does not effect [affect] his singing at all, try it if you are not sure. Well, of course you see, that if you could say your words, as you sing them, your stammering would vanish. What then is the differ- ence hi the way you produce your words in singing, and in speaking? In speaking, you pronounce the words separately, you say one word, and then make a short pause before beginning the next. In singing you do not separate each word so en- tirely ; there is no break in the sound between the words, you try to make the pause as short as possible, and to begin one word, immediately you have finished the preceding one. . . . You must try then to imitate this singing method in your or- dinary speech."
A German writer, after recommending prolongation of the initial vowel of a sentence, continues :
" But the stammerer will not always succeed in connecting the succeeding sounds of the sentence easily and without a falter, for he is accustomed to regarding the initial sound of each word as a fresh beginning — whereas we speak the whole phrase that occurs between pauses as though it were a single word. Therefore one must accustom the stammerer to regard- ing the initial sound of each word as the final sound of the word preceding, for it is a notorious fact that final sounds never occasion difficulty."
146 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
A third writer recommends transposition of the initial consonants, and prescribes reading-exercises in which these consonants have actually been sub- joined to the words preceding. The following exer- cise is typical :
READING-EXERCISE
The distant Trojans never injur'd me.1 Thed istantTr ojansn ever injur'dm e.
In youth and beauty wisdom is but rare. Iny outh andb eautyw isdom isb utr are.
For too much rest itself becomes a pain. Fort oom uchr est itselfb ecomes ap ain.
Praise undeserv'd is scandal in disguise. Praise undeserv'd issc andal ind isguise.
Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. Wort.hm akesth em an, andw ant of itth ef ellow.
Bare the mean heart that lurks behind a star. Bareth em eanh eartth atl urksb ehind ast ar.
Who dares think one thing, and another tell, My heart detests him as the gates of hell. Whod aresth ink oneth ing, and anothert ell, Myh eartd etestsh im asth eg ates ofh ell.
1 The sentences printed in the ordinary manner are not intended to be read. They are given for reference in case the transcribed sen- tences should not be intelligible.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 147
The following is the form of a popular German
exercise : l
READING-CHART
E ven the worthy Homer sometimes nods.
No thing is stronger than custom.
Toi 1 does not come to help the idle.
Pra ctice in time becomes second nature.
E ven a single hair casts its shadow.
Po werful indeed is the empire of habit.
Loo k for a tough wedge for a tough log.
I 1 is better to learn late than never.
Su cces-sful and fortunate crime is called virtue.
Fi re is the test of gold ; a dversity, of strong men.
I 1 will not out of the flesh that is bred in the bone.
Whe n all candles be out, all cats be gray.
Fea r may force a man to cast beyond the moon.
It is evident that the practice of uniting the words of a sentence into one protracted polysyllable is practically identical with that of preserving continuity of sound. It has the same argument in its favor — that it must needs involve continuity of verbal
1 Initial consonants are to be "regarded" as the final consonants of the words preceding. When two similar consonants come together, only one is to be pronounced.
148 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
thought. In normal speech, however, one does not "pronounce the words separately" any more than he pronounces the individual syllables of a word sepa- rately ; hence it is evident that no benefit is derived from eliminating "dividing pauses." — The procedure of deliberately transposing initial consonants has little to recommend it. When one is concerned with trans- position rather than with continuity, he neglects the essential feature. Often transposition occurs and continuity is lost. Speech then becomes unintelli- gible even if physical stammering does not supervene.
Another remedy for stammering is proposed in pho- netic syllabication, a measure practically the antithesis of that just described. Each syllable within a word must commence with a consonant whenever this is physically possible :
" Spoken syllables are not the same as written syllables. The latter are divisions to the eye, to show the etymology of words; the former are divisions to the ear, and are governed solely by the sound. Every syllable — even in the quickest utterance — should, have a SEPARATE IMPULSE OF VOICE. But practically a large proportion of impulses are lost through vocal mismanagement.
"The elements which make up syllables are vowels and con- sonants. Vowels require an OPEN CHANNEL in the mouth ; and consonants require a more or less complete CLOSURE of some parts of the mouth. Now, herein lies the grand prin- ciple of syllabic articulation. The direction of organic action ought in all cases to be FROM CLOSE TO OPEN ; that is,
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 149
from consonant to vowel ; whereas the prevailing habit among faulty speakers is to make the action from open to close ; that is, from vowel to consonant. The effect is, that vowels, in- stead of having a free channel through the mouth, directly from the throat, are, as it were, squeezed between consonants, cut short, and often altogether lost.
"The principle of oral action — from close to open — cannot be too clearly apprehended. Its practical application dictates that any vowel between consonants should be collocated phoneti- cally with the consonant which precedes, and not with that which follows it ; and conversely, that any consonant between vowels should be collocated with the vowel which follows, and not with the vowel which precedes it. Thus :
he-te-ro-ge-ne-ous
o-ra-to-ri-o
e-ter-ni-ty
e-ve-ry
a-ny
"When double consonants are written the same principle applies : only one of the consonants is sounded, and therefore only one is recognized in phonetic syllabication. Thus:
ha-(p)py i-(r)ri-tate
fe-(l)low a-(t)ten-dance
si-0)ly di-(f)fi-cul-ty
ho-(r)ror e-(r)ro-ne-ous
cu-(n)ning a-(l)le-go-ri-cal. . . .
"In the syllabication of words the division may sometimes be, indifferently, either etymologic or phonetic, as in the words
baker, eating, striking, owner, ruler. "These words, divided etymologically, yield the syllables
bak-er, eat-ing, strik-ing, own-er, rul-er
150 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
but divided phonetically, they yield the syllables
ba-ker, ea-ting, stri-king, ow-ner, ru-ler. . . . " The faulty action of the mouth — in moving from open to dose positions — is strikingly illustrated in Stuttering and Stammering. The voice, in these cases, is choked in the throat, or emitted in discontinuous jerks, and the mouth is CONSO- NANT-CLOGGED. In my long experience with defects of this kind, the true principle of oral action has invariably worked like a charm. In many instances the impediment has wholly disappeared after the first lesson. Only the nervous dread of habitual difficulty can prevent immediate relief when once the stutterer has practically learned the simple law of phonetic syllabication : — to articulate from close to open positions." l
The mode of enunciation here recommended un- doubtedly conduces to comprehensibility of speech, and should be observed at least by public speakers. It is by no means patent, however, in what manner stammering is to be affected by the procedure en- joined. Stammering usually occurs at the initial syllable ; whereas phonetic syllabication begins at the second syllable. If the measure in question ever mitigates stammering, it undoubtedly does so by inspiring confidence, eliminating multiple thought, and focussing attention on the verbal imagery. Na- turally one would expect any benefit derived to be purely temporary.
1 This writer does not suggest, of course, that a word commenc- ing with a vowel should have prefixed to it the final consonant of the word preceding. Phonetic syllabication is to be applied to the syllables within a word.
MODES OF ENUNCIATION, ETC. 151
Occasionally the stammerer is counselled to cir- cumvent "troublesome initial consonants" by de- taching them from the body of the word. He is ad- vised to make a distinct pause between the consonant and the succeeding vowel, and later to reduce the pause till it becomes " imperceptible " (or is actually eliminated). Reading-practice is of course pre- scribed
READING-CHART I
1 1 — ooked t — o th — e w — eather s — ide, and th — e s — um- mer h — ad d — eparted. Th — e s — ea w — as r — ocking, and sh — aken w — ith g — athering wr — ath. Upon its s — urface s — at m — ighty m — ists, wh — ich gr — ouped th — emselves into arches and 1 — ong c — athedral aisles. D — own one of th — ese, w — ith t — he f — iery p — ace of a qu — arrel fr — om a cr — oss-b — ow, r — an a fr — igate r — ight athwart our c — ourse. " Are th — ey m — ad ? " s — ome v — oice ex- claimed fr — om our d — eck. " D — o th — ey w — oo th — eir r — uin ? " B — ut in a m — oment, as sh — e w — as cl — ose up- on us, s — ome impulse of a h — eady c — urrent or 1 — ocal v — ortex g — ave a wh — eeling b — ias t — o h — er c — ourse, and off sh — e f — orged w — ithout a sh — ock. As sh — e r — an p — ast us, h — igh aloft amongst th — e shr — ouds st — ood th — e 1 — ady of th — e p — innace. Th — e d — eeps opened ahead in m — alice t — o r — eceive h — er, t — owering s — urges of f — oam r — an after h — er, th — e b — illows w — ere f — ierce t — o c — atch h — er.
READING-CHART II
B-ut f-ar away sh-e w-as b-orne into d-esert sp-aces of th-e s-ea: wh-ilst st-ill b-y s-ight I f-ollowed h-er, as sh-e
152 SYSTEMS OF TREATING STAMMERING
r-an b-efore th-e h-owling g-ale, ch-ased b-y angry s-ea-b-irds and b-y m-addening b-illows ; st-ill I s-aw h-er, as at th-e m-o- ment w-hen sh-e r-an p-ast us, st-anding amongst th-e shr-ouds, w-ith h-er wh-ite dr-aperies str-eaming be-fore th-e w-ind. Th-ere sh-e st-ood, w-ith h-air d-ishevelled, one h-and cl-utched amongst th-e t-ackling — r-ising, s-inking, fl-uttering, tr-embling, pr-aying ; th-ere f-or 1-eagues I s-aw h-er as sh-e st-ood, r-aising at intervals one h-and t-o h-eaven, amidst th-e f-iery cr-ests of th-e p-ursuing w-aves and th-e r-aving of th-e st-orm; until at 1-ast, upon